Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00397

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Case study

Study on properties of clay brick incorporating sludge of water

treatment plant and agriculture waste
Ashraf Mohamed Heniegala , Mohamed Ahmed Ramadanb , Ahmed Naguibc ,
Ibrahim Saad Agwad,*
a
Civil Engineering Dep., Faculty of Engineering, Suez University, Egypt
b
Civil Constructions Dep., Faculty of Technology and Education, Beni-Suef University, Egypt
c
Civil Engineering Dep., Faculty of Engineering, Beni-Suef University, Egypt
d
Civil and Architectural Constructions Dep., Faculty of Technology and Education, Suez University, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Green building raw materials have become attractive alternatives for mitigating
Received 18 April 2020 sustainability issues. Agricultural waste has been used as natural components in the
Received in revised form 7 June 2020 production of alternative building products, and the use of burned clay bricks is a new
Accepted 15 June 2020
waste disposal method. The main objective of the paper is to investigate the effects of
agricultural waste (rice straw, sugarcane bagasse and wheat straw ashes) in clay bricks. This
Keywords: paper discusses the physical–mechanical properties and the micro-structure of clay bricks
Clay bricks
when incorporated with the sludge of water treatment plants (SWTP) to replace clay at a
Rice straw ash
Sugarcane bagasse ash
50 % ratio. One mixture was prepared as a control mix without agriculture waste. Each
Wheat straw ash group containing three mixes was used with 5 %, 10 % and 15 % by weight of SWTP content.
Physical and mechanical properties The green bricks was air dried in sunlight for another 7 days and burnt at 900  C, keeping
Microstructural them at the highest temperature for 3 h. Mechanical and physical properties of these bricks
have been investigated. It was observed that clay bricks containing rice straw ash (RSA),
sugar cane bagasse ash (SBA) and wheat straw ash (WSA) had lower compressive strength
compared to non-RSA, SBA, and WSA clay bricks. The replacement 5–10 % of RSA, SBA and
WSA by weight of SWTP into brick molding compound produces eco-friendly fired clay
brick. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) study confirms the porous microstructure of the
brick specimens combining RSA, SBA and WSA resulting in lower bulk density resulting in
lighter and more economical structures. Based on this analysis, it can be established that
brick samples with lower doses of RSA, SBA and WSA (i.e. 5 % SWTP weight) will not only
reduce the environmental pressure but will also lead to more efficient and economical
development.
© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction

The widespread use of natural clay for the manufacture of bricks has created a troubling deficiency of this material. This
deficiency has led scientists to find new materials or to recycle waste produced by various economic activities [1,2]. The
quality of the bricks is significantly affected by the characteristics of their raw materials and the techniques and methods
used. Components, e.g. silica, alumina, lime and oxides of iron, exist in clay in different quantities, affecting the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ibrahim.agwa@suezuniv.edu.eg (I.S. Agwa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00397
2214-5095/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
2 A.M. Heniegal et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00397

