Accepted Manuscript

Title: Thermal performance enhancement of eco-friendly

bricks incorporating agro-wastes

Authors: Syed Minhaj Saleem Kazmi, Muhammad Junaid

Munir, Indubhushan Patnaikuni, Yu-Fei Wu, U. Fawad

PII: S0378-7788(17)32475-1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.10.056
Reference: ENB 8076

To appear in: ENB

Received date: 23-7-2017

Revised date: 25-9-2017
Accepted date: 16-10-2017

Please cite this article as: Syed Minhaj Saleem Kazmi, Muhammad Junaid
Munir, Indubhushan Patnaikuni, Yu-Fei Wu, U.Fawad, Thermal performance
enhancement of eco-friendly bricks incorporating agro-wastes, Energy and
Buildings https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.10.056

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Thermal performance enhancement of eco-friendly bricks
incorporating agro-wastes

Syed Minhaj Saleem Kazmia, b, *, †, Muhammad Junaid Munira, b, †, Indubhushan

Patnaikunia, Yu-Fei Wua, U. Fawadc

a
School of Engineering, RMIT University, 376-392 Swanston St, Melbourne, Victoria-3001, Australia.
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST), Mirpur-10250
(AJK), Pakistan.
c
Department of Physics, Kohat University of Science and Technology (KUST), Kohat-26000 (KPK),
Pakistan.

* Corresponding author; Tel.: +61 416158043, E-mail: minhajkazmi17@gmail.com

† The first two authors contributed equally to this work and should be considered as joint first author.

ABSTRACT

Thermal conductivity of bricks is an important parameter as it directly influences the heat losses

from buildings and thus increases the energy consumption. The main focus of this study was to

develop thermally efficient burnt clay bricks incorporating agricultural wastes on industrial scale.

For this purpose, agricultural wastes (sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) and rice husk ash (RHA))

were acquired from a sugar industry and a brick kiln. Burnt clay bricks were manufactured in an

industrial kiln by incorporating SBA and RHA in various dosages (i.e. 5%, 10% and 15%) by

clay weight. Physico-mechanical and thermal properties of brick specimens incorporating

agricultural wastes were studied. It was observed that lighter weight bricks can be produced

using agricultural wastes, which are helpful in reducing both the cost and overall weight of the

structure. Addition of agricultural wastes in burnt clay bricks resulted into reduced compressive
strength. However, brick specimens incorporating SBA and RHA up to 15% satisfied the

minimum requirement for compressive strength according to different standards for masonry

construction. Increase in apparent porosity with decrease in thermal conductivity was also

observed with increasing content of SBA and RHA in burnt clay bricks. Substitution of clay by

15% SBA and RHA in the production of burnt clay bricks reduced the thermal conductivity by

31% and 29%, respectively. Microscopic images also showed the presence of interconnected and

irregular shaped open pores after addition of agricultural wastes in burnt clay bricks. Based on

this study, it can be concluded that the utilization of SBA and RHA (up to 15% by clay weight)

in manufacturing of burnt clay bricks is not only helpful in landfill reduction but also leads

towards the development of sustainable and thermally efficient construction material.

Keywords: Clay bricks, Rice husk ash, Sugarcane bagasse ash, Thermal conductivity, Physical

properties, Mechanical properties.

1. Introduction

Burnt clay bricks are widely used as a construction material around the globe. Generally,

properties of clay bricks depend upon the composition of raw materials, burning temperature and

the production method. Quartz present in clay softens at high temperature and develops the bond

between clay particles after cooling. To obtain better bond between clay particles, additives are

added in bricks. The additives act as a flux and help in bond development at low melting

temperature. Naturally occurring clay deposits are present in many parts of the world. However,

the excessive use of clay to prepare bricks has resulted into the scarcity of the natural clay

resources [1-3].

2
 Nowadays, utilization of waste as construction material is gaining a lot of importance [4].

The utilization of waste materials as an additive in brick production is not only helpful to

improve the properties of bricks but also overcomes the scarcity of natural resources and controls

the associated environmental problems [5]. Different waste materials like waste glass powder

[6], marble powder [7], paper production residue [8], municipal solid waste incinerator slag [9],

petroleum effluent treatment plant sludge [10], fly ash [11], rice husk ash [12] and sugarcane

bagasse ash [13] were used to improve the performance of clay bricks. For instance, utilization

of waste glass sludge in clay bricks can improve the compressive strength and reduces the water

absorption [6]. Similarly, fly ash was also reported effective in improving the mechanical

performance of clay bricks [11]. However, water absorption increased after incorporating marble

powder, sugarcane bagasse ash and rice husk ash in brick specimens [7, 12, 13]. Lighter bricks

can be produced using agricultural wastes in burnt clay bricks [1, 2]. Light weight bricks can be

helpful in reducing the structural load of buildings and are considered desirable for construction

purposes in earthquake affected areas.

Nowadays, energy saving has a high priority in the world due to environmental and

economic concerns [14]. In developed countries, 40% of energy is consumed by the buildings for

heating and cooling [15]. Out of which, 12% is consumed only by the walls of buildings [8].

Therefore, there is utmost need to develop energy efficient buildings. One of the best ways to

make a building energy efficient is by improving the thermal performance of walls. Generally,

bricks are commonly used as a construction material in walls. Therefore, generation of micro-

pores in bricks can be helpful to improve the thermal performance of walls leading towards

energy efficient buildings [16]. Micro pores can be generated by utilizing waste materials in

brick manufacturing. These waste materials burn during firing of bricks and result into micro

3
pores leading to improve the thermal conductivity of bricks [8]. Different waste materials like

waste marble powder [7], recycled paper waste [8], olive stone flour [17], olive pomace bottom

ash [18], spent mushroom compost [19], expanded vermiculite [16] and pumice [20] have been

widely used to generate pores and improve the thermal performance of bricks. Bricks

incorporating 20% olive pomace bottom ash showed improved thermal conductivity by 17%

[18]. Similarly, pumice addition in bricks increased the apparent porosity by 29% and reduced

the thermal conductivity by 30% as compared to conventional burnt clay bricks [20].

Sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) and rice husk ash (RHA) are the agricultural wastes generated

in many parts of the world like Brazil, South Africa, India, China, Cambodia, Philippines,

Indonesia, Thailand and Pakistan [21]. Sugarcane is processed in the sugar mills to extract juice

leaving the bagasse as waste. Bagasse is then burnt as a fuel source and results into the

generation of SBA. Approximately, 50 million tons of sugarcane is produced annually in

Pakistan [22, 23]. Out of which 81% is consumed by sugar mills only, which results into the

generation of 11 million tons of bagasse [2]. Bagasse is then used as fuel and generates 0.26

million tons of SBA annually [22]. Similarly, Pakistan being agricultural country produces 2

million tons of rice husk each year [22]. Rice husk is also used as fuel in brick and paper industry

and after combustion RHA is produced. Every year, about 0.4 million tons of RHA is produced

in Pakistan [24]. In present situation, there is no proper solution for the disposal of agricultural

wastes, which is resulting into environmental problems and scarcity of landfill sites. Therefore,

utilization of agricultural wastes in production of burnt clay bricks can be helpful to overcome

related environmental and landfilling issues leading towards sustainable and economical

solution.

4
 In previous studies, bricks incorporating agricultural wastes (SBA and RHA) showed

decreased compressive strength and increased water absorption [13, 25]. However, thermal

conductivity improved after addition of wastes [12]. Although different researchers studied the

utilization of agricultural wastes in burnt clay bricks, specimens in all the studies were

manufactured in laboratory using electrical furnace. Performance of clay bricks manufactured at

an industrial kiln may vary as compared to specimens prepared in laboratory. This may be

attributed to the controlled conditions in the laboratory. Therefore, manufacturing of burnt clay

bricks on large scale in an industrial kiln may be a more reliable way to measure the actual

performance of specimens. Recently, Kazmi et al. [1-3] developed industrially manufactured

bricks incorporating agricultural wastes and studied their mechanical and durability properties.

Promising results were observed after utilizing agricultural wastes in the production of burnt clay

bricks [1-3]. In the present study, burnt clay bricks were also manufactured on industrial scale.

The main aim of this research was to study the thermal properties of industrially manufactured

bricks incorporating agricultural wastes. Relations of thermal conductivity with other physical

and mechanical properties of industrially manufactured clay bricks incorporating agricultural

wastes were also explored. For manufacturing of bricks, SBA and RHA were incorporated with

different dosages i.e., 5%, 10%, 15% by weight of clay. Utilization of agricultural waste in burnt

clay bricks can overcome the scarcity of natural clay resources, landfilling problems and the

related environmental issues. Moreover, thermal performance of bricks can be improved by

generating pores leading towards energy efficient buildings.

5
2. Materials and Methodologies

2.1. Raw Materials

For manufacturing of bricks, clay (soil), SBA and RHA were used as raw materials. SBA was

acquired from a sugar mill whereas clay and RHA were obtained from a local brick industry. A

total of 250 clay brick specimens with agricultural wastes (SBA and RHA) at various dosages

were prepared and burnt in an industrial brick kiln plant. 5 brick specimens were used for each

test.

2.2. Manufacturing of Brick Specimens

Conventional method of brick manufacturing was adopted to prepare burnt clay bricks on

industrial scale. Firstly, agricultural wastes (SBA and RHA) in different dosages (Table 1) were

manually mixed with clay in dry condition (Fig. 1(a)). Afterwards, plasticity water (20.8-22.9%)

in accordance with ASTM D4318 (Standard test method for liquid limit, plastic limit, and

plasticity index of soils) was added to prepare the wet mixture (Fig. 1(b)). To achieve the

homogeneity, mixture was left for 3 hours. Then, lumps of mixture were prepared (Fig. 1(c)) and

filled in the brick mold of size 228×114×76 mm. Bricks were first sun-dried for 2 days (Fig.

2(a)) and then burnt in industrial brick kiln plant at 800o C for 36 hours. After burning,

conventional air cooling method was adopted by allowing the bricks to remain in the kiln for 45

days [26]. After 45 days, brick specimens were removed from the kiln (Fig. 2(b)) and tested in

the laboratory.

2.3. Test Methodology

To study the chemical composition of raw materials x-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, atomic

absorption spectrometry (AAS) analysis and x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis were performed.

6
Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) test [27] was also performed to leach

agricultural wastes and then concentration of heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cu and Zn) in wastes was

determined through AAS analysis. Thermal behavior of raw materials was studied through

differential thermal analysis (DTA) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). To examine the

physical and microscopic characteristics of raw materials particle size distribution analysis,

specific gravity test and scanning electron microscopy were also performed.

Weight per unit area of clay bricks was determined as per ASTM C67 (Standard test

methods for sampling and testing brick and structural clay tile). Burnt clay brick specimens were

first oven-dried at 110o C for 24 hours. Afterwards, weight of specimens was measured at room

temperature. Weight per unit area of clay bricks was calculated by dividing the weight of

specimens over the average area. Compressive strength and water absorption of brick specimens

were also determined following ASTM C67. For compressive strength, clay bricks were first

gypsum capped on both sides and then tested in the direction of depth. However, for water

absorption, specimens were weighed after oven-drying and then after immersing in clean water

for 24 hours ((Fig. 3(a)). Apparent porosity and open pores were measured ((Fig. 3(b))

following ASTM C20 (Standard test methods for apparent porosity, water absorption, apparent

specific gravity, and bulk density of burned refractory brick and shapes by boiling water).

To measure the thermal conductivity of burnt clay bricks, quick thermal conductivity meter

(QTM-500) was used ((Fig. 3(c)). The equipment uses hot wire method, which is considered a

reliable and quick method for measuring thermal conductivity of insulating brick materials [28].

During the test, brick specimens were placed in the probe box and sensor probe was placed on

the surface of specimens. Sensor probe comprises of thermocouple and a wire heater. Heat is

supplied to the specimens through heating wire and heat flow rate is measured by the

7
thermocouple monitors. The result of thermal conductivity of brick specimen is displayed on the

screen right after completion of measurement.

