Thermodynamics-1 Chap#05

Thermodynamics-I
Zeshan Aslam
Lecturer
IST Islamabad
Chapter 5
Mass and Energy Analysis of Control

Volumes
Chap. 1 → Introduction of Thermodynamics Systems.
Chap. 2 → Various forms of energy and energy transfer, conservation of energy principle
or energy balance.
Chap. 3 → we learned how to determine the thermodynamics properties of substances.
Chap. 4 → Energy balance relation to systems that do not involve any mass flow across
their boundaries; that is, closed systems.
Chap. 5→ Energy Analysis of systems that do involve any mass flow across their
boundaries; that is, Open systems (Control Volumes).
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Mass and Energy Analysis of Control Volumes
CONSERVATION OF MASS
• Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and it cannot be created or destroyed during a process.
• Mass is conserved even during chemical reactions
• However, mass m and energy E can be converted to each other according to the well-known formula
proposed by Albert Einstein (1879–1955):
• For closed systems, the conservation of mass principle is implicitly used by requiring that the mass
of the system remain constant during a process.
• For control volumes, however, mass can cross the boundaries, and so we must keep track of the
amount of mass entering and leaving the control volume.
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Mass and Volume Flow Rates
• The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the mass flow rate and is denoted by
𝒎ሶ
• A fluid usually flows into or out of a control volume through pipes or ducts. The differential mass flow rate of
fluid flowing across a small area element dAc on a flow cross section is proportional to dAc itself, the fluid density ρ,
and the component of the flow velocity normal to dAc, which we denote as Vn, and is expressed as
• The mass flow rate through the entire cross-sectional area of a pipe or duct is
obtained by integration:
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• Velocity, however, is never uniform over a cross section of a pipe because of the fluid sticking to the surface and
thus having zero velocity at the wall (the no-slip condition).
• The velocity varies from zero at the walls to some maximum value at or near
the centerline of the pipe.
• We define the average velocity Vavg as the average value of Vn across the entire
cross section
• The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit time is called
the volume flow rate V
• The mass and volume flow rates are related by
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Conservation of Mass Principle

The conservation of mass principle for a control volume can be expressed as: The net mass transfer to or from a
control volume during a time interval Δt is equal to the net change (increase or decrease) in the total mass within the
control volume during Δt.
In rate form:
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Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
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Special Case: Incompressible Flow

• The conservation of mass relations can be simplified even further when the fluid is incompressible, which is
usually the case for liquids.
✓ There is no such thing as a “conservation of volume” principle
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FLOW WORK AND THE ENERGY OF A FLOWING FLUID
• Unlike closed systems, control volumes involve mass flow across their boundaries, and some work is
required to push the mass into or out of the control volume.
✓ This work is known as the flow work, or flow energy, and is necessary for maintaining a
continuous flow through a control volume.
• If the fluid pressure is P and the cross-sectional area of the fluid

element is A (Fig), the force applied on the fluid element by the
imaginary piston is:
• To push the entire fluid element into the control volume, this
force must act through a distance L. Thus, the work done in
pushing the fluid element across the boundary (i.e., the flow
work) is:
• The flow work per unit mass is obtained by dividing both sides of this
equation by the mass of the fluid element:
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Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid

• The total energy of a simple compressible system consists of three parts: internal, kinetic, and potential energies
• The fluid entering or leaving a control volume possesses an additional form of energy—the flow energy Pv
✓ Then the total energy of a flowing fluid on a unit-mass basis (denoted by u) becomes:
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Problem 5.22
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigeration system as saturated vapor at 0.14 MPa,
and leaves as superheated vapor at 0.8 MPa and 60°C at a rate of 0.06 kg/s. Determine the rates of
energy transfers by mass into and out of the compressor. Assume the kinetic and potential
energies to be negligible.
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Solution
13
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF STEADY-FLOW SYSTEMS
The Steady Flow Processes
▪ The term steady implies no change with time

