Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 7 (2023) 100291

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Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering

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Case Report

Preparation of environmental friendly plastic brick from high-density

polyethylene waste
Sabiha Sarwar a, Molla Rahman Shaibur a, *, Mohammed Sadid Hossain a, Md Rasel Hossain a,
Ishtiaque Ahmmed a, Fee Faysal Ahmed b, Md Akhter Hossain Sarker c,
Abul Hasnat Md Shamim d
a
Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, 7408,
Bangladesh
b
Department of Mathematics, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, 7408, Bangladesh
c
Housing and Building Research Institute, 120/3, Darussalam, Mirpur Rd, Dhaka, 1216, Bangladesh
d
School of Agriculture and Rural Development, Bangladesh Open University, Gazipur, 1705, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Plastic wastes are growing fast and affecting the environment negatively. Thus, finding different methods of
Compressive strength disposing of is becoming a major concern. This research aimed to minimize the plastic by recycling it into
Portland cement construction materials. For this, grinding high-density polyethylene (HDPE) was mixed with cement at different
Recycled bricks
percentages to produce plastic bricks. The compressive strength, density, and water absorption capacity were
Recycled HDPE
Sustainability
investigated. The compressive strength was found within the recommended value (2000 psi) up to 35% mixture
of HDPE. The addition of HDPE with cement decreased the density, increased the ductility, and improved the
workability which led to producing lightweight materials.

properties of plastics create numerous problems for many countries

1. Introduction
The yearly plastic waste production is increasing with the increasing
population growth in the universe [1]. These wastes are not being
managed in scientific ways creating problems for society [2–8]. These
wastes are resources [9–13]. Therefore, there is a calamitous need for
reprocessing these plastic wastes [4,13]. If these precious plastic wastes
are not reprocessed they end up in landfills or ocean garbage patches
[4]. Sometimes the wastes are incinerated; which causes additional
environmental problems [1,14–16]. The incineration problem can be
controlled but it needs huge money which can not be afforded by all
countries. Scientists around the world are trying to manage different
types of plastic waste in different ways. For example, plastic net in the
cement-based matrix [17], in aggregate-based sustainable concrete
[18], PPE in the construction sector [19], PET in modified reinforced
concrete beams [4], etc. The addition of plastic waste to the flexible
pavement has become another alternative option [1]. If these plastic
wastes are not managed properly it will create a severe problem for
society. Plastics are not easily decomposable. Typical plastics e.g. PP,
PC, and PVC take up to 500 years to degrade [19]. The resistant
including Bangladesh.
There are abundant environmental hitches in Bangladesh including
Jashore District [20–24]. Plastic pollution (both macro and micro) is one
of the focal issues among them [25–31]. Among the main detrimental
impacts of plastic pollution on the environment are marine and aquatic
environments [17,32,33]. Plastic waste not only deteriorates our
adjoining environment [13,14,17,34,35] but is also vastly accountable
for causing numerous diseases in the human body and aquatic envi­
ronment [36]. In addition, it dislocates the surrounding soil fertility,
productivity, and quality [37]. Not only the plastic problem but also the
solid and liquid waste problems are prevailed in Bangladesh [38–41].
The plastics wastes mostly come from the packaging industry
(40.5%), building and construction sectors (20.4%), automotive sectors
(8.8%), and others [16]. In 1950, the universal plastics production was
1.5 million metric tons which raised to 367 million metric tons in 2020.
In 2019, the total production was 368 million metric tons. Production of
plastics declined in 2020 by roughly 0.30% compared with 2019 due to
COVID-19’s impacts [16,42]. Roughly, it was estimated that about 55%
of universal plastic waste was discarded elsewhere, 25% was inciner­
ated, and 20% was recycled in 2020 [16].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: shaibur75@yahoo.com, shaibur75@just.edu.bd (M.R. Shaibur).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2022.100291
Received 24 September 2022; Received in revised form 20 December 2022; Accepted 21 December 2022
Available online 27 December 2022
2666-0164/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
S. Sarwar et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 7 (2023) 100291

