Glossary
Numbers in parentheses refer to chapters in which the term is introduced
or substantially discussed.
adjusted mean mean of a group after adjusting for (partialing out) the
effect of a covariate in analysis of covariance. (15)
adjusting for same as partialing out. (15)
alpha 1␣2 probability of making a Type I error; the probability of getting
statistical significance if the null hypothesis is actually true; same as sig-
nificance level. (6) Also short for Cronbach’s alpha. (15)
analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) analysis of variance that controls
for the effect of one or more additional variables. (15)
analysis of variance (ANOVA) hypothesis-testing procedure for stud-
ies with three or more groups. (9, 15)
analysis of variance table chart showing the major elements in figur-
ing an analysis of variance using the structural model approach. (9)
assumption condition, such as a population’s having a normal dis-
tribution, required for carrying out a particular hypothesis-testing
procedure; a part of the mathematical foundation for the accuracy of
the tables used in determining cutoff values. (7)
beta 1␤2 probability of making a Type II error. (6) Also, a standardized
regression coefficient. (12)
between-groups estimate of the population variance 1S 2Between,
MSBetween2 estimate of the variance of the population of individuals
based on the variation among the means of the groups studied. Also
called mean squares between. (9)
between-groups (or numerator) degrees of freedom 1dfBetween2
degrees of freedom used in the between-groups estimate of the
population variance in an analysis of variance (the numerator of the
F ratio); number of scores free to vary (number of means minus 1) in
figuring the between-groups estimate of the population variance. (9)
biased estimate estimate of a population parameter that is likely sys-
tematically to overestimate or underestimate the true value of the pop-
ulation parameter. For example, SD 2 would be a biased estimate of
the population variance (it would systematically underestimate it). (7)
bimodal distribution frequency distribution with two approximately
equal frequencies, each clearly larger than any of the others. (1)
bivariate prediction prediction of scores on one variable based on
scores of one other variable. Also called bivariate regression. (12)
Bonferroni procedure multiple-comparison procedure in which the
total alpha percentage is divided among the set of comparisons so that
each is tested at a more stringent significance level. (9)
bootstrap test hypothesis-testing procedure (a computer-intensive
method) that allows you to create multiple estimates of a sample sta-
tistic (such as a mean difference score or a correlation coefficient)
by creating a large number of randomly selected samples from your
data and seeing how consistent the sample statistic is across all of the
estimates. (14)
categorical variable same as nominal variable. (1)
ceiling effect situation in which many scores pile up at the high end of
a distribution (creating skewness to the left) because it is not possible
to have a higher score. (1)
cell in a factorial research design, the particular combination of levels
of the variables that divide the groups. (10) In a chi-square test for
708
independence, the particular combination of categories for two vari-
ables in a contingency table. (13)
cell mean mean of a particular combination of levels of the variables
that divide the groups in a factorial design in analysis of variance. (10)
central tendency typical or most representative value of a group of
scores, such as the mean, median, or mode. (2)
chi-square distribution mathematically defined curve used as the com-
parison distribution in chi-square tests; distribution of the chi-square
statistic. (13)
chi-square statistic 1␹22 statistic that reflects the overall lack of fit
between the expected and observed frequencies; sum, over all the
categories or cells, of the squared difference between observed and
expected frequencies divided by the expected frequency. (13)
chi-square table table of cutoff scores on the chi-square distribution for
various degrees of freedom and significance levels. (13)
chi-square test for goodness of fit hypothesis-testing procedure that
examines how well an observed frequency distribution of a single nomi-
nal variable fits some expected pattern of frequencies. (13)
chi-square test for independence hypothesis-testing procedure that
examines whether the distribution of frequencies over the categories of
one nominal variable are unrelated to (independent of) the distribution