→ The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient
▪ A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time
under the same conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices
▪ Steady-flow process: A process during which a fluid flows through a control
volume steadily
→ properties can change from point to point within the control volume, but at
any fixed point they remain the same during the entire process
→ Volume V, the Mass m, and the total Energy Content E of the control
volume remain constant during a steady-flow process
▪ Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by devices that are
intended for continuous operation such as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat exchangers or power plants or refrigeration systems
▪ Term Uniform implies no change with location over a specified region
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15
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SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
1. Nozzles and Diffusers
2. Turbines and Compressors
3. Throttling Valves
4. Mixing Chambers
5. Heat Exchangers
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1. Nozzles and Diffusers
Nozzles and diffusers are commonly utilized in jet engines, rockets, spacecraft, and even garden hoses.
A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure.
A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down.
The rate of heat transfer between the fluid flowing through a nozzle or a
diffuser and the surroundings is usually very small (𝑸ሶ ≈ 𝟎) since the fluid has
high velocities, and thus it does not spend enough time in the device for any
significant heat transfer to take place.
Nozzles and diffusers typically involve no work (𝑾ሶ = 𝟎) and any change in
potential energy is negligible (ΔPE ≅ 0).
But nozzles and diffusers usually involve very high velocities, and as a fluid
passes through a nozzle or diffuser, it experiences large changes in its
velocity. So (ΔKE ≠ 0)
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Problem 5.32
Steam at 5 MPa and 400°C enters a nozzle steadily with a velocity of 80 m/s, and it leaves at 2 MPa
and 300°C. The inlet area of the nozzle is 50 cm2, and heat is being lost at a rate of 120 kJ/s.
Determine:
(a) The mass flow rate of the steam
(b) The exit velocity of the steam
(c) The exit area of the nozzle.
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Solution
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2. Turbines and Compressors

In steam, gas, or hydroelectric power plants, the device that drives the electric generator is the turbine.
As the fluid passes through the turbine, work is done against the blades, which are attached to the shaft. As a
result, the shaft rotates, and the turbine produces work.
Compressors, as well as pumps and fans, are devices used to increase the pressure of a fluid.
Work is supplied to these devices from an external source through a rotating shaft. Therefore, compressors
involve work inputs.
A fan increases the pressure of a gas slightly and is mainly used to mobilize a gas.
A compressor is capable of compressing the gas to very high pressures.
Pumps work very much like compressors except that they handle liquids instead of gases.
Note: Turbines produce power output whereas compressors, pumps, and fans require power input.
(𝑸ሶ ≈ 𝟎) (W ≠ 0)
(ΔKE ≅ 𝟎) (ΔPE ≅ 𝟎)
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Problem 5.49
Steam flows steadily through an adiabatic turbine. The inlet conditions of the steam are 10 MPa,
450°C, and 80 m/s, and the exit conditions are 10 kPa, 92 percent quality, and 50 m/s. The mass
flow rate of the steam is 12 kg/s. Determine:
(a) the change in kinetic energy
(b) the power output
(c) the turbine inlet area
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Table A-6
Solution
Table A-5
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Solution
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3. Throttling Valves
Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that cause a significant pressure drop in the fluid.
✓ Ordinary adjustable valves, capillary tubes, and porous plugs
Unlike turbines, they produce a pressure drop without involving any work.
The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large drop in temperature, and for that reason throttling devices
are commonly used in refrigeration and air-conditioning applications.
(𝑸ሶ ≅ 𝟎) (W = 0)
(ΔKE ≅ 𝟎) (ΔPE ≅ 𝟎)
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Problem 5.68
A well-insulated valve is used to throttle steam from 8 MPa and 500°C to 6 MPa. Determine the final
temperature of the steam.
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4. Mixing Chambers
The conservation of mass principle for a mixing chamber requires that the sum of the incoming mass flow
rates equal the mass flow rate of the outgoing mixture.
Mixing chambers are usually well insulated (q ≅ 0) and usually do not involve any kind of work (w = 0). Also, the kinetic
and potential energies of the fluid streams are usually negligible (ke ≅ 0, pe ≅ 0).
Then all there is left in the energy equation is the total energies of the incoming streams and the outgoing mixture. The
conservation of energy principle requires that these two equal each other. Therefore, the conservation of energy equation
becomes analogous to the conservation of mass equation for this case.
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5. Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid streams exchange heat without mixing.
The conservation of mass principle for a heat exchanger in steady operation requires that the sum of the inbound mass
flow rates equal the sum of the outbound mass flow rates.
This principle can also be expressed as follows: Under steady operation, the mass flow rate of each fluid stream flowing
through a heat exchanger remains constant
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ENERGY ANALYSIS OF UNSTEADY-FLOW PROCESSES
The energy equation of a uniform-flow

system reduces to that of a closed
system when all the inlets and exits are
closed.
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Thermodynamics-I

Mass and Energy Analysis of Control

Chap. 3 → we learned how to determine the thermodynamics properties of substances.

• Mass is conserved even during chemical reactions

Mass and Volume Flow Rates

• The mass and volume flow rates are related by

Conservation of Mass Principle

Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes

Special Case: Incompressible Flow

✓ There is no such thing as a “conservation of volume” principle

• If the fluid pressure is P and the cross-sectional area of the fluid

Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid

The Steady Flow Processes

▪ The term steady implies no change with time

1. Nozzles and Diffusers

2. Turbines and Compressors

1. Nozzles and Diffusers

2. Turbines and Compressors

The energy equation of a uniform-flow

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