METALLURGY:

Strengthening
Mechanism in Metals
Dr. Suwaree Chankitmunkong
 CONTENTS

Grain Refinement Morihei grain

Gilden
01 ,

Womanising
02 Solid-Solution Strengthening
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03 Precipitation Strengthening W
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04 Strain hardening

tanks homie
( bar heat treatment
Aluminium
copper
 Design Principle
simian 's - morning'oggioo9 dislocation .

Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders

a material harder and stronger
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 Possible Ways
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Dislocation interaction with dislocation

TOUHOU
• grain boundaries -- grain boundary strengthening
airframe
• solute atoms -- solid solution strengthening
Misbwaonmnm nor
:

• precipitates -- precipitation hardening second phase

• other dislocations -- strain hardening ↳ Altar
VnVM9NVbO9VO8 dislocation precipitates
cphasenimnminoo,
Miggy
Htlv → Aldo

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Dislocation in
-
1. Reduce Grain Size
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E→
• Grain boundaries are barriers to slip. damn grain size a. advovgrain
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-

• Barrier "strength"
-
levitin
increases with increasing angle of misorientation. dislocation .

• Smaller grain size: more barriers to slip.

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• Hall-Petch Equation:

σ yield = σo + k y d −1 / 2
- OO -

↳
~
4 pinioned wound

/
anguished
brow
( Vostok : )

Illustrating how the boundary acts as a

barrier to continued slip. Slip planes ar
' e discontinuous and change directions
a' saggyqggfagge :
across the boundary.
if amino
Yield Strength vs Grain Size

In fungo g gang in H
The influence of grain size on the yield
strength of a 70 Cu–30 Zn brass alloy.
Note that the grain diameter increases
from right to left and is not linear.
 Hardness vs Grain size
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-

• Hardness dependence onO

-
grain size can be expressed in
the form of Hall-Petch equation, which is given by

Thermal stability of CoCrFeNi high entropy alloy

2. Solid-Solution Strengthening
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• Deliberately alloy metal with impurity atoms

Morosini
Substitutional or interstitial →
Abou
ex .

winning
.
how
 Solid-Solution Strengthening
RIINAEgg

• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate lattice O

strains.
• These strains can act as barriers to dislocation motion.

• Smaller substitutional impurity • Larger substitutional impurity

strain
( "
arguing @ ariiusiin
at:#
A C
UM9M8bAoifggn
B dislocation
D

Impurity generates local stress at A and B Impurity generates local stress at C and D
that opposes dislocation motion to the right. that opposes dislocation motion to the right.

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

9
 Dislocation Lattice Strains
dislocation density in now rig dis )
p
.

strain
• small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
• reduce mobility of dislocation \ increase strength
e
• large impurities concentrate at dislocations on low density side

(a) Representation of tensile lattice strains imposed on host atoms by a smaller substitutional impurity atom.
(b) Possible locations of smaller impurity atoms relative to an edge dislocation such that there is partial cancellation of impuri
ty–dislocation lattice strains.

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

10
 The effects of alloying elements on
the yield strength ofIcopper
own o Mon:

Be Sh Icu
~ ,

a. The effects of several alloying elements on

the yield strength of copper. Nickel and zin
c atoms are about the same size as copper
atoms, but beryllium and tin atoms are muc
& h different from copper atoms. Increasing b
oth the atomic size difference and the amo

↳
unt of alloying element increases solid solu
tion strengthening.

0
at Be.
Ni En -
cu
,
The Science & Engineering of Materials Donald R. Askeland

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11
 Solid Solution Strengthening in Copper

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Ni
i n c u

• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.

-

c-

l
l
←

O e

Ni r
im not n

• Alloying increases sy and TS.

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

Phromphong Pandee, Ph.D. 12

 3. Precipitation Strengthening
-
rig
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear. so
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
metal
↳ composite
precipitate two Mnm mon-

unit Large shear stress needed

Side View to move dislocation toward
rumba precipitate and shear it.
Unslipped part of slip plane
Top View

Dislocation “advances” but

S precipitates act as “pinning” sites
-

Slipped part of slip plane with spacing S.

1 m.
• Result: σy ~
S 1. to

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr. Pin Pin

13
 Application: Precipitation Strengthening
M
: robin mammoth'd Alloys

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed by alloying.