Abbreviations PC PolycarbonatePE Poly-Ethylene

PE Poly-Ethylene
AC Aerated Concrete PET Poly-Ethylene Terephthalate
ASTM C109 American Society for Testing and Materials C 109 (C PGM Plastic Granular Machine
109 is the model) PP Poly-Propylene
BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics PPE Personal Protective Equipment
BIDA Bangladesh Investment Development Authority psi Pound Square Inches
CHB Coconut Husk Block PLC Port-Land Cement
COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease-19 PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
CS Compressive Strength SCMB Sand-Cement Mixture Block
CSEB Compressed Stabilized Earth Block SW Saturated Weight
CSEBRJF Compressed Stabilized Earth Block Reinforced with Jute TB Thermal Block
Fiber TDP Three-D-Panel
DW Dry Weight TS Tensile Strength
FCSP Ferro Cement Sandwich Panel UGC University Grants Commission
HBRI Housing and Building Research Institute UN United Nations
HDPE High Density Poly-Ethylene UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development UTM UTE 3000 Universal Testing Machine (UTE 3000 = is the
ICSEB Interlocking Compressed Stabilized Earth Block Model of the Instrument)
JUST Jashore University of Science and Technology WA Water Absorption
kN Kilonewton WAC Water Absorption Capacity
LAAVs Los Angeles Abrasion Values WAR Water Absorption Rate
LDPE Low Density Poly-Ethylene WC Water Content
N Newton W1 First Dry Weight
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement W2 Weight of Wet Brick
NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

The contribution of plastic waste production is different for different important to reduce environmental pollution and prevent waste re­
countries. It was reported that about 51% of the plastic in the world was sources [47,48]. In Bangladesh, PE (high density and low density) be­
generated in Asia in 2020. Singly China was responsible for 31% of longs to the thermoplastic polymers which are utilized to prepare
plastics production in the world, producing 82 kg per capita. In contrary containers, flower pots, buckets, and furniture additives [49]. Plastic
Japan produced only 3% of the global production. The NAFTA countries waste has become much more popular in different sectors such as con­
produced 19% of the world’s plastic in total, but the equivalent of 141 kg struction material, clothing demand, packaging, personal care products
per capita in 2020 the highest per-person toll. Out of the 20 highest as well as in the transportation sector.
plastic polluter countries in the world, Bangladesh is ranked 10th Bangladesh has about 7200 brick kilns [50,51]. For construction
through the mismanagement of macro plastic waste. The average con­ purposes, Bangladesh produces about 23.0 billion brick blocks to meet
sumption of plastic by a Bangladeshi is around 6.0 kg per year [43]. its housing demand [50] with a projection of 2–3%. To tackle the rapid
Again, Bangladesh’s annual per capita plastic consumption in urban urbanization growth, brick aggregate has become one of the most
areas rose from 3.0 kg in 2005 [44] to 9.0 kg in 2020 [45]. The annual important options for construction ingredients [52]. Brick kilns exert
per capita consumption of plastic in Dhaka is even higher, 24 kg per year extreme impacts on air, soil, and water [4,51]. Considering those
per person. It means huge quantities of plastic waste are directly dis­ negative impacts, green building construction has been mandatory for
carded into the environment and creating severe problems in nature. providing building materials without destroying the environmental
The summary of plastic production in the world is summarized in quality. In many countries, concrete cement brick is being produced
Table 1. instead of soil brick. Concrete brick can be built by using different types
Plastic waste production is directly related to the human population of discarded plastic wastes mixed with cement [1,4,13,17–19,53]. That
because the increasing population ultimately leads to the demand for means concrete plastic bricks could be produced without burning and
higher plastic consumption [46]. Therefore, recycling plastic waste is using natural resources [54]. Therefore, replacing brick manufacturing
with plastic aggregate act as a green construction material that could
Table 1 reduce the massive demand for bricks for building industries [18]. Some
The total production percentages of plastics in 2020 in the world. studies showed that the reuse of plastic waste in construction materials
is more impressive as compared to conventional materials [55]. Keeping
Geographical Location Production % Total (%)
it in mind, various types of materials especially alternative bricks were
China 31 trying to introduce by HBRI [56,57]. Other organizations are also
Japan 3
involved to produce different types of concrete brick aggregates. Those
Rest of Asia 17
types of concrete brick production are cost-effective and environmen­
Total Production in the Asian Continent 51
tally friendly [57].
Middle East and Africa 7
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Countries 19 In Bangladesh, burnt bricks are the most widely used materials in the
European Countries 16 construction sector. Considering the environmental impacts of burnt
Latin American Countries 4 bricks and the production of huge quantities of plastic waste, alternative
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 3 and sustainable building materials should be needed for the well-being
Grand Total Production in the World 100 of humans and also for the improvement of environmental quality.
Source: Plastics Europe 2021b (https://www.statista.
The use of plastics wastes in concrete brick production is lucrative to
com/chart/17564/annual-per-capita-production-of-plastic-by-region/). lessen the amount of landfilled waste and save natural resources. This