Brick specimens (control, SBA15 and RHA15) were also examined for the presence of

heavy metals following Sengupta et al. [10]. Leaching test was also performed on brick

specimens following toxicity characteristic leaching procedure [27]. Afterwards, Atomic

absorption spectrometry (AAS) was done to measure the concentration of heavy metals (Pb, Cd,

Cu and Zn) in brick specimens. Results were then compared with the limits specified by United

States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) [29] to confirm the safety of burnt clay bricks

incorporating agricultural wastes. Microscopic characteristics of the brick specimens (control,

SBA15 and RHA15) were also studied through scanning electron microscope.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Characterization of Raw Materials used for Brick Manufacturing

3.1.1. Chemical composition

Chemical composition of raw materials (clay, SBA and RHA) is presented in Table 2.

Significant presence of silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) was observed in clay. Presence of other

oxides like, calcium (CaO), iron (Fe2O3), magnesium (MgO) and potassium (K2O) was also

observed in small amount. For manufacturing of burnt clay bricks, silica (SiO2) and alumina

(Al2O3) should be present in clay within the range of 50 to 60% and 10 to 20%, respectively [6].

In the present study, presence of SiO2 (57.48%) and Al2O3 (12.16%) was observed within the

desired ranges. Amount of calcium oxide (CaO) in clay was observed greater than 6%.

Furthermore, combined content of calcium oxide (CaO), ferric oxide (Fe2O3), potassium oxide

(K2O), titanium oxide (TiO2) and manganese oxide (MnO) was also found more than 9%.

8
Therefore, clay can be refereed as low refractive calcareous material [30]. Table 2 also shows

the presence of heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Pb and Cr) in clay.

Silica (SiO2) was observed as the main constituent of SBA along with oxides of calcium

(CaO), iron (Fe2O3), aluminum (Al2O3), magnesium (MgO), potassium (K2O) and sodium

(Na2O) in minor amount. Whereas, RHA showed the presence of silica (SiO2) and alumina

(Al2O3) in major amount. Minute presence of heavy metals was also observed in SBA and RHA.

Loss on ignition (LOI) was observed 8.47% for clay at 1000o C. However, SBA and RHA

showed LOI of 9.21% and 4.05%, respectively. LOI was observed higher for clay and SBA as

compared to RHA, which may be attributed to the decarbonation reactions and unburnt particles

in clay and SBA, respectively [2, 31].

Leaching toxicity of SBA and RHA is shown in Table 3. Minor amount of heavy metals

was observed in leachates. However, leaching toxicity of SBA and RHA was observed fulfilling

the specified limits of USEPA [29]. Results of leaching toxicity were also observed in

accordance with past study [32].

XRD patterns of clay, SBA and RHA are presented in Fig. 4. It was observed that clay

comprised of quartz (SiO2) and calcite (CaCO3). Similarly, SBA was observed rich in quartz

(SiO2). However, in RHA, an intense presence of quartz (SiO2), with traces of calcite (CaCO3)

and corundum (Al2O3) were observed. Similar XRD patterns for clay, SBA and RHA were

observed in previous studies [1, 2]. Moreover, results of XRD analysis were observed consistent

with XRF analysis.

9
3.1.2. Thermal analysis

Thermal analysis of clay up to 1200o C is presented in Fig. 5(a). Loss of moisture was observed

by a small endothermic curve at around 54o C. Thermal analysis of clay showed a sharp

endothermic peak at 788o C, which may be attributed to the decomposition of carbonates

(CaCO3). Eliche-Quesada et al. [12], also observed an endothermic peak for clay due to CaCO3

decomposition at 760o C. Mass loss of 11% was also observed through TGA curve of clay (Fig.

5(a)) at 1200o C. At the beginning up to 500o C, TGA curve showed a mass loss of around 2%

due to release of absorbed water [6]. However, a sudden mass loss was observed beyond 700o C,

which may be attributed to the decarbonation reactions [33].

DTA curve of SBA is shown in Fig. 5(b). An endothermic peak was observed at 81o C due

to surface dehydration of SBA along with loss of moisture [12]. From 300o C to 600o C, DTA

curve of SBA showed a sharp exothermic curve, which may be attributed to the combustion of

organic matter [12]. However, from 600o C to 1000o C, decomposition of carbonates was

observed with endothermic peak at 781o C [34]. Similarly, DTA curve (Fig. 5(c)) of RHA

showed an endothermic peak at 39o C due to elimination of absorbed water. A smooth

exothermic curve was observed between 300o C and 800o C resulting from decomposition of

organic matter [12]. From 800 to 1000o C, DTA curve of RHA showed a declining curve due to

combustion of CaCO3 [34]. Generally, decomposition of CaCO3 occurs between 850 oC and 900
o
C, which emits the carbon dioxide (CO2) [18].

TGA curve of SBA (Fig. 5(b)) showed a mass loss of 21%. However, thermal analysis of

RHA revealed a mass loss of 4.5% (Fig. 5(c)). For SBA, gradual mass loss of around 4% was

observed from beginning to 300o C. From 300 to 600o C, a sudden mass loss of 13.5% was

observed resulting from the elimination of organic material in the ash [12]. However, TGA curve

10
of SBA showed around 3.5% of gradual mass loss due to carbonate combustion between 600o C

and 1200o C [6]. Therefore, mass loss in SBA was mainly attributed to the organic matter

combustion. Porous bricks can be produced by the combustion of organic matter leading towards

thermally efficient products [18]. TGA curve of RHA showed a gradual mass loss from

beginning to 1200o C, which showed that all the factors like evaporation of absorbed water,

organic matter decomposition and decarbonation reactions contributed equally during mass loss

of RHA [12]. Results of thermal analysis were observed consistent with LOI results (Table 2) of

clay, SBA and RHA.