characteristics of bricks [3]. The adoption of by-products besides clay is a familiar approach to modify the properties of
bricks. Such adoption may decrease the quantity of clay and promote safe waste disposal. Used waste include rice straw ash
(RSA), marble powder, paper waste, sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA), waste glass sludge, fly ash (FA), wood ash and many others
[4,5]. Some experiments in the USA, China, Brazil and Egypt have described the adoption of water treatment sludge (alum
sludge) that contains a high clay ratio in different industrial operations, meanwhile few investigations were conducted for
the use of sludge in brick production [6,7].
The inorganic ingredients of alum sludge are similar to those of clay, facilitating the addition of alum sludge to bricks [8].
Unfavourable glass sludge increases the compression strength by approximately 23 % and can decrease porosity and cost [9].
Several studies [6,7], have inspected the usage of alum sludge as a fractional or complete replacement for clay in the brick
production process. Additionally, different ratios of sludge and clay have been tested. The experimental results indicated that
about 50 % is the optimal sludge addition proportion to produce bricks from a sludge–clay mix [7]. Several studies have
recommended that further considerations must be directed towards the incorporation of sludge of water treatment plants
(SWTP) with other high-silica-content waste materials, such as rice-husk ash, in brick manufacturing [10,11].
Beyond SWTP a large amount of Dredged Sludge (DS) formed during the dredging of rivers and reservoirs, DS is difficult to
recycle and usually requires a landfill or offshore disposal that has a very strong environmental and economic impact
[12–14]. The (DS) is similar in many characteristics to the SWTP and is used by several brick factories in Egypt for the
manufacture of fired bricks. Many forms of waste can be used in the manufacture of bricks and may be used in the production
process, but our work will be limited to investigating the impact of SWTP replication and agricultural waste on the
production of fired clay bricks.
The use of FA decreases the density of the mixture and produces lightweight bricks with reduced efflorescence and
strength. Yet, the addition of FA up to one-fifth of clay mass, resulted in a strength that satisfies the limits of building codes.
FA increases water absorption only when used up to five percent as replacement. The produced bricks have higher insulation
compared with that required in difficult climate conditions [15]. Fly pine–olive trimming ash produces eco-friendly bricks,
but the water absorption is unacceptable in the case of more than 10 % replacement [16]. When olive ash replaces 10 % of clay,
the bricks produced have a compression strength of approximately 41.9 N/mm2 with a reduction of 4 % in product density
[17]. Using paper waste also increases insulation efficiency, absorption rate and porosity; however, it decreases the bulk
density and compressive strength of the bricks [18].
The production of incinerated clay bricks when adopting by-products may decrease the environmental air pollution load
resulting from waste disposal in open landfills. It also augments the brick performance to high product quality. Kazmi et al.
studied the consequences of adding the by-products of some crops (e.g. sugarcane and rice straw) in the manufacture of
bricks [19]. The worldwide production of rice-straw (RS) is about 800–1000 million ton/year [20]. Egypt produces
approximately 5.9 million tons of rice in 2013 [21]. Approximately 3.1 million tons/year of RS is disposed through burning in
open fields, causing environmental pollution [22]. The disposal of agricultural wastes by burning increases the green-house
gas in the air [23]. Nonetheless, studies on RSA and its probable applications are rare. A non-traditional approach may be
used to obtain pure silica from RS through the sulphuric acid process [24].
The production of SBA has high potential. The indicators have estimated the expected sugar cane harvest production in
Brazil’s 2019/2018 season at approximately 646 million tons which can probably produce up to 4 million tons of SBA [25]. Fig. 1
shows that India and Brazil are the largest producers of SBA in 2020, accounting for 46.3 % in the world’s production volume [26].
Egypt produced approximately 4.8 million tons of sugar cane waste in 2014. The fibrous residue left post sugar-canes are

Fig. 1. World production of sugarcane bagasse (thousand metric tons) in 2020 [26].
 A.M. Heniegal et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00397 3

crushing (to extract the juice) is called bagasse [23]. Wet bagasse constitutes approximately 30 % of the cane weight [27].
Amongst the probable usages of bagasse, its integration into clay bricks has been proposed as it ameliorates the performance of
bricks and diminishes the by-products. Additionally, it is a cost-effective alternative to open-air burning. The thermal emissions
of the sugarcane bagasse burning process may be used to manufacture bricks; then, the gas emissions can be filtered and mixed
into brick manufacturing [28]. Wheat is the major crop used to produce Egypt’s staple food. Wheat occupies approximately 32.6
% of all the winter farm lands in Egypt. Wheat straw is a renewable annual fibre supplier and available in large quantities in many
parts of the world, generating tons of waste, e.g. wheat straw, of which only a small proportion is used each year for applications,
such as cattle feed and energy production. Straw looks like wood and can also be considered a natural composite material. It
consists of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin [29].
The current study aims to study the effect of SWTP when used as a replacement for clay at 50 % ratio (control mixture).
Secondly, the study investigates the individual agricultural waste (rice straw, sugarcane bagasse and wheat straw ashes (WSA))
as partial substitutions for the SWTP at 5 %,10 % and 15 % levels in clay bricks. Thirdly, the mechanical and physical properties e.g.
compressive and flexural strength, apparent porosity, water absorption, bulk density, and efflorescence, of burnt fired clay bricks
are investigated. Lastly, this investigation analyses the mixtures of clay bricks through scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