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grade Nihongo near

oooh

-
A transmission electron micrograph showing th
e microstructure of a 7150-T651 aluminum all
oy (6.2Zn, 2.3Cu, 2.3Mg, 0.12Zr, the balance
Al) that has been precipitation hardened. The li
ght matrix phase in the micrograph is an alumi
num solid solution. The majority of the small p
late-shaped dark precipitate particles are a trans
ition phase, the remainder being the equilibriu

(
. m (MgZn2) phase.
.

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

precipitates

Mgl he
14
 Age-hardening heat treatment in Al-Cu alloy

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quenching
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voguish
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Supersaturated
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↳
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At

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1A v.
-

Ai
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a
-

The Science & Engineering of Materials Donald R. Askeland

second phase
Aldo
B -
-
V. HBCU 15
Precipitation Sequence for Al-Cu Alloys

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(
:
has less coherent strains when it grows in size and increases in amount.
peak

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16
 Dislocation Cutting Through Precipitates

win

When the precipitates are too small

Phromphong Pandee, Ph.D. 17

Dislocation Bowing and By Pass
↳ motions dislocation

Pinning

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g. OOO OOO
d
f ga
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rain

When precipitates are too strong to be cut and

inter-particle space become large
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dislocation NO cutting
Off ) 118911008001
Phromphong Pandee, Ph.D. 18
Maximum Hardness
peak strength

O Maximum hardness is achieved if th

e precipitates can resist cutting by di
slocation, and are too close to permi
t by-pass of dislocations.
•
0*0
*
O '

Phromphong Pandee, Ph.D. 19

 4. Strain hardening
vdnpintsiog yeild
stress ftp.ieleeyfrmation
• Strain hardening is the phenomenon whereby a ductile
metal becomes harder and stronger as it is plastically
deformed. movingly → HT9H8gfir
• Sometimes it is also called work
-
hardening, or, because
the temperature at which deformation takes place is “cold o
” relative to the absolute melting temperature of the metal,
cold working. → Mitigating Tmelt Aluminium
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• Most metals strain harden at room temperature.
• Deformation at room temperature (for most metals).
• Common forming operations reduce the cross-sectional
area:

20
 Common forming operations change
the cross sectional area
tneudvmor
plastic deformation Gang , ",
luv' n
strain hardening

③ r

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ma
O

(a) Rolling. (b) Forging (open and closed die). (c) Extrusion (direct and indirect). (d) Wire drawing. (e) Stamping.

The Science & Engineering of Materials Donald R. Askeland

21
 Dislocations During Cold Work

BO

• Dislocations entangle with on .

e another during cold work.

ppg
• Dislocation motion becomes
more difficult.

A transmission electron micrograph of a titanium alloy in whic

h the dark lines are dislocations.

Materials Science and Engineering William D. Callister, Jr.

22
 Percent cold work (%CW)

Edo
④ Eg
( t CW)
-

Where A0 is the original area of the cross section that experiences def
ormation, and Af is the final cross-sectional area after deformation. t0 i
s the initial sheet thickness and tf is the final thickness.

23
 Impact of Cold Work
% car 9 → strength9
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at work hard ing
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Materials Science and Engineering William D. Callister, Jr.

24
 Impact of Cold Work

→
For 1040 steel, brass, and copper, (a) the increase in yield strength, (b) the increase in tensile strength, and (c) the
decrease in ductility (%EL) with percent cold work.

Materials Science and Engineering William D. Callister, Jr.

25
 Mechanical Property Alterations Due to
Cold Working

• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength & ductility
after cold working Cu?
πDo2 πDd2
Copper −
Cold %CW = 4 4 x 100
Work πDo2
4
Do2 − Dd2
Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm = x 100
Do2

%CW =
(15.2 mm) 2 − (12.2 mm) 2
(15.2 mm) 2 0
x 100 = 35.6%

26

26
 Mechanical Property Alterations Due to Cold Working

• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &

ductility for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?

60

tensile strength (MPa)

yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600

300
300 MPa Cu
Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

sy = 300 MPa TS = 340 MPa %EL = 7%

Materials Science and Engineering William D. Callister, Jr. <

27
 Effect of Heat Treating After Cold Working

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• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal... fo µjg won arm :

decreases TS and increases %EL. amnio nanami ,

,
Mitu no

• Effects of cold work are nullified! annealing temperature (ºC) monogamy

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

600 60
• Three Annealing stages: tensile strength

tensile strength (MPa)

1. Recovery niobium's 50

ductility (%EL)
500
2. Recrystallization

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40
3. Grain Growth
400 30

ductility 20
300

Recovery Recrystallization Grain Growth

,
Mia defeat 28

28
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
1. Recovery
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: : →

• During recovery, some of the stored internal strain ene

rgy is relieved by virtue of dislocation motion as a resul
t of enhanced atomic diffusion at the elevated tempera
ture.
• Reduction of dislocation density by annihilation.