3.1.3. Particle size distribution and Scanning electron microscopy

Figure 6 shows the gradation curves of raw materials (clay, SBA and RHA). A wide range of

particle sizes was observed in clay, SBA and RHA. Clay comprised of silt and clay size particles

(40.15%), fine sand size particles (32.97%) and medium sand size particles (22.33%) in major

amount (Table 4). However, minor amount of coarse sand size particles (4.55%) was also

observed in clay. For SBA, major percentages of particles were within silt and clay (65.36%) and

fine sand (21.76%) sizes. However, minor percentage of SBA was within medium sand (12.88%)

sizes. Similarly, RHA comprised of silt and clay size particles (31.12%) and fine sand size

particles (48.33%) in major amount. However, medium (16.67%) and coarse sand (3.88%) size

particles were observed in minor amount. Coefficient of uniformity was observed greater than

4.0 for clay and RHA. However, SBA showed coefficient of uniformity less than 4.0. Materials

with higher co-efficient of uniformity indicate the presence of particles in different ranges of size

[6]. Porosity of burnt clay bricks is affected greatly by the gradation of raw materials, which

plays a key role in thermal performance of bricks [2].

11
 Figure 7 shows the scanning electron microscopic images of clay, SBA and RHA. Images

showed a variety of particles sizes in raw materials confirming gradation curves. It was observed

that clay had irregular shaped particles (Fig. 7 (a)). Particles of SBA and RHA were observed

porous (Fig. 7 (b) & (c)) similar to previous study [13]. Moreover, texture of SBA and RHA was

observed rough with irregular shaped particles.

3.1.4. Specific gravity

Table 2 shows the specific gravity of clay, SBA and RHA. Clay showed a specific gravity of

2.33. However, specific gravity of SBA and RHA was observed 1.98 and 2.14, respectively.

Lower specific gravity of SBA and RHA as compared to clay can be helpful in the production of

lighter burnt clay bricks.

3.2. Physical, Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Bricks

3.2.1. Weight per Unit Area

Weight per unit area results of brick specimens having SBA and RHA are presented in Fig. 8.

Brick specimens showed a reduction in weight per unit area with increasing amount of

agricultural wastes (SBA and RHA). For instance, 14% and 7% reduction in unit weight of brick

specimens was observed after incorporating 15% SBA and RHA (in replacement of clay),

respectively. Brick specimens incorporating SBA showed more reduction in weight than brick

specimens incorporating RHA, which may be attributed to the lower unit weight of SBA (274.6

kg/m3) as compared to RHA (587.5 kg/m3). Generally, weight of burnt clay bricks is controlled

by unit weight and specific gravity of raw materials [6]. Both unit weight and specific gravity of

agricultural wastes were observed lower than clay (Table 2) resulting into light weight bricks.

Moreover, increase in porosity was observed after incorporating agricultural wastes in brick

specimens (as explained later), which resulted into the production of lighter bricks. A lot of

12
researchers observed the reduction in weight of brick specimens after incorporating wastes [5,

12]. Eliche-Quesada et al. [33] reported 9% reduction in weight of burnt clay bricks after

incorporating 20% waste marble powder.

3.2.2. Compressive Strength

Figure 9(a) shows the results of compressive strength of brick specimens incorporating

agricultural wastes with coefficient of variation (COV) less than 8%. Addition of agricultural

wastes resulted into decreased compressive strength of burnt clay bricks. For instance, control

specimens without agricultural wastes showed a compressive strength of 9.44 MPa; whereas,

compressive strength of 5.01 MPa and 5.53 MPa was observed for specimens with 15% SBA

and RHA in replacement of clay, respectively. Brick specimens with 5% SBA and RHA

exhibited 23% and 21% reduction in compressive strength as compared to control brick

specimens. Generally, compressive strength of burnt clay bricks is controlled by density, pore

size distribution and apparent porosity [17]. Reduction in compressive strength after

incorporating agricultural wastes may be attributed to the increased apparent porosity of burnt

clay bricks as linear relationship was observed between compressive strength and apparent

porosity (Fig 9(b)). A decrease in compressive strength of burnt clay bricks was observed with

increase in apparent porosity after incorporating agricultural wastes. Similar trend was observed

by Eliche-Quesada et al. [33] in previous study.

High amount of silica (>60%) in raw materials and organic matter combustion are also

considered responsible to induce flaws and increase the porosity of burnt clay bricks [12]. Stress

concentration occurs as a result of open pores leading towards loss of structural integrity and

reduced compressive strength of brick specimens [2]. For brick manufacturing, presence of silica

in raw materials is recommended within the range of 50-60%. Agricultural wastes (SBA and

13
RHA) were observed highly rich in silica (Table 2) and their addition resulted into reduced

compressive strength of burnt clay bricks. Furthermore, a non-homogenous mixture after

incorporating SBA and RHA significantly affected the compressive strength [1]. Behavior of

burnt clay bricks incorporating RHA was also studied by Eliche-Quesada et al. [12]. Results

showed increased porosity due to formation of open pores after incorporating RHA in burnt clay

bricks. Reduction in compressive strength and bulk density of brick specimens after

incorporating RHA was also reported [12]. In the present study, similar results were observed.

Different building standards around the world recommend minimum compressive strength

of 5 MPa for building brick specimens [9, 35-37]. Results of compressive strength for brick

specimens incorporating 15% SBA and RHA satisfied the minimum requirements of building

code of Pakistan [35], Turkey disaster regulations [36], Australian standard for masonary units

[38], and bureau of Indian standards [39]. Therefore, brick specimens incorporating agricultural

wastes up to 15% can be effectively used for construction purposes leading towards sustainable

solution.

3.2.3. Apparent Porosity/Open Pores

Porosity is considered as an important parameter to assess the durability and thermal

performance of brick specimens. Generally, brick specimens due to capillary effect, absorb water

almost ten times faster in comparison with other materials [40]. At high temperature (during

daytime), moisture is evaporated from brick specimens; however, at low temperature (during

night), bricks reabsorb the moisture. This phenomenon helps to maintain proper humidity and

temperature of the structure. Contrary to this, higher porosity is vulnerable to chemical and

weathering attacks [41]. Therefore, performance and applications of brick specimens are greatly

affected by their porosity.