2. Research significance

Manufacturers and researchers are obliged to pursue different materials for brick fabrication due to the exaggerated
expenditure of non-renewable natural resources. Landfill scarcity and the environmental crisis associated with improper
solid waste disposal are the other aspects of the problem. This condition forces the stakeholders to explore new materials
and establish new methods for the effective utilization of agro-industrial waste products. This investigation tests three
accessible waste materials, i.e. RS, SB, and WS, which are available in Egypt according to [27,29,30]. RSA, SBA, and WSA are
agriculture waste products that are abundant in the Dakahlia and Beni-Suef regions of Egypt. An environment-friendly
method is needed to simplify the disposal of the CO2 emissions from burning RSA and SBA waste. In the current study, RS, SB,
and WS are burnt in a kiln at 700  C for approximately 2 h [1].

3. Experimental work

3.1. Materials

3.1.1. Clay/soil
The clay in this study was brought from a local site at Beni-Suef, Egypt. The typical compositions of such clays vary in
mineral proportions. Fig. 2, illustrates the visual inspection of clay. The chemical compositions and physical properties of the

Fig. 2. Materials used.

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resulting clay are in Table 1. In accordance with ASTM C114-09, the chemical compositions were identified using an X-ray
fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer [31]. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the clay is shown in Fig. 3(a) in accordance with
ASTM C114-09 [31]. The XRD pattern of the clay, indicates the presence of five major crystalline phases, namely, kaolinite
[Al2 Si2O5 (OH)4], montmorillonite [Na0.3 (Al, Mg)2 Si4O10 (OH)2
x H2O], illite [2 2 K2O
3 Mg O
Al2O3
24 SiO2
12 H2O], Quartz
[SiO2] and calcite [Ca (CO3)]. Patterns similar to XRD have been identified in previous studies [2,11]. The particle size
distribution (PSD) curve of the clay is in Fig. 3 (b). The results indicated that the clay samples consist of a broad range of
constituent particles. The PSD of the clay/soil is important in increasing the strength during incineration causing a significant
impact on the durability of incinerated clay bricks [32]. The ratio of D60 to D10 is known as the coefficients of uniformity
(Cu). The higher Cu value shows that the soil mass consists of soil particles of various sizes. A soil is considered a well-graded
soil if the grain sizes are allocated Stretches across a rather wide range [33]. The clay coefficients of uniformity (Cu) were
greater than 4 and the high Cu indicates that the clay/soil contained a varied range of particle sizes. The graduated materials
used had a positive effect on the overall porosity and permeability of the brick samples [34].

3.1.2. Sludge
The sample consisting of dry alum sludge was obtained from a field location (i.e. a water treatment plant) in Beni-Suef,
Egypt. The typical compositions of this sludge vary in mineral proportions. Fig. 2, illustrates the visual inspection of sludge.
According to ASTM C114-09, the chemical compositions were identified using an XRF spectrometer [31]. The sample was
dried in a furnace at 105  C for 24 h [35], for the evaporation of water and then ground and sieved. The chemical compositions
and physical properties of the sludge results are in Table 1. The XRD scan of the sludge is presented in Fig. 3 (c) in accordance
with ASTM C114-09 [31]. The XRD pattern of the SWTP, shown in Fig. 3(c), indicates the presence of four major crystalline
phases, namely, Montmorillonite [) Na, Ca)0.3 (Al, Mg)2 Si4 O10 (O H)2
x H2O], quartz [SiO2], calcite [Ca (CO3)] and albite [Na Al
Si3 O8] [31]. These results indicate that the SWTP presents, in its composition, minerals that are similar to those commonly
occurring in brick clays. Patterns similar to XRD have been identified in previous studies [2,11]. The PSD curve of the sludge is
shown in Fig. 3 (b). The result indicates that the sludge sample comprised a broad range of PSD. The Cu value for the sludge
was higher than 4 and the high Cu indicated that the sludge mass contained a broad range of soil particles [32]. Grading these
materials improved the brick quality as it affected the porosity of the brick samples [34].