of frequencies over the categories of a second nominal variable. (13)
chi-square tests hypothesis-testing procedures used when the vari-
ables of interest are nominal variables. (13)
comparison distribution distribution used in hypothesis testing. It
represents the population situation if the null hypothesis is true. It is
the distribution to which you compare the score based on your sam-
ple’s results. It is made up of the same kinds of numbers as those
of the sample’s results (such as sample means, differences between
sample means, F ratios, or chi-squares). (4)
computational formula equation mathematically equivalent to the
definitional formula. It is easier to use when figuring by hand but does
not directly show the meaning of the procedure. (2)
computer-intensive methods statistical methods, including hypothesis-
testing procedures, involving large numbers of repeated computations. (14)
confidence interval (CI) roughly speaking, the range of scores (that is,
the scores between an upper and lower value) that is likely to include
the true population mean; more precisely, the range of possible popu-
lation means from which it is not highly unlikely that you could have
obtained your sample mean. (5)
confidence limit upper or lower value of a confidence interval. (5)
contingency table two-dimensional chart showing frequencies in each
combination of categories of two nominal variables, as in a chi-square
test for independence. (13)
continuous variable variable for which, in theory, there are an infinite
number of values between any two values. (1)
controlling for same as partialing out. (15)
conventional levels of significance 1 p * .05, p * .012 levels of
significance (alpha levels) widely used in psychology. (4)
correlation association between scores on two or more variables. (11)
correlational research design any research design other than a true
experiment. (11)

correlation coefficient (r) measure of degree of linear correlation between
two variables ranging from - 1 (a perfect negative linear correlation)
through 0 (no correlation) to + 1 (a perfect positive correlation). (11)
correlation matrix common way of reporting the correlation coeffi-
cients among several variables in a research article; table in which the
variables are named on the top and along the side and the correlations
among them are all shown. (11)
covariate variable controlled for in an analysis of covariance. (15)
Cramer’s phi (Cramer’s ␾) measure of effect size for a chi-square test
for independence used with a contingency table that is larger than 2 * 2.
Also known as Cramer’s V and sometimes written as ␾C or VC. (13)
criterion variable (usually Y) in prediction, a variable that is pre-
dicted. (12)
Cronbach’s alpha 1␣2 widely used measure of a test’s internal consis-
tency reliability that reflects the average of the split-half correlations
from all possible splits into halves of the items on the test. (15)
cross-product of Z scores the result of multiplying a person’s Z score on
one variable by the person’s Z score on another variable. (11)
curvilinear correlation relation between two variables that shows up
on a scatter diagram as dots following a systematic pattern that is not
a straight line. (11)
cutoff sample score in hypothesis testing, the point on the comparison
distribution at which, if reached or exceeded by the sample score, you
reject the null hypothesis. Also called critical value. (4)
data transformation mathematical procedure (such as taking the
square root) used on each score in a sample, usually done to make the
sample distribution closer to normal. (14)
decision error incorrect conclusion in hypothesis testing in relation to
the real (but unknown) situation, such as deciding the null hypothesis
is false when it is really true. (6)
definitional formula equation for a statistical procedure directly show-
ing the meaning of the procedure. (2)
degrees of freedom (df ) number of scores free to vary when estimat-
ing a population parameter; usually part of a formula for making that
estimate—for example, in the formula for estimating the population
variance from a single sample, the degrees of freedom is the number
of scores minus 1. (7)
dependent variable variable considered to be an effect; usually a mea-
sured variable. (15)
descriptive statistics procedures for summarizing a group of scores or
otherwise making them more understandable. (1)
deviation score score minus the mean. (2)
dichotomizing dividing the scores for a variable into two groups. Also
called median split. (10)
difference score difference between a person’s score on one testing and