14
 Figure 10(a) shows the results of apparent porosity for burnt clay bricks incorporating

agricultural wastes. Control brick specimens showed the least porosity, however highest porosity

was observed after incorporating 15% SBA in burnt clay bricks. Brick specimens showed

increased porosity with increasing amount of SBA and RHA. For example, control brick

specimens with agricultural wastes showed apparent porosity of 29%. However, apparent

porosity increased to 40% and 35% after incorporating 15% SBA and RHA in burnt clay bricks,

respectively. Generally, porosity in burnt clay bricks is controlled by loss of moisture, organic

matter decomposition and decarbonation reactions [17, 18]. Decomposition of organic matter

generates small pores within brick specimens [18]. Similar reactions were observed through

thermal analysis (Fig. 5(a)-(c)) of raw materials (clay, SBA and RHA) and resulted into porosity

of burnt clay bricks. As these reactions were more prominent in SBA (Fig. 5(b)), therefore

higher porosity was observed after incorporating SBA in brick specimens as compared to RHA.

In previous studies, Faria et al. [12] and Eliche-Quesada et al. [12] also manufactured porous

burnt clay bricks with addition of SBA and RHA, respectively.

Role of fluxing agents (Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, CaO and Na2O) is also very important in terms of

porosity of burnt clay bricks. Fluxing agents produce molten material during firing process of

burnt clay bricks and fill the pores of specimens [42]. Amount of fluxing agents was observed

more in clay (20.59%) as compared to SBA (6.48%) and RHA (12.52%). Therefore, brick

specimens incorporating agricultural wastes resulted into increased porosity as compared to

control burnt clay bricks. Moreover, addition of agricultural wastes in burnt clay bricks may

result into variation in amount and size of pores [43]. Figure 10(b) shows the results of open

pores for burnt clay bricks incorporating agricultural wastes. Amount of open pores increased

after the addition of agricultural wastes in brick specimens. Volume of open pores in control

15
burnt clay bricks was observed equal to 0.08 cm3, which increased to 0.22 cm3 and 0.15 cm3

after addition of 15% SBA and RHA, respectively. Increase in amount and size of pores after

incorporating agricultural waste in burnt clay bricks may be attributed to the combustion of

organic matter and reduced amount of fluxing agents [42]. High porosity bricks are preferred in

terms of weight and thermal performance [12]. In previous study by Sutcu and Akkurt [8], brick

specimens with high porosity showed improved resistance to heat transfer. Therefore, utilization

of agricultural wastes in the production of porous burnt clay bricks can lead towards energy

efficient construction material.

3.2.4. Water Absorption

Performance of burnt clay bricks is greatly affected by water absorption [17]. Results of water

absorption for burnt clay bricks incorporating SBA and RHA are presented in Fig. 11(a). Brick

specimens incorporating agricultural wastes showed increase in water absorption as compared to

control brick specimens without agricultural wastes. For instance, control burnt clay bricks

showed water absorption of 15.29%, whereas water absorption was observed equal to 23.86%

and 20.5% for brick specimens with 15% SBA and RHA, respectively. Increase in water

absorption of brick specimens may be attributed to the higher porosity after incorporating

agricultural wastes. Fig. 11(b) showed a linear relation between water absorption and apparent

porosity of burnt clay bricks. In previous studies, Sutcu & Akkurt and Bilgin et al. [8, 44] also

observed similar results. It was observed that burnt clay bricks with SBA showed more water

absorption as compared to brick specimens incorporating RHA. For instance, burnt clay bricks

with 5% SBA showed water absorption of 19.94%, while water absorption was observed equal to

17.44% for clay brick specimens incorporating 5% RHA. This may be attributed to the presence

of organic matter and unburnt particles in SBA [2, 31]. Results of water absorption of burnt clay

16
bricks incorporating agricultural wastes were observed consistent with the results of apparent

porosity.

Brick specimens with SBA up to 10% and RHA up to 15% showed water absorption less

than 22%. Generally, it is considered that bricks with water absorption less than 22% can be used

for moderate weathering resistant as per ASTM C62 (Standard specification for building brick

solid masonry units made from clay or shale). Furthermore, various studies reported the

maximum limit of 20-30% for water absorption of burnt clay bricks [2, 45]. Therefore, clay

bricks with SBA up to 10% and RHA up to 15% can be effectively used as moderate weather

resistant bricks.

3.2.5. Thermal Conductivity

With the construction of new and bigger structures, energy demand is increasing day by day.

Buildings cannot control their internal environment and require a mechanical air conditioning to

achieve comfortable conditions [25]. Therefore, there is an utmost need to conserve energy and

avoid heat loss. To develop energy efficient buildings, thermal conductivity of the construction

materials plays a critical role.

Results of thermal conductivity for burnt clay bricks incorporating agricultural wastes are

presented in Fig. 12. It was observed that values of thermal conductivity decreased with

increasing content of SBA and RHA in burnt clay bricks. For instance, control specimens

showed a thermal conductivity of 0.52 W/mK; however, brick specimens incorporating 15%

SBA and RHA had thermal conductivity of 0.35 W/mK and 0.37 W/mK, respectively. In

previous study, Sutcu et al. [28] also observed thermal conductivity of 0.68 W/mK for control

burnt clay bricks, which reduced to 0.39 W/mK after incorporating 30% paper waste in brick

17
specimens. Burnt clay bricks showed more reduction in thermal conductivity after incorporating

SBA as compared to RHA. Substitution of clay by 15% SBA and RHA in the production of

burnt clay bricks reduced the thermal conductivity by 31% and 29%, respectively. This may be

attributed to the higher porosity of brick specimens incorporating SBA as compared to RHA.