2
S. Sarwar et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 7 (2023) 100291

contributes to reduced pollution, CO2 emissions, and cost [58,59].
Considering the facts in mind, the HBRI of Bangladesh has taken such an
initiative that reduces pollution, save surface soils, reduces macro
plastic pollution, and also provides shelter for the people and future
generation [60–62]. Therefore, the present research was conducted to
improve the physical environment, protect resources, and convert
plastic waste into a sustainable product. The objectives of this study
were (1) to observe the impacts of plastic waste management on
building up a sustainable environment and (2) to find out the possibility
of using HDPE in the concrete block for the construction industries.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
Working station 1: Jashore belongs to the main District of undivided
Bengal which is an increasing center of South-Western Bangladesh
(Figs. 1a and b). There are 8 Upazila in Jashore District. These are
Abhaynagar, Bagherpara, Chaugachcha, Jhikargachcha, Jashore Sadar,
Keshabpur, Manirampur, and Sharsha [63–65]). Jashore Sadar Upazila
was the present study area. The two places namely (a) Kalabagan and (b)
Khajura bus stand are in Jashore Municipality and are chosen as the 1st
working station and Dhaka was the second working station (Fig. 1c).
Food crates were dumped recklessly all over Bangladesh and are

Fig. 1. Map of the study area. (a) Map of Bangladesh; (b) Map of Jashore district; and (c) Map of the two working stations. Working station 1 (Kalabagan and Khajura
bus stand, Jashore), Working station 2 (HBRI, 120/3 Darussalam, Mirpur Road, Dhaka-1216). These maps were taken from Google Maps on April 08, 2021.

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S. Sarwar et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 7 (2023) 100291

available in the study areas. Therefore, these two areas of Jashore Dis­ Table 2
trict were chosen for HDPE crates collection (Figs. 1c and 2a). After Different % of high-density polyethylene waste mixed with portland cement and
collection, the food crates were washed with pond water to remove dirty water.
things and to avoid probable contamination and were air dried. A cut­ HDPE (%) PLC (%) WC (mL) Density (g/cm3)
ting machine was used to make the large size to small size (Fig. 2b) 0 100 200 2.00
enable enough to help in the grinding process. Small aggregates were 25 75 190 1.645
put into PGM to get coarse to fine aggregates (Fig. 2c). Then the grinding 30 70 195 1.508
powder was sieved (Fig. 2d) with 3–6 mesh sieves to get homogeneous 35 65 200 1.476
40 60 205 1.437
powder (Fig. 2e). The sieve consisted of several layers. The machines
45 55 210 1.415
were made completely with clear plastic, ensuring the material’s purity. 50 50 215 1.360
The mesh fine powder particle was mixed with different percentages of
N.B: HDPE = High-Density Polyethylene; PLC = Port-Land Cement; WC = Water
PLC and water (Fig. 2f and g; Table 2) to make a mold (Fig. 2h). Finally,
Content.
this mold was used to produce plastic brick (Fig. 2i).
Working station 2: The HBRI had been chosen as the working station
2 for doing experimental characterization of HDPE brick (Fig. 2 g, h, i). mold. It was kept for 24 hours in the mold until dried. After drying, the
The station is situated at 120/3 Darussalam, Mirpur Road, Dhaka 1216, DW of all the samples was taken to determine density before curing.
Bangladesh. The institute is recognized as an autonomous organization Afterward, samples were put in water for 7 days more to study their CS
that contributes significantly to providing construction materials in the and TS strength. Again, after 7 days the samples were taken out from the
direction of the Bangladesh Government under the Ministry of Housing water and dried to test their properties. In the second step, the sample
and Public Works. The institute was established through the passing of was kept in the water again for 28 days to study their properties [68].
the Housing and Building Research Institutes Act 2016 [66]. The HBRI
has taken different environmental protection initiatives for alternative 2.3. Shape of the products
brick production without decreasing the use of environmental resources.
Usually, the shape of the brick was fixed as a square block. The
square block of forma was prepared previously and it was a fixed shape.
2.2. Brick-making process The forma was made up of tin. The mold was kept inside the forma and
the brick was prepared like the forma.
The different percentages of HDPE powder were mixed with PLC and
water (Figs. 2f, g, h; Figs. 3a and b c, d, e, f; Table 3). The percentages of 2.4. Density measurement
powder and PLC were taken on a weight basis but the water was taken
on a volume basis. The quantity of water increased with the increasing Density (mass of a unit volume of materials) is expressed as grams
HDPE percentage, because, plastics are hydrophobic and less compact per cubic centimeter. Mathematically it is premeditated as the total mass
[67]. It was done to get a homogenous concrete to cast on the small divided by volume.