the same person’s score on another testing; often an after-score minus a
before-score, in which case it is also called a change score. (7)
direction of causality path of causal effect; if X is thought to cause
Y then the direction of causality is from X to Y. (11)
directional hypothesis research hypothesis predicting a particular
direction of difference between populations—for example, a predic-
tion that one population has a higher mean than another population. (4)
discrete variable variable that has specific values (such as whole num-
bers) and that cannot have values between these specific values (such
as fractional values). (1)
distribution of differences between means distribution of differences
between means of pairs of samples such that, for each pair of means,
one mean is from one population and the other mean is from a sec-
ond population; the comparison distribution in a t test for independent
means. (8)
distribution of means distribution of means of samples of a given size
from a population (also called a sampling distribution of the mean);
comparison distribution when testing hypotheses involving a single
sample of more than one individual. (5)
distribution-free test hypothesis-testing procedure making no
assumptions about the shape of populations. Also called a nonpara-
metric test. (14)
Glossary 709
effect size conventions standard rules about what to consider a small,
medium, and large effect size, based on what is typical in psychology
research; also known as Cohen’s conventions. (6)
effect size in studies involving means of one or two groups, measure of
difference (lack of overlap) between populations; the usual standard-
ized effect size measure increases with greater differences between
means and decreases with greater standard deviations in the popula-
tions, but it is not affected by sample size. There are also conventional
effect size measures for other kinds of studies (correlations, analysis
of variance and chi-square test situations); these describe the standard-
ized degree of association in the population. (6)
equal-interval variable variable in which the numbers stand for
approximately equal amounts of what is being measured. (1)
error in prediction, the difference between a person’s predicted score
on the criterion variable and the person’s actual score on the criterion
variable. (12)
eta squared 1␩22 common name for the R 2 measure of effect size for
the analysis of variance. Also called correlation ratio. (9)
expected frequency (E) in a chi-square test, number of people in a cat-
egory or cell expected if the null hypothesis were true. (13)
expected relative frequency in figuring probabilities, number of suc-
cessful outcomes divided by the number of total outcomes you would
expect to get if you repeated an experiment a large number of times. (3)
factor in factor analysis, group of variables that tend to correlate with
each other and not with other variables. (15)
factor analysis statistical procedure applied in situations where many
variables are measured and that identifies groups of variables that tend
to be correlated with each other and not with other variables. (15)
factorial analysis of variance analysis of variance for a factorial
research design. (10)
factorial research design way of organizing a study in which the influ-
ence of two or more variables is studied at once by setting up the situa-
tion so that a different group of people are tested for each combination
of the levels of the variables; for example, in a 2 * 2 factorial research
design there would be four groups: those high on variable 1 and high
on variable 2, those high on variable 1 but low on variable 2, those low
on variable 1 but high on variable 2, and those low on variable 1 and
low on variable 2. (10)
factor loading in factor analysis, correlation of a variable with a
factor. (15)
F distribution mathematically defined curve that is the comparison
distribution used in an analysis of variance. (9)
fit index in structural equation modeling, measure of how well the pat-
tern of correlations in a sample corresponds to the correlations that
would be expected based on the hypothesized pattern of causes and
effects among those variables; usually ranges from 0 to 1, with 1 being
a perfect fit. (15)
floor effect situation in which many scores pile up at the low end of a
distribution (creating skewness to the right) because it is not possible
to have any lower score. (1)
F ratio in analysis of variance, ratio of the between-groups population
variance estimate to the within-groups population variance estimate.