Thermal conductivity of the burnt clay bricks mainly depends on the density and porosity of

specimens [28]. Figure 13 shows the relationship between thermal conductivity and weight per

unit area of bricks incorporating agricultural wastes. A linear relationship was observed between

thermal conductivity and weight per unit area of burnt clay bricks. Brick specimens showed

decrease in thermal conductivity with decrease in weight per unit area. In previous study by

Eliche-Quesada et al. [18], similar trend was observed. Eliche-Quesada et al. [18] reported 7%

and 14% reduction in density and thermal conductivity of burnt clay bricks after incorporating

10% bottom ash from olive pomace (agricultural waste), respectively. However, in present study,

burnt clay bricks incorporating 10% SBA showed 44% and 19% reduction in weight and thermal

conductivity, respectively. Similarly, 10% addition of RHA improved the thermal performance

of burnt clay bricks by 9% and reduced the weight by 25%. More improved thermal performance

was observed in case of RHA and SBA as compared to bottom ash from olive pomace, which

may be attributed to the difference in porosity. Eliche-Quesada et al. [18] observed increase in

apparent porosity by 6% after incorporating 10% bottom ash from olive pomace in burnt clay

bricks. However, in the present study brick specimens incorporating 10% SBA and RHA showed

29% and 14% increase in apparent porosity as compared to control specimens.

Burnt clay bricks incorporating agricultural wastes also showed reduced compressive strength as

compared to control specimens. A linear relationship was observed (Fig. 14) between thermal

conductivity and compressive strength of bricks incorporating agricultural wastes. Decline in

18
compressive strength was observed with reduction in thermal conductivity of brick specimens

after incorporating SBA and RHA. In previous study [46], 20% and 5% reduction in compressive

strength and thermal conductivity of burnt clay bricks was observed after incorporating 5% paper

pulp, respectively. However, in present study, 23% and 21% reduction in compressive strength

was observed after incorporating 5% SBA and RHA in burnt clay bricks, respectively. Similarly,

addition of 5% SBA and RHA improved the thermal performance of brick specimens by 14%

and 6%, respectively. Although utilization of agricultural wastes improved the thermal

conductivity of burnt clay bricks, but reduction in mechanical properties is not desirable.

However, compressive strength of brick specimens incorporating SBA and RHA up to 15%

fulfilled the minimum requirement of different building standards for masonary construction [9,

35-37]. Therefore, SBA and RHA (up to 15%) can be used in the production of burnt clay bricks.

Different factors like mineralogical composition, type of porosity and size of pores also effect

the thermal conductivity of burnt clay bricks [47]. Fluxing oxides play a significant role in

thermal performance of burnt clay bricks. During burning process, high amount of fluxing agents

fills the pores of burnt clay bricks by increasing the liquid phase, which reduces the porosity and

results into high thermal conductivity of brick specimens. In the present study, amount of fluxing

oxides was observed higher in clay as compared to SBA and RHA. Therefore, burnt clay bricks

incorporating SBA and RHA showed improved thermal conductivity by formation of pores.

Figure 15 also shows a linear relation between thermal conductivity and apparent porosity of

bricks incorporating agricultural wastes. Decrease in thermal conductivity of burnt clay bricks

was observed with increase in apparent porosity after incorporating agricultural wastes. Gencel

[20] also reported similar relationship between porosity and thermal conductivity of burnt clay

bricks incorporating pumice as an additive. Porous bricks were manufactured after incorporating

19
agricultural wastes due to organic matter combustion, decarbonation reactions and reduction in

amount of fluxing agents, which resulted into improved thermal performance of specimens.

Volume of pores also plays a vital role in improving the thermal performance of burnt clay

bricks [15]. For instance, control burnt clay bricks with open pores of 0.08 cm3 showed a thermal

conductivity of 0.52 W/mK; whereas brick specimens incorporating 10% SBA and RHA showed

thermal conductivity of 0.47 W/mK and 0.42 W/mK for open pores of 0.18 cm3 and 0.11 cm3,

respectively. Pores in burnt clay bricks reduce the thermal transmission by incorporating

convection into heat transfer system of brick specimens [48]. In the previous study by Aouba et

al. [15], brick specimens despite of similar weight showed different thermal conductivity due to

change in pore volume. However according to Eliche-Quesada et al. [4], higher amount of open

pores increased the thermal conductivity of burnt clay bricks after incorporating different wastes.

Opposite results were observed in this study. This may be attributed to the formation of open

pores having size larger than 1µm after incorporating agricultural wastes in burnt clay bricks.

Sveda et al. [49] reported increase in thermal conductivity for burnt clay bricks with pore size

smaller than 1µm; whereas decrease in thermal conductivity was observed when pore size was

larger than 1µm. In present study, microscopic images of burnt clay bricks incorporating

agricultural wastes showed pore sizes larger than 1µm. Therefore, decrease in thermal

conductivity was observed after incorporating agricultural wastes in brick specimens. Increase in

water absorption of burnt clay bricks was also observed with increase in porosity after

incorporating agriclutural wastes. Figure 16 shows a linear relation between thermal

conductivity and water absorption of burnt clay bricks. Burnt specimens incorporating

agricultural wastes showed an increase in water absorption with the decrease in thermal

conductivity. Generally, high water absorption is not recommended [1, 2]. However, burnt clay

20
brick incorporating 10% SBA and 15% RHA satisfied the requirements for moderate weathering

resistant bricks as per ASTM C62. Therefore, SBA up to 10% and RHA up to 15% can be used

in manufacturing of thermally efficient burnt clay bricks without compromising the requirements

for water absorption.

Theoratical relationship considering density was also derived by some researchers in order to

determine the thermal conductivity of burnt clay bricks [50]. However, Munoz et al. [51],

recommended to adopt testing methods instead of calcultaions for determining thermal

conductivity of brick specimens due to highly scattering results. Based on the discussion,

agricultural wastes can be effectively used to develop thermal efficient burnt clay bricks, which

is promising in terms of energy saving.

3.3. Heavy Metals Content/Leaching Toxicity

Presence of heavy metals in control bricks, SBA15 specimens and RHA15 specimens is

presented in Table 5. Presence of Cu (333.1 mg/l) in control brick specimens was observed

higher than other metals (Zn, Pb and Cr). Brick specimens incorporating 15% SBA showed

significant presence of Zn (37.1 mg/l), Pb (12.7 mg/l), Cu (112.1 mg/l) and Cr (41.2 mg/l).

Presence of heavy metals was also observed in RHA15 brick specimens. Heavy metals content

was observed more in control brick specimens as compared to SBA 15 and RHA15 specimens.