3.1.3. Agriculture wastes (ashes)

Fig. 2, illustrate the visual inspection of RSA, SBA and WSA. The RSA and WSA were obtained from Mansoura City,
Dakahlia, Egypt, and the SBA was from Beni-Suef, Egypt. The RSA, SBA and WSA were exposed to 700  C for 2 h [1,36]. The
ashes were cooled at room temperature for 30 min. Then, the ashes were mesh-filtered; the particle size curves of RSA, SBA
and WSA are illustrated in Fig. 3 (b). The results indicated that the RSA, SBA and WSA samples comprised a broad spectrum of
PSD. The PSD of RSA, SBA and WSA are significant for strength augmentation during incineration which affects the durability
of incinerated bricks [32]. For RSA, SBA and WSA, the Cu value was higher than 4 and the high Cu indicates that the RSA, SBA
and WSA masses comprised different soil particles [33]. Grading the materials is crucial because it affects the overall porosity

Table 1
Chemical composition and physical properties of materials used.

Chemical composition Compound (%)

Clay Sludge Rice straw ash Sugarcane bagasse ash Wheat straw ash
SiO2 59.56 64.48 71.96 68.40 39.18
Al2O3 21.02 16.50 5.72 1.35 3.17
Fe2O3 4.55 3.43 2.37 1.22 0.76
MgO – 3.15 5.46 8.48 10.50
CaO 2.81 2.81 3.40 2.68 6.39
Na2O 1.98 2.04 1.41 1.57 5.26
K2O 0.80 0.69 1.88 4.96 6.93
SO3 0.79 0.49 1.53 1.79 8.03
P2 O 5 0.29 0.38 1.62 5.20 3.44
TiO2 0.62 0.82 0.29 0.09 0.15
MnO 0.02 0.05 0.09 0.03 0.03
SrO 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03
Cl 0.87 0.29 0.83 1.71 10.70
LOI 6.67 4.85 3.43 2.50 5.43

Physical properties

Property Unit weight (kg/m3) Specific gravity Color

Clay 1262 2.61 Gray
Sludge 721 2.33 Gray
Rice straw ash 577 2.15 dark gray
Sugarcane bagasse ash 272 1.98 dark gray
Wheat straw ash 553 1.97 dark gray
 A.M. Heniegal et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00397 5

Fig. 3. a: XRD patterns for the clay, b: Particle size distribution for clay, sludge, RSA, SBA and WSA, c: XRD patterns for the RSA, SBA, WSA and sludge.

of the brick samples [34]. The chemical properties of RSA, SBA and WSA were detected via XRF spectroscopy analysis and are
in Table 1. The resulting chemical compositions and physical properties of RSA, SBA and WSA are presented in Table 1. Table 1
shows that the loss of ignition (LOI) values for RSA, SBA and WSA at 700  C were 3.43 %, 2.50 % and 5.43 %, respectively. These
values could be due to the existence of organic matter (OM). Moreover, OM was necessary to an extent because it ameliorated
the plasticity of the mixes [37]. The XRD scans of RSA, SBA and WSA are presented in Fig. 3 (c) in accordance with ASTM C114-
09 [31]. The XRD pattern of the RSA indicates the presence of three major crystalline phases, namely, Quartz [SiO2], halite
[Na.5037 K.4963 Cl] and sylvite [K Cl], the XRD pattern of the SBA, indicates the presence of four major crystalline phases,
namely, Quartz [SiO2], albite [Na Al Si3 O8], sylvite [K Cl] and halite [Na.5037 K.4963 Cl] and the XRD pattern of the WSA,
indicates the presence of three major crystalline phases, namely, sylvite [K Cl], Quartz [SiO2] and halite [Na.5037K.4963 Cl].
Patterns similar to XRD have been identified in previous studies [2,11].