Also called simply F. (9)
frequency distribution pattern of frequencies over the various values;
what a frequency table, histogram, or frequency polygon describes. (1)
frequency table ordered listing of number of individuals having each
of the different values for a particular variable. (1)
F table table of cutoff scores on the F distribution. (9)
general linear model general formula that is the basis of most of the
statistical methods covered in this text; describes a score as the sum of
a constant, the weighted influence of several variables, and error. (15)
grand mean (GM) overall mean of all the scores, regardless of what group
they are in; when group sizes are equal, mean of the group means. (9)
grouped frequency table frequency table in which the number of indi-
viduals (frequency) is given for each interval of values. (1)
grouping variable a variable that separates groups in analysis of
variance (and t tests); also see independent variable. (10)
710 Glossary
harmonic mean special average influenced disproportionately by
smaller numbers; in a t test for independent means when the number
of scores in the two groups differ, the harmonic mean is used as the
equivalent of each group’s sample size when determining power. (8)
hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) sophisticated type of multi-
level modeling that handles a research situation in which people are
grouped in some way that could affect the pattern of scores. (15)
histogram barlike graph of a frequency distribution in which the
values are plotted along the horizontal axis and the height of each bar
is the frequency of that value; the bars are usually placed next to each
other without spaces, giving the appearance of a city skyline. (1)
holding constant same as partialing out. (15)
hypothesis prediction, often based on informal observation, previous
research, or theory, that is tested in a research study. (4)
hypothesis testing procedure for deciding whether the outcome of a
study (results for a sample) supports a particular theory or practical
innovation (which is thought to apply to a population). (4)
independence situation of no relationship between two variables; term
usually used regarding two nominal variables in a chi-square test for
independence. (13)
independent variable variable considered to be a cause, such as what
group a person is in for a t test or analysis of variance. (15)
inferential statistics procedures for drawing conclusions based on the
scores collected in a research study but going beyond them. (1)
interaction effect situation in a factorial analysis of variance in which
a combination of variables has an effect that could not be predicted
from the effects of the two variables individually; situation in which
the effect of one grouping variable on the measured variable is differ-
ent across the levels of the other grouping variable. (10)
intercept the point where the regression line crosses the vertical axis;
same as regression constant (a). (12)
internal consistency reliability extent to which the items of a measure
assess a common characteristic; usually measured using Cronbach’s
alpha. (15)
interrater reliability similarity of ratings by two or more raters of
each participant’s behavior or spoken or written material. (15)
interval range of values in a grouped frequency table that are grouped
together. (For example, if the interval size is 10, one of the intervals
might be from 10 to 19.) (1)
kurtosis extent to which a frequency distribution deviates from a nor-
mal curve in terms of whether its curve in the middle is more peaked or
flat than the normal curve. (1)
latent variable in structural equation modeling, unmeasured variable
assumed to be the underlying cause of several variables actually mea-
sured in the study. (15)
levels of measurement types of underlying numerical information
provided by a measure, such as equal-interval, rank-order, and nomi-
nal (categorical). (1)
linear correlation relation between two variables that shows up on a
scatter diagram as the dots roughly following a straight line. (11)
linear prediction rule formula for making predictions; that is, formula
for predicting a person’s score on a criterion variable based on the
person’s score on one or more predictor variables; also called linear
prediction model. (12)
long-run relative-frequency interpretation of probability under-
standing of probability as the proportion of a particular outcome that
you would get if the experiment were repeated many times. (3)
lower-level variable in multilevel modeling, a variable that is about
people within each grouping. (15)
main effect difference between groups on one grouping variable in a
factorial design in analysis of variance; result for a grouping variable,
averaging across the levels of the other grouping variable(s). (10)
marginal mean in a factorial design in analysis of variance, mean score for
all the participants at a particular level of one of the grouping variables. (10)
mean 1M, ␮2 arithmetic average of a group of scores; sum of the scores
divided by the number of scores. (2)
mean of a distribution of means 1␮M2 the mean of a distribution of
means of samples of a given size from a population; it comes out to be
the same as the mean of the population of individuals 1␮2. (5)
mean squares between 1MSBetween2 same as between-groups estimate
of the population variance 1S 2Between2. (9)
mean squares within 1MSWithin2 same as within-groups estimate of the
population variance 1S 2Within2. (9)
median middle score when all the scores in a distribution are arranged
from lowest to highest. (2)