Fig. 2. Process of brick making. (a) Food crates collection, (b) Cutting machine, (c) Granular machine, (d) Sieving, (e) Fine plastic powder, f) Portland cement, (g)
Water for mixture, (h) Fine plastic waste and portland cement after mixing with water and (i) Plastic brick making with portland cement and HDPE wastes (the
photographs were taken using the mobile phone: Symphony H250, Oct 14, 2021).

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S. Sarwar et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 7 (2023) 100291

Fig. 3. Different percentages of HDPE and Portland cement. (a) 0% HDPE, control, (b) 25% HDPE, (c) 30% HDPE, (d) 35% HDPE, (e) 40% HDPE, (f) 45% HDPE and
(g) 50% HDPE (the photographs were taken using the mobile phone (Symphony H250, Oct 20, 2021). The plastic bricks were produced in the Laboratory of Housing
and Building Research Institute (HBRI). NB: HDPE = High-Density Polyethylene.

graduated container was used containing sufficient clean water. The

Table 3
plastic block was immersed in the container and the change in the water
Water absorption percentage and changes of compressive strength with the
level was measured. It should be kept in mind that 1 mL (ml) is equal to
variations of HDPE percentage.
one cubic centimeter (cmᶟ). Considering all the facts the density of the
HDPE (%) Weight (g) WA (%) CS (psi) plastic blocks was measured [69].
DW SW Change 7 days 28 days

0 225.58 225.98 0.40 0.18 2967 3485 2.5. Water absorption test
25 215.68 216.23 0.55 0.26 2736 3015
30 197.79 198.73 0.94 0.48 2064 2120
Before the water absorption test, bricks were dried in an oven at
35 193.52 194.66 1.14 0.59 1896 2008
40 188.41 189.78 1.37 0.73 1840 1895 105–115 ◦ C until reached a constant weight at room temperature. Then
45 185.48 186.91 1.43 0.77 1392 1448 the DW of the brick was taken (W1). After that, the dried bricks were
50 178.33 179.82 1.49 0.83 1280 1336 immersed completely in a plastic container containing clean water for
N.B: CS = Compressive Strength; DW = Dry Weight; HDPE = High-Density 24 hours at a room temperature of 27 ± 4 ◦ C. After that, the wet brick
Polyethylene; psi = Pound Square Inches; SW = Saturated Weight. WA = was removed from the plastic container. The extra water from the brick
Water Absorption. was removed and then the weight of the saturated brick was taken
immediately to calculate the weight of the wet brick (W2; [70]). The
ρ = m/v, where amount of water absorbed (%) was measured by using the following
ρ = is the density formula [71]:
m = is the mass and
WA = (W2 – W1)/W1 × 100
v = is the volume.
where WA = Water absorption (percentage).
Weight is the force on a mass under the influence of gravity and This test was carried out to determine the water absorption by the
therefore varies with local gravitational force. The volume of the plastic brick. Standard bricks can not tolerate water more than 12% of their
block is the area occupies by the block. The volume of the materials may weight. In the construction field, a small amount of water absorption is
differ with the arrangement of the material. needed to avoid any cracks or defects.
First of all, the weight of the plastic block was taken and the mass
was recorded as grams (g). If the scale was calculated in pounds, then the 2.6. Determination of compressive strength
resultant weight value should be multiplied by 453.6 to convert it to the
gram. Secondly, for measuring the volume of the plastic block, a well- First of all, bricks were immersed in clean water at room