3.2. Preparation of brick specimens

Ten clay brick mixes were prepared, the proportion of the clay brick mix is provided in Table 2. One mixture was prepared
without agriculture waste as the control mix. The nine mixtures were divided into three groups, namely, RSA, SBA and WSA.
Each group containing three mixes was used with 5 %, 10 % and 15 % of SWTP by weight [32]. The parameters that were kept
constant were the ratio of clay 50 % from weight. The best preparation technique was identified from several trials with
different mixing techniques. The materials were dry mixed and water was added, thereafter. The mixing process was carried
6 A.M. Heniegal et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00397

Table 2
Mixes proportions.

Mix ID Proportions by Wight (%)

Clay Sludge RSA SBA WSA Water to raw

materials%
Control 50 50 – – – 35
M-5RSA 50 45 5 – – 35
M-10RSA 50 40 10 – – 38
M-15RSA 50 35 15 – – 38
M-5SBA 50 45 – 5 – 38
M-10SBA 50 40 – 10 – 40
M-15SBA 50 35 – 15 – 40
M-5WSA 50 45 – – 5 38
M-10WSA 50 40 – – 10 38
M-15WSA 50 35 – – 15 40

out mechanically to ensure the consistency of the mix Fig. 4 (a). The mixing steps are as follows. Firstly, the proportions of
soft material clay, sludge drinking water and ash content of each mixture were added into a blender and mixed well to dry for
5 min [38]. Secondly, 50 % of the proportion of water was added to the mixture and stirred for 3 min, turning and conjoined
aspects of the blender. Lastly, the rest of the proportion of water (i.e. the other 50 %) was added and stirred for 3 min. The
lumps of the mix were obligatory for the preparation of bricks. The clay lumps Fig. 4(b) were placed in brick moulds
(250 mm  120 mm  60 mm) and 50 mm  50 mm  50 mm lab-scale cubes [32,39]. The green moulded bricks and cubes
were incinerated in two steps. In the first step, the green bricks and cubes were enclosed and stacked on the shelves and
covered well to be isolated from air for a period (no less than 7 days), even a contraction full volumetric performed without
cracking Fig. 4(c). The green bricks and cubes were then air dried in sunlight for another 7 days. The number of specimens
used in this study is 400 (bricks and cubes) specimens which have been incinerated for 3 h in the furnace heat treatment at
900  C. Each of the 10-brick series was burned at 900  C for 3 h. The produced bricks were then subjected to tests to
determine their mechanical and physical properties.

3.3. Testing procedure

A series of mechanical and physical inspections was carried out in confirmation with ASTM C67 standards [40]. Both
samples were oven-dried for 24 h at 110  C before testing and subsequently cooled to room temperature. The samples were
subjected to a compression test after burning at 900  C for 3 h and cooling in room temperature using
250 mm  120 mm  60 mm brick molds. The same sample sizes and same conditions was used in Flexural strength
inspection. Compression and flexural strength tests were conducted in confirmation with ASTM C67 [40]. Brick specimens
were clamped on opposite sides for compressive strength using gypsum, and leave to dry for 24 h. They then measured the
specimens at a load rate of 1.25 mm/min. In the direction to the brick depth. Brick specimens were mounted flat for the
flexural strength, so that the distance between the supports was 40 mm shorter than the actual length. The load was applied
at its midspan in the direction of the specimen depth. The frog was held to the side of the compression. At the top, a steel
plate with a thickness of 6 mm and a width of 40 mm was used for load application. In addition, physical properties, water
absorption, apparent porosity, bulk density and efflorescence tests were carried out to measure water absorption and
apparent porosity according to ASTM C20 [41]. The samples were dipped at one end in distilled water at a constant depth of
25 mm for 7 days to determine the efflorescence according to ASTM C67 [40], the samples were oven-dried for 24 h after 7
days. Electron Microscopy (SEM) is a research technique that scans a sample with an electron beam to create a larger image.
The process is also known as SEM analyses and SEM microscopies and is used very efficiently in solid inorganic material
microanalyses and failure analyses. SEM was used to check the microstructure of the clay and modified samples.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Compressive strength