This may be attributed to the presence of higher metal content in clay as compared to SBA and

RHA (Table 2) similar to previous study [10]. Presence of all the heavy metals in brick

specimens was observed within the threshold limits of USEPA [29]. However, according to

Samara et al. [52], further investigation on the harmful effects of any material should be

considered, if presence of Cu increases beyond 90 mg/l. Moreover presence of heavy metals

21
increases the demand to investigate the leaching toxicity of burnt clay bricks incorporating

agricultural wastes [12].

Leaching toxicity of control bricks, SBA15 specimens and RHA15 specimens is presented

in Table 6. Small amount of heavy metals was observed in leachates. Leaching toxicity of

control brick specimens was observed higher as compared to SBA15 and RHA15 specimens.

This may be attributed to the presence of lower amount of heavy metals in brick specimens after

replacing SBA and RHA with clay (Table 5). Eliche-Quesada et al. [12] also reported the

addition of RHA in burnt clay bricks as an effective way to reduce heavy metals. Madurwar et al.

[25] also observed similar results after utilizing SBA in brick specimens. Furthermore, leaching

toxicity of bricks incorporating agricultural wastes was observed well below the thershold limits

of USEPA [29]. Therefore, burnt clay bricks incorporating agricultural wastes can be utilized in

construction activities without any environmental concern.

3.4. Microstructure and Color

Microscopic images of control brick specimens and specimens incorporating 15% SBA and

RHA are presented in Fig. 17. Porous structure was observed after incorporating agricultural

wastes in burnt clay bricks, which resulted into enhanced thermal performance of brick

specimens. Burnt clay bricks incorporating 15% SBA showed more porosity as compared to

brick specimens with RHA.

Homogeneous and dense structure was observed for control burnt clay bricks (Fig. 17(a)).

However, brick specimens incorporating agricultural wastes showed less binding and

densification (Fig. 17(b-c)). Interconnected and irregular shaped open pores were observed after

addition of agricultural wastes in burnt clay bricks. Similarly, all the brick specimens showed the

22
presence of micropores, which may be attributed to the process of crystallization [18]. Results of

apparent porosity were observed consistent with the microscopic images. Increased apparent

porosity after addition of agricultural waste resulted into better thermal conductivity of brick

specimens.

Burnt clay bricks are used for both structural as well as aesthetic purposes. Therefore, color

of brick specimens is also an important parameter. Generally, color of burnt clay bricks is

controlled by iron oxide (Fe2O3) [18]. No considerable effect on color of brick specimens was

observed after incorporating agricultural wastes. Moreover, all the raw materials showed ratio of

Fe2O3/Al2O3 higher than 0.33 (Table 2), which resulted into red color of burnt clay bricks [42].

Therefore, brick specimens incorporating agricultural wastes can be used for aesthetic purposes.

4. Summary and Conclusions

The main aim of this study is to develop thermally efficient burnt clay bricks using agricultural

wastes. Utilization of agricultural wastes in production of clay brick specimens can be helpful in

controlling the problems related to depletion of natural clay resources and landfilling of

agricultural wastes. Moreover, energy efficient and sustainable material can be produced after

incorporating SBA and RHA in brick specimens. Followings are the conclusions that can be

drawn from this study:

1. Lighter weight bricks can be produced using agricultural wastes. Although, addition of

agricultural wastes in burnt clay bricks resulted into lower compressive strength. However,

brick specimens with 15% of SBA and RHA satisfied the minimum requirement for

compressive strength according to different building standards for masonry construction.

23
2. Higher apparent porosity was observed with increasing proportion of agricultural wastes in

burnt clay bricks resulting into higher water absorption. However, burnt clay brick

incorporating 10% SBA and 15% RHA satisfied the requirements for moderate weathering

resistant bricks as per ASTM C62. Increase in volume of open pores was also observed after

incorporating agricultural wastes in brick specimens.

3. Decrease in thermal conductivity of burnt clay bricks was observed with increasing content

of SBA and RHA. Substitution of clay by 15% SBA and RHA in the production of burnt clay

bricks reduced the thermal conductivity by 31% and 29%, respectively. Brick specimens

incorporating agricultural wastes showed decrease in thermal conductivity, weight per unit

area and compressive strength with increase in apparent porosity and volume of open pores.

Microscopic images also showed presence of interconnected and irregular shaped open pores

after addition of agricultural wastes in burnt clay bricks.

4. Presence of heavy metals was observed after incorporating agricultural wastes in burnt clay

bricks. However, all the heavy metals in brick specimens were observed within the threshold

limits of USEPA. Similarly, leaching toxicity of all the brick specimens was observed well

below the specified limits of USEPA. Therefore, burnt clay bricks incorporating agricultural

wastes can be considered as non-hazardous construction material.

Based on this study, it can be concluded that the utilization of SBA and RHA (up to 15% by

clay weight) in manufacturing of burnt clay bricks is not only helpful in landfill reduction but

also leads towards the development of sustainable and thermally efficient construction material.

24
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28
FIGURES

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1 - (a) Dry mixing of agricultural waste with clay (b) wet mixing of agricultural waste
with clay and (c) lumps for preparing brick specimens.

a) Sun drying of brick specimens b) Bricks after burning in kiln

Fig. 2 – Manufacturing process of brick specimens.

29
Fig. 3 – Test setup for (a) water absorption test (b) apparent porosity test and (c) thermal
conductivity test.

(a)

(b)

30
(c)

Fig. 4 – XRD pattern of (a) clay (b) SBA (c) RHA.

(a)

31
(b)

(c)
Fig. 5 – DTA/TGA pattern of (a) clay (b) SBA (c) RHA.

32
 100
Clay SBA RHA
90
80
Percentage Finer (%)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001
Particle Size (mm)

Fig. 6- Grading curves of clay, SBA and RHA.

(a)

33
(b)

(c)

Fig. 7 – Microscopic images of (a) clay (b) SBA and (c) RHA.

34
 95

SBA RHA Clay

Weight Per Unit Area (Kg/m²)

90

85

80

75

70
5% 10% 15%
Percentage replacement

Fig. 8 - Weight per unit area of bricks incorporating agricultural wastes.