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S. Sarwar et al.
temperature. All voids were removed by adding clean water, then the
brick was kept in a jute bag covered for 24 hours, followed by immersion
in clean water for another 3 days. Finally, the extra water was removed
and the bricks were ready for the compression test [72]. The CS was
determined with the UTM (UTE 3000, Kolhapur - 416 122, Maharashtra,
India) with a capacity of 1000 kN and 0.1 KN, respectively.
The CS of the respective samples was calculated by the following
formula:
CS = P/A where, CS = Compressive strength, P = maximum load at
failure, and A is the area [73]. The CS is calculated when a material can
withstand and tolerate maximum stress without any fracture [74]. The
CS test is the main test to find the suitability of brick for construction
work which is executed with the help of a compressive testing machine.
The determination of CS is a familiar test for the brick industry before
going to any construction activities. The determination of CS is
mandatory to find out the strength of brick and whether it is suitable for
building materials or not. Another way to the determination of CS of the
brick sample is:
CS = (Applied maximum load × 1000 N)/Cross-sectional area
(mm2). The CS of the brick was performed by following the standard
procedure [75]. The brick was kept under pressure and the force
required to break the brick was recorded. The CS test was performed at
the end of the 7 and 28 days of curing [76]. The summary of plastic brick
formation was presented in Fig. 4.
2.7. Strength behavior after exposure to temperature
To evaluate the properties of bricks at elevated temperatures, the
bricks were heated in an incubator at a temperature of 35–40 ◦ C for 12
hours (Fig. 3f). These temperatures were chosen because these ranges of
temperatures are the peak temperature in Bangladesh, and its sur­
rounding areas. The time 12 hours was chosen because this time is the
more or less the highest time of exposure to the sun in Bangladesh. After
exposing these temperatures and time, the CS was determined by
following the standard procedure [61].
Fig. 4. Working station 2 where the different parameters were tested. (a) Housing and Building Research Institute (HBRI), (b) Casting and molding of plastic brick,
(c) Plastic container in which plastic bricks were immersed in clean water, (d) Weighing machine which was used for weight measurement of dry and wet bricks, (e)
Compressive strength test for plastic bricks and (f) Strength behavior after heating.
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Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 7 (2023) 100291
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Shape of the products
In this research, square shape bricks were produced. It is the first and
the physical structure of the brick. In Bangladesh, there is some differ­
ence in brick shape and structure. But in almost all cases the structure of
the brick was square. Square-shaped bricks could be easily used for
giving the shape of the desired structure.
3.2. Density of the products
The densities of plastic bricks produced in this research were
measured and presented in Table 2. The densities of plastic bricks
decreased with the increasing percentage of HDPE in the plastic blocks,
though the changing rate is very low. Density differs due to the use of
amount and types of materials used in the aggregate [4,13]. Density
plays an important role in all types of construction sectors.
With the increasing percentage of HDPE and other waste plastic
materials in the bricks, the density of the bricks decreased and gives low
strength to the brick [77]. The decreased density was most probably due
to the low unit weight property of the HDPE. It is believed that the
weight per unit volume of plastic is lower than that per unit of cement.
With the increasing percentage of the weight of HDPE, the volume of
brick increased resulting in a decrease in density. The highest density
was found in the control brick (Table 2). The strength of the brick was
correlated with the density of the brick [4,13,78]. A similar report
concluded that the density of plastic bricks decreases with the increasing
percentage of PET (5, 10, and 15% [4,78]; or waste fishing nets [1,17,
53] in those blocks. Another study reported that the density could be
minimized by adding aluminum powder [79].
Brick aggregate has specific properties such as higher WAC, aggre­
gate impact value, aggregate crushing value, LAAVs, and lower CS and
unit weight. On the contrary, concrete containing brick aggregate has
shown higher CS, higher TS, and lower modulus of elasticity [80,81].
Plastic materials are used with PLC as the aggregates of plastic materials.
These materials have proven their efficiency to increase the mechanical
properties of construction materials such as CS, WAR, and durability
[73,82,83]. Among them, a mixer of sand and cement block, Ferro
cement channel, thermal block, fly ash, etc. were used. The HBRI
S. Sarwar et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 7 (2023) 100291