The compressive strength of all the tested samples that incorporated RSA, SBA and WSA by 5 %, 10 % and 15 %, respectively,
by SWTP weight are presented in Fig. 5 (a). The stated values are in Fig. 5 (a) were the average of five brick samples. For
samples incorporating RSA, SBA and WSA, the compressive strength was lower than that of the control samples. Additionally,
decrements in compressive strength accompanied the increments in RSA, SBA and WSA replacement ratio. For example, the
compression strengths of samples M-5RSA, M-10RSA and M-15RSA decreased at about 11.76 %, 17.90 % and 31.19 %,
respectively, compared with that of the control sample. Meanwhile, the compressive strength of the samples incorporating
SBA and WSA were lower than that of samples incorporating RSA. For example, for samples M-10RSA, M-10SBA and M-
10WSA, approximately 17.90 %, 41.99 % and 44.03 % reductions in compressive strength were detected in comparison with
 A.M. Heniegal et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00397 7

Fig. 4. a: Mixing; b: Casting; c: Drying and firing brick and cubic samples.

that of the control sample. The compressive strength of the brick samples was mainly governed by sample density, porosity
and the pore size distributions, for example, as a result of a change in the proportion of the RSA from 5 % to 15 % was the C.S
from 15.24 to 12.11 N/mm2 corresponding to the density of 1.56 to 1.47 g / cm3 and corresponding to the porosity of 22.
07 %–26.52 %. Furthermore, the deterioration of volatile materials and the high quantity of silica could lead to high porosity
and the increase in the flow within the fired sample [42]. Generally, silica is preferred at 50 %–60 % of clay, where the clay
used in brick factories contains concentrations of SiO2 ranging from 50 percent to 60 percent [32]. A greater quantity of silica
(more than 60 %) is unwelcome in bricks [32]. Therefore, the SBA and RSA replacements contained the largest quantity of
silica which affects the compressive strength of the fired brick samples. WSA exhibited a greater decrease compared with the
control which was most likely caused by the lower SiO2 (39.18 %) content compared with the control. Moreover, WSA had a
high amount of sylvite (K Cl), as shown in Fig. 3(c) (XRD), which greatly affected the compressive strength of the fired brick
samples. Therefore, the economic production of bricks might be achieved using RSA and SBA at either 5 %, 10 % or 15 %. While
the 5 % and 10 % of WAS showed the same results according to ASTM C67 [40].

4.2. Flexural strength

Fig. 5 (b) shows the results of the flexural strength of all the tested clay bricks containing RSA, SBA and WSA. The stated
values are in Fig. 5 (b) were the average of five brick samples. The flexural strength of all the tested clay bricks are 1.96 and
0.66 MPa for the control and M-15WSA, respectively. According to ASTM guidelines, the minimum permissible limit for F.S is
0.65 MPa [40,43]. Fig. 5 (b), indicates that control sample had a higher flexural strength than the samples containing RSA,
SBA and WSA. For example, as a result of changing the proportions of SBA in the samples (i.e. M-5SBA, M-10SBA and M-
15SBA), the F.S of the clay bricks decreased by 23 %, 42 % and 57 %, respectively, relative to that of the control sample. The
flexural strength of the samples incorporating WSA exhibited a higher decrease compared with those of the samples
incorporating RSA and SBA. This phenomenon was most likely caused by the lower SiO2 content compared with that in the
control. Moreover, WSA has a high amount of sylvite Cl which greatly affected the flexural strength of the brick samples. The
brick samples containing 5 % of SBA, RSA and WSA, which were experimentally tested relative to the control sample,
respectively exhibited 24 %, 11 % and 37 % decrease in flexural strength.
8 A.M. Heniegal et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00397