29
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
2. Recrystallization

Meghan's
• New grains are formed that:
-- have low dislocation densities dislocation rings
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.

diuoiggiwdbehr
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
innmrinnwnnheai

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580°C.

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

30
 As Recrystallization Continues…

'

bring rainbow
• All cold-worked grains are eventually consumed/replaced.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

⑦
After 4
seconds
After 8
seconds

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

31
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
3. Grain Growth

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• At longer times, average grain size increases.

-- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
0.6 0.6
mm mm

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

32
 The scale of features is vital

boating's Winnowing
• Empirical Relation:

coefficient dependent
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
elapsed time
grain diameter d n − d on = Kt
at time t.

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

33
 Recrystallization temperature

'

1- I 620 c
melt , Al

TR = recrystallization temperature =
temperature at which recrystallization
just reaches completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm
Q.im """

For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on:

• %CW -- TR decreases with
increasing %CW
• Purity of metal -- TR decreases with
increasing purity
" "" "
"

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

34
The scale of features is vital

decimated
1- cold work 1h49
'

± 35
 Recrystallization and Melting Temperatures
for Various Metals and Alloys

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

36
 Diameter Reduction Procedure - Solution

What are the consequences of directly drawing to the final diameter?

Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 10 mm Df = 7.5 mm

& A − Af # & A #
%CW = $$ o !! x 100 = $$1 − f !! x 100
% Ao " % Ao "
& πD 2 4 #! & & 7 .5 # 2 #
= $1 − f x 100 = $1 − $ ! ! x 100 = 43.8%
$ πD 2 4" ! $ 10 " !
% o % % "

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

37
 Diameter Reduction Procedure – Solution (cont.)

• For %CW = 43.8%

– sy = 420 MPa
– TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
– %EL = 6 < 15
• This doesn’t satisfy criteria… what other options are possible?
Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

38
 Diameter Reduction Procedure – Solution (cont.)

For TS > 380 MPa > 12 %CW

For %EL > 15 < 27 %CW

\ our working range is limited to 12 < %CW < 27

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

39
 Diameter Reduction Procedure – Solution (cont.)

Cold work, then anneal, then cold work again

• For objective we need a cold work of 12 < %CW < 27
– We’ll use 20 %CW
• Diameter after first cold work stage (but before 2nd cold work stage) is
calculated as follows:
( D 2% Df 22 %CW
&
%CW = 1 − f 2 # x 100 ⇒ 1 − =
& D 2# D02 2 100
' 02 $
0 .5 Df 2
Df 2 & %CW # D02 =
= $1 − ! Þ & %CW #
0 .5
D02 % 100 " $1 − !
% 100 "
0 .5
& 20 #
Intermediate diameter = Df 1 = D02 = 7.5 mm $1 − ! = 8.39 mm
% 100 "
Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

40
 Diameter Reduction Procedure – Summary

Doink
Stage 1: Cold work – reduce diameter from 10 mm to 8.39 mm
& & 8.39 mm #2 #
%CW1 = $1 − $ ! ! x 100 = 29.6
$ % 10 mm " !
% "
Stage 2: Heat treat (allow recrystallization)
Stage 3: Cold work – reduce diameter from 8.39 mm to 7.5 mm

& & 7 .5 # 2 # σ y = 340 MPa

%CW2 = $1 − $ ! ! x 100 = 20 Þ
$ % 8.49 " !
% " TS = 400 MPa
%EL = 24
Therefore, all criteria satisfied

41
 *

solid solution nor denning

↳ spinor ou , Mn

Materials Science and Engineering, W D. Callister, Jr.

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42
 Summary

• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals and alloys.

• Strength is increased by making dislocation motion difficult.

• Strength of metals may be increased by:
-- decreasing grain size
-- solid solution strengthening
-- precipitate hardening
-- cold working
• A cold-worked metal that is heat treated may experience recovery,
recrystallization, and grain growth – its properties will be altered.

43
THANK YOU
suwaree.ch@kmitl.ac.th