produced different types of environmental friendly bricks in Bangladesh
e.g. CSEB, CSEBRJF, ICSEB, SCMB, TB, AC, CHB, FCSP, and TDP. Pre­
vious studies of HBRI showed that the brick could be produced from the
drainage soil with sand which is environmental friendly without
polluting the environment. These types of bricks could be used in con­
struction activities that showed maximum durability than normal bricks
[66]. The density of the plastic brick in this study was within the rec­
ommended value at 0, 25, 30, and 35% of HDPE, therefore, it could be
concluded that plastic at a certain percentage is helpful for concrete
brick and the sustainable development of the environment.
3.3. Relationship between the percent of HDPE and weight
It was observed that both DW and SW decreased with the increasing
percentages of HDPE in the concrete bricks (Table 3). This is because
plastic is lighter than cement. A higher percentage of HDPE occupies a
higher volume in concrete brick, resulting in lower dry and saturated
weight. In this research, the volume of brick was fixed in its forma.
Recently, it was reported that the weight of the concrete cement block
decreased with the increasing percentage of PET plastic in the concrete
cement [4,77].
with the increasing LDPE [91], HDPE [92,93], and PP [94] in the plastic
blocks. Many factors might be responsible for lowering the CS of plastic
aggregate such as: (a) low bond formation between the surface of plastic
aggregate and cement paste and (b) plastic materials can be hydro­
phobic which makes it water impermeable during cement hydration
reaction [95].
3.6. Relationship among the percentage of HDPE, density, WA, and CS
In this research, we wanted to set up a relationship between the
presence of HDPE and the density of the bricks. It was evident that 1%
increase of HDPE in the concrete block the density decreased by 0.0119
g/cm3 (Fig. 5a). The intercept between the density and the percentage of
HDPE was 1.9516 (Fig. 5a). The regression line between HDPE and the
density was negatively correlated (Fig. 5a). It means, the density
decreased with the increasing HDPE in the plastic brick and the value
was about 87% (Fig. 5a). On the contrary, there was a positive corre­
lation between water absorption percentage and the percentage of HDPE
in plastic brick (Fig. 5b). It means, in presence of HDPE, there might be

3.4. Water absorption

The percentage of water absorption of various plastic bricks is pre­

sented in Table 3. It showed that the percentage of water absorption
increased with the addition of HDPE. The variations were mostly due to
the increased porosity at a higher percentage of HDPE materials in the
brick block [77]. The presence of HDPE in concrete aggregates changes
the structure of aggregates in two ways. One is the change in the porosity
of the concrete brick and the other one is the altering of the structure of
the aggregate [84]. According to Wahid et al. [85] the water absorption
rate decreases with increasing PET waste. These differences might be
due to the differences in the types of plastics. However, the opposite
types of findings were also recently reported. Water absorption
increased with the increasing plastic waste in the plastic bricks and it
was found to be 12.28% and 19.2% [61,72,86]. Recently, another report
showed that the HDPE used in plastic brick (HDPE + cement) could
influence the water absorption rate, but when HDPE was used as a sand
replacement did not change the water absorption rate [87]. It was
recently found that the water absorption rate decreased when HDPE and
compaction of the paving blocks were added to the mixture [88].