Fig. 5. a: Compressive strength; b: Flexural strength; c: Bulk density.

 A.M. Heniegal et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00397 9

4.3. Bulk density

Fig. 5(c), shows the bulk densities of all samples incorporating RSA, SBA and WSA. A lower bulk density was obtained from
M-15WSA (i.e. 1.44 g/cm3), and a higher bulk density was obtained from the control (i.e. 1.63 g/cm3). Fig. 5 (c) shows that the
bulk densities of the brick samples decreased with the increase in RSA, SBA and WSA contents, producing lighter bricks. The
change in the RSA, SBA and WSA replacements of sludge from 5 %–15 % decreased the bulk density from 4.29 %–9.82 %, 6.
75 %–11.04 % and 6.75 %–11.66 %, respectively, relative to the control sample [44,18]. Moreover, the increment in porosity
from the replacement played a significant role in decreasing the weight of the samples because of the lower specific gravity
of RSA, SBA and WSA compared with that of clay, as discussed in Table 1. Therefore, the higher percentages of RSA, SBA, and
WSA in the bricks, weight will be lighter. The lighter clay bricks in building material would be required and will result in a
beneficial reduction in the weight of building [4].

4.4. Apparent porosity

The apparent porosity results of all the tested samples are in Fig. 6 (a). The apparent porosity increased with the RSA, SBA
and WSA contents. For example, as a result of changing the RSA, SBA and WSA replacements of sludge from 5 %–15 %, the
apparent porosity values increased from 22.07 %–26.52 %, 22.36 %–27.20 % and 23 %–29.56 %, respectively, compared with the
control sample (18.32 %). This result can be attributed to the increased amount and size of pores after incorporating RSA, SBA
and WSA [45]. These results are similar to those of previous research [30]. Porous bricks are generally preferred because of
their insulating properties [46]. Therefore, bricks incorporating RSA, SBA and WSA can be used where resistance to heat is
required.

4.5. Water absorption

Fig. 6 (b) displays the water absorption of all samples. A positive relationship exists between water absorption and the
replacement percentages of RSA, WSA and SBA. M-15RSA presented a smaller water absorption compared with M-15SBA and
M-15WSA. For example, the samples with RSA displayed a water absorption of less than 18 %. However, the mixtures with
SBA and WSA showed water absorption values of approximately 19 % and 21 % for the samples with 15 % of SBA or WSA and
85 % clay. This result may be due to the spongy nature of SBA and WSA [44,47]. Fig. 6 (b) indicates that the water absorption
values were approximately 14.14 %–17.49 %, 14.72 %–18.80 % and 15.31 %–20.86 % for the samples with 5 %–15 % of RSA, SBA
and WSA, respectively.