10 50
9 y = -2.2547x + 50.971
Compressive Strength (MPa)

SBA RHA Clay R² = 0.9817

8 40
Apparent Porosity (%)

7
6 30

5 y = -1.4297x + 42.851
R² = 0.9676
4 20

3
2 10
SBA Bricks
1 RHA Bricks
0
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5% 10% 15%
Percentage replacement Compressive Strength (MPa)

a) Compressive strength of bricks b) Relationship between compressive

incorporating agricultural wastes strength and apparent porosity

Fig. 9 – Compressive strength results for brick specimens.

35
 45 0.25
SBA RHA Clay SBA RHA Clay
40
35 0.20
Apparent Porosity (%)

Open Pores (cm³)

30
0.15
25
20
0.10
15
10 0.05
5
0 0.00
5% 10% 15% 5% 10% 15%
Percentage replacement Percentage replacement

a) Apparent porosity results for

b) Open pores results for bricks
bricks incorporating agricultural
incorporating agricultural wastes
wastes

Fig. 10 – Results for apparent porosity and open pores for bricks incorporating
agricultural wastes.

25 50
SBA RHA Clay y = 1.2593x + 10.213
R² = 0.9952
20 40
Apparent Porosity (%)
Water Absorption (%)

15 30

y = 1.1041x + 12.679
10 20 R² = 0.9925

5 10
SBA Bricks
RHA Bricks
0 0
5% 10% 15% 14 17 20 23 26
Percentage replacement Water Absorption (%)

a) Water absorption for bricks b) Relationship between apparent

incorporating agricultural wastes porosity and water absorption

Fig. 11 – Water absorption results for brick specimens.

36
 0.6
SBA RHA Clay
Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
5% 10% 15%
Percentage replacement

Fig. 12 – Thermal conductivity of bricks incorporating agricultural wastes

0.7

0.6
Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)

y = 0.0116x - 0.5827
R² = 0.9201
0.5

0.4

y = 0.0193x - 1.284
0.3
R² = 0.8595
0.2

0.1 SBA Bricks

RHA Bricks
0
75 80 85 90 95 100
Weight Per Unit Area (Kg/m²)

Fig. 13 – Relationship between thermal conductivity and weight per unit area of bricks
incorporating agricultural wastes

37
 0.7

y = 0.0321x + 0.2325
0.6
Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)

R² = 0.7052

0.5

0.4

0.3 y = 0.0311x + 0.2249

R² = 0.8898
0.2

0.1 SBA Bricks

RHA Bricks
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Fig. 14 – Relationship between thermal conductivity and compressive strength of bricks

incorporating agricultural wastes

0.7

0.6 y = -0.0142x + 0.943

Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)

R² = 0.9594
0.5

0.4

0.3 y = -0.0231x + 1.2174

R² = 0.7743
0.2

0.1 SBA Bricks

RHA Bricks
0
25 30 35 40 45
Apparent Porosity (%)

Fig. 15 – Relationship between thermal conductivity and apparent porosity of bricks

incorporating agricultural wastes

38
 0.7

0.6 y = -0.018x + 0.7996

Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)

R² = 0.9637
0.5

0.4

0.3 y = -0.0262x + 0.9353

R² = 0.8068
0.2

0.1 SBA Bricks

RHA Bricks
0
14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Water Absorption (%)

Fig. 16 – Relationship between thermal conductivity and water absorption of bricks

incorporating agricultural wastes

(a) SEM image of control brick specimens

39
 (b) SEM image of SBA15 brick specimens

(c) SEM image of RHA15 brick specimens

Fig. 17 – Microstructure of brick specimens.

40
TABLES

Table 1-Mixture proportions of bricks incorporating agricultural wastes

Brick specimens Clay (%) SBA (%) RHA (%)

Control 100 - -
SBA5 95 5 -
SBA10 90 10 -
SBA15 85 15 -
RHA5 95 - 5
RHA10 90 - 10
RHA15 85 - 15

Table 2-Chemical and physical properties of raw materials

Components Clay SBA RHA

SiO2 (%) 57.48 85.41 75.42
Al2O3 (%) 12.16 1.98 6.81
Fe2O3 (%) 4.71 2.58 3.98
CaO (%) 9.25 2.61 3.54
MgO (%) 2.58 0.73 1.54
TiO2 (%) 0.59 - -
P2O5 (%) 0.18 - -
MnO (%) 0.06 - -
Na2O (%) 1.96 0.25 1.29
K2O (%) 2.09 0.31 2.17
LOI (%) 8.47 9.21 4.05
Zn (mg/l) 112 2.5 1.5
Pb (mg/l) 104 - -
Cu (mg/l) 801 - 1.5
Cr (mg/l) 38 1.0 4.0
Unit weight (kg/m3) 1087 274.6 587.5
Specific gravity 2.33 1.98 2.14

Table 3-Leaching toxicity of agricultural wastes

Components (mg/l) SBA RHA USEPA Limits [29]

Zn 0.047 0.021 25
Pb - - 5.0
Cu - 0.041 15
Cr 0.035 0.075 5.0

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Table 4-Grain size distribution analysis of raw materials
Raw materials
Particle content
Soil (%) SBA (%) RHA (%)
Gravel - - -
Coarse sand 4.55 - 3.88
Medium sand 22.33 12.88 16.67
Fine sand 32.97 21.76 48.33
Silt + Clay 40.15 65.36 31.12

Table 5-Heavy metal content in brick specimens

Components USEPA
Control SBA15 RHA15
(mg/l) Limits [53]
Zn 67.5 37.1 35.9 2800
Pb 35.0 12.7 18.2 300
Cu 333.1 112.1 217.5 1500
Cr 62.8 41.2 44.5 1200

Table 6-Leaching toxicity of brick specimens

Components USEPA
Control SBA15 RHA15
(mg/l) Limits [29]
Zn 0.316 0.215 0.217 25
Pb - - - 5.0
Cu 0.044 0.004 0.014 15
Cr 0.012 0.005 0.008 5.0

42