3.5. Compressive strength determination

Table 3 shows the CS of plastic bricks that were determined after

emergence in water at 7 and 28 days. The yield points for different
percentages were recorded in the range of 1280–2967 psi after 7 days
and from 1336 to 3485 psi after 28 days. It was found that the CS was
very much dependent on the percentage of fine HDPE waste in the brick
blocks. This is because generally, the volume of cement is lower as
compared to the volume of HDPE of a unit weight. The percentage of the
recommended CS of clay brick is 2000 psi [76]. It was observed that the
CS of plastic bricks decreased with the increasing percentages of HDPE
in the block. The plastic concrete bricks containing 0%, 25%, 30%, and
35% of HDPE showed better CS compared to the standard value
(Table 3). It was also found that bricks containing higher percentages of
HDPE (>35%) showed lower CS (Table 3). The present experimental
result is in agreement with the result of Neville [89]. He/she reported
that the presence of PET in brick blocks decreased the concrete resis­
tance as compared to fresh concrete at various curing stages. This was
because recycled PET or any type of plastic aggregate loses its normal CS
compared to the natural fine aggregate [18,19,89]. A recent report Fig. 5. Experimental characterization of plastic bricks made from HDPE plastic
showed that the presence of a certain level of plastic in the block wastes. (a)) The density of the specimens containing different percentages of
increased the CS of the paving block [77], but decreased with the further plastic aggregate, (b) Values of water absorption of different percentages of
increase of plastic [90]. A series of the study showed that CS decreased plastic brick. NB: HDPE = High-Density Polyethylene.