4.6. Efflorescence

Efflorescence is an interesting problem because it produces a thin white- salt deposit on the top of the brick samples
[48]. The control samples exhibited slight efflorescence (10 % of the exterior area) after 7 days. The samples were also
inspected after 14 days Fig. 6(c), show slight efflorescence (10 % of the surface area) on the control samples.
Efflorescence was noticed on the RSA, SBA and WSA brick samples on 15 %, 15 % and 20 % of the surface area, respectively.
Generally, calcium oxide (CaO) and iron oxide (Fe2O3) cause efflorescence [31,33]. Clay and sludge had approximately
2.81 % and 2.81 % of CaO, respectively, whereas the samples with RSA, SBA and WSA had only 3.40 %, 2.68 % and 6.39 %,
respectively. After replacing the sludge with RSA, SBA and WSA, the CaO quantity increased with the presence of MgO,
Na2O and Cl , leading to increased efflorescence on the surface. In the clay and sludge, 4.55 % and 3.43 % of Fe2O3 was
respectively present. Therefore, slight efflorescence was observed in the control samples. In the RSA, SBA and WSA
samples, the quantity of Fe2O3 decreased further (i.e. 2.37 %, 1.22 % and 0.76 % of Fe2O3 in RSA, SBA and WSA,
respectively) with the presence of MgO, Na2O and Cl . Therefore, efflorescence was observed on the bricks with RSA,
SBA and WSA. However, the bricks with RSA, SBA and WSA could be used for masonry construction in which
efflorescence is within the permissible limits.

5. Scanning electron microscope

The SEM images of the control sample and the samples with RSA, SBA and WSA are shown in Fig. 7 (a: d). The
microstructure of all specimens with RSA, SBA and WSA was porous, which resulted in their reduced density relative to the
control specimen. Fig. 7(a) shows that the control fired brick specimens displayed a consistent and condensed structure
under microscopic examination. By contrast, the RSA, SBA and WSA brick samples showed reasonably decreased binding and
densification along with open irregularly shaped and interconnected pores Fig. 7 (b–d). The specimens with WSA showed a
higher porosity compared with the specimens with RSA and SBA Fig. 7(d). The existence of micro holes in all brick samples
could be related to the crystallisation process [46]. The SEM pictures exhibit the results of permeability and water absorption.
The increment in permeability resulting from the RSA, SBA and WSA replacements decreased the compression strength of
the fired bricks.
10 A.M. Heniegal et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00397

Fig. 6. a: Apparent porosity; b: Water Absorption; c: Efflorescence.

 A.M. Heniegal et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00397 11

Fig. 7. Microstructure/SEM images of control, RSA, SBA, and WSA.

6. Conclusions

This paper presents an efficient approach to disposal of agriculture waste by the safe way and recycling in the clay brick
industrial. Based on the above experimental results, the following conclusions can be obtained:
12 A.M. Heniegal et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00397

 physical and mechanical properties, and microstructure of clay bricks including agricultural waste (rice straw ash (RSA),
sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) and wheat straw ash (WSA) proposed that agricultural waste can be used as a combustible
replacement in the manufacture of clay bricks (eco-friendly fired clay brick production).
 RSA, SBA and WSA are suitable high-silica content wastes to be incorporated with clay and sludge in clay-brick making.
 In confirmation with the ASTM, the compression strength of the building brick should not be less than 8 MPa. Therefore,
the economic production of bricks might be achieved using RSA and SBA at 5 %, 10 % and 15 %. While the 5 % and 10 % of WAS
showed the same results.
 WSA more reduces the compressive strength and flexural strength of eco-friendly clay brick.
 RSA, SBA and WSA changed the bulk density of the clay bricks, making them lighter. The 15 % replacement of sludge with
RSA, SBA and WSA waste resulted in approximately 9.82 %, 11.04 % and 11.66 % lighter bricks compared with control bricks.
 Apparent porosity and water absorption increased with the amount of RSA, SBA and WSA. The bricks with 5 % RSA, SBA and
WSA show water absorption values less than 14.14 %, 14.72 % and 15.31 %, respectively.
 The best ratio of replacement of waste materials to get the best performance of the bricks is 5 % of the RSA, SBA and WSA.
The addition of agriculture wastes can create a sustainable source of raw materials in the brick industry.
 Agricultural waste recycling (RSA, SBA, and WSA) in clay bricks shows positive results in terms of environmental
protection, waste management practices, and raw material saving.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the laboratory of civil Constructions Dep., faculty of technology and education, Beni-Suef
University, for their financial support.

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