7
S. Sarwar et al.
huge void spaces in the plastic bricks, these voids might be responsible
for the higher absorption of water. We suspect that the presence of a
higher amount of HDPE in the concrete block might not be so good for
the plastic brick.
Again, the relationship between the presence of HDPE in plastic brick
and CS showed that the CS decreased with the increasing percentage of
HDPE in the plastic brick (Fig. 6a). It means, the relationship between
HDPE and the CS is negative. The highest CS was found in the control
and the lowest value was in the presence of the highest HDPE in the
brick at 7 days (Fig. 6a). It was revealed that every 1% increase of HDPE
in the brick can decrease the CS of about 35.73 psi at 7 days. In this case,
the intercept is 3173.6 (Fig. 6a). The regression line in Fig. 6a explains
that the relationship between the two variables is about 87%. Similar
trends were also found in the higher HDPE in the brick at 28 days
(Fig. 6b).
Fig. 6c demonstrated the quadratic affiliation between the HDPE
percentage of plastic brick and the moisture absorption percentage
incubated in 7 and 28 days, respectively. Moisture absorption percent­
age decreases with the increasing plastic waste contents to a certain
Fig. 6. Experimental characterization of plastic bricks made from HDPE Plastic
wastes. (a) Compressive strength of plastic brick in psi immersed at 7 days, (b)
Compressive strength of plastic brick in psi immersed at 28 days, and (c)
Moisture absorption capacity of plastic bricks after 7 and 28 days respectively.
NB: HDPE = High-Density Polyethylene.
8
Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 7 (2023) 100291
point in this experiment. At the 0% of HDPE, the moisture percentage
was found to be about 7.6 (incubated at 7 days) and 13.6 (incubated at
28 days), respectively. The bottommost moisture percentage was noted
in both cases at 25% of HDPE (Fig. 6c). The HDPE types of plastics show
minimal branching with linear structure resulting in a rigid and compact
structure with few pores formation that inhibits the movement and
penetration of water molecules in the HDPE pavement bricks [96,97]. At
lower percentages of HDPE, the moisture absorption rate of plastic brick
may be decreased due to the fact that the hydrophobic nature of plastic
waste. The other probable causes might be due to the presence of higher
percentages of plastic might reduce the pore spaces of cement which
ultimately reduce the moisture percentages. The changes in moisture
absorption rate are influenced by the size of the aggregate for example
bricks made up of only plastic wastes showed no changes in terms of
water absorption rate as compared to bricks made up of plastic waste
with sand [67,98]. Recent findings showed that the moisture absorption
rate decrease with the increasing HDPE and compaction of paving block
in the mixture [88]. The reason behind the variation trend of moisture
absorption rate depends on the hydrophobicity of plastic wastes that
inhibits the movement of water into and within the HDPE pavement
brick [96,99].
Interestingly, the present study showed that the water absorption
increased when more than 25% of HDPE was used in the mixture
(Fig. 6c). In the presence of higher percentages of HDPE, the porosity of
cement brick might be increased or the higher percentage of HDPE alter
the structure of the HDPE brick aggregate which ultimately increased
the water content in the ongoing research [84]. Moisture absorption
percentages were found to be decreased first and then increased with
increasing HDPE in the raw materials [100]. It was reported that the
changes in moisture absorption were due to higher waste plastic content
in the plastic brick. In the present research, it was believed that water
occupies the pore spaces in the concrete, then evaporates, leaving the
voids and thus increasing the water absorption value in the latter case
[61,101].
4. Conclusion
The results showed that the production of plastic bricks by using
high-density polyethylene could be used as an alternative to soil brick.
Production of plastic bricks could reduce the huge quantities of plastic
waste in the environment which ultimately saves our soil and aquatic
environment and improves the physical environment. This type of
plastic usage leads to attaining an eco-friendly environment. In addition,
this alternative use of plastic material helps to produce green building
materials in the construction sector. The use of plastic with cement in
brick reduces the use of soil from the agriculture field as well as reduces
pressure on the environment to attain sustainable development. The
present results showed that plastic bricks containing up to 35% of HDPE
could be used as the standard brick in the construction sector. The
presence of higher than that 35% of HDPE in plastic brick does not
maintain the standard quality and should not be used.
It was found that the compressive strength and density of the plastic
brick decreased with the increasing percentage of HDPE in the aggre­
gate. Therefore, plastic bricks containing higher than 35% of HDPE
should not be used as load-bearing materials. However, plastic brick
containing higher than 35% of HDPE could be used as ornamental brick,
meaning low load-bearing brick. Awareness-building activities as well
as social willingness are needed to encourage the use of HDPE plastic
bricks as green construction materials. The government of Bangladesh,
as well as concerned authorities including NGOs should come forward to
encourage people to use plastic bricks for constructing green buildings.
5. Recommendation
Alternative ways of plastic waste management should be investi­
gated for the betterment of the future generation to achieve sustainable
S. Sarwar et al.
development goals. Over time, human-induced extreme pressure on
environmental segments and construction activities plays a dominant
role in the degradation of environmental quality. Finding a sustainable
solution for the well-being of the people is to use such an environmental
friendly solution that will not impact the environment. Plastic waste is
accumulating in the environment on a large scale. Therefore its reme­
diation should be thought of in a sustainable way that could reduce the
waste load as well as maximize the utilization of the waste in the con­
struction sectors. Plastic brick production could bring a positive
outcome for the future generation. For that, the government and con­
cerned authorities should come forward to value the plastic waste in the
construction sector which will reduce the impacts on resources. Further
studies will be needed for experimental characterization such as tensile
strength, flexural strength, sound absorption index, efflorescent test, etc.
These are mandatory for the determination of plastic bricks’ strength.
Proper training and willingness should be needed to use different types
of plastic waste as construction material.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgments
This research was partially supported by the UGC of Bangladesh to
Sabiha Sarwar, Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Sci­
ence and Technology, JUST, Jashore 7408, Bangladesh for doing a Ph.
D. in the field of Environmental Science. In addition, this research was
also partially supported by the Research Cell, Dr. M. A. Wazed Miah
Institute of Advance Studies and Research, JUST to Prof. Dr. Shaibur
Rahman Molla, Department of Environmental Science and Technology,
JUST, Jashore 7408, Bangladesh for conducting innovative research. We
are grateful to both organizations for supporting the research. Moreover,
we are very grateful to the Housing and Building Research Institute
(HBRI; 120/3, Darussalam, Mirpur Road, Dhaka) for the experimental
characterization of plastic bricks.
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