mediational analysis particular type of path analysis that tests whether
a presumed causal relationship between two variables is due to some
particular intervening variable (called a mediator variable). (15)
meta-analysis statistical method for combining effect sizes from
different studies. (6)
mode value with the greatest frequency in a distribution. (2)
multilevel modeling advanced type of regression analysis that handles
a research situation in which people are grouped in some way that
could affect the pattern of scores. (15)
multimodal distribution frequency distribution with two or more high
frequencies separated by a lower frequency; a bimodal distribution is
the special case of two high frequencies. (1)
multiple correlation correlation of a criterion variable with two or
more predictor variables. (12)
multiple correlation coefficient (R) in multiple regression, the cor-
relation between the criterion variable and all the predictor variables
taken together. It is a measure of degree of multiple correlation;
positive square root of the proportionate reduction in error 1R 22 in a
multiple regression analysis. (12)
multiple regression procedure for predicting scores on a criterion vari-
able from scores on two or more predictor variables. (12)
multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) analysis of cova-
riance with more than one dependent variable. (15)
multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) analysis of variance
with more than one dependent variable. (15)
multivariate statistics statistical procedures involving more than one
dependent variable. (15)
negative correlation relation between two variables in which high
scores on one go with low scores on the other, mediums with mediums,
and lows with highs; on a scatter diagram, the dots roughly follow a
straight line sloping down and to the right; a correlation coefficient (r)
less than 0. (11)
95% confidence interval confidence interval in which, roughly speak-
ing, there is a 95% chance that the population mean falls within this
interval. (5)
99% confidence interval confidence interval in which, roughly speaking,
there is a 99% chance that the population mean falls within this interval. (5)
no correlation no systematic relationship between two variables; also
used for correlation coefficient (r) equal to 0. (11)
nominal variable variable with values that are categories (that is, they
are names rather than numbers). Also called categorical variable. (1)
nondirectional hypothesis research hypothesis that does not predict a
particular direction of difference between populations. (4)
nonparametric test hypothesis-testing procedure making no assump-
tions about population parameters. Also called a distribution-free test. (14)
normal curve specific, mathematically defined, bell-shaped frequency
distribution that is symmetrical and unimodal; distributions observed
in nature and in research commonly approximate it. (1, 3)
normal curve table table showing percentages of scores associated
with the normal curve; the table usually includes percentages of scores
between the mean and various numbers of standard deviations above
the mean and percentages of scores more positive than various num-
bers of standard deviations above the mean. (3)
normal distribution frequency distribution that follows a normal curve. (3)
null hypothesis statement about a relation between populations that is
the opposite of the research hypothesis; statement that in the popula-
tion there is no difference (or a difference opposite to that predicted)
between populations; contrived statement set up to examine whether it
can be rejected as part of hypothesis testing. (4)
numeric variable variable whose values are numbers (as opposed to a
nominal variable); also called quantitative variable. (1)
observed frequency (O) in a chi-square test, number of individuals
actually found in the study to be in a category or cell. (13)

one-tailed test hypothesis-testing procedure for a directional hypoth-
esis; situation in which the region of the comparison distribution in
which the null hypothesis would be rejected is all on one side (or tail)
of the distribution. (4)
one-way analysis of variance analysis of variance in which there is
only one grouping variable. (10)
outcome term used in discussing probability for the result of an experi-
ment (or almost any event, such as a coin coming up heads or it raining
tomorrow). (3)
outlier score with an extreme value (very high or very low) in relation
to the other scores in the distribution. (2, 11)
parametric test ordinary hypothesis-testing procedure, such as a t test
or an analysis of variance, that requires assumptions about the shape
or other parameters (such as the variance) of the populations. (14)
partial correlation the amount of association between two variables,
over and above the influence of one or more other variables. (15)
partial correlation coefficient measure of the degree of correlation
between two variables, over and above the influence of one or more
other variables. (15)
partialing out removing the influence of a variable from the associa-
tion between other variables; same as holding constant, controlling
for, and adjusting for. (15)
path an arrow in a path analysis or structural equation model that
shows what the researcher predicts to be the cause-and-effect connec-
tions between variables. (15)
path analysis method of analyzing the correlations among a group of
variables in terms of a predicted pattern of causal relations; usually the
predicted pattern is diagrammed as a pattern of arrows from causes to
effects. (15)
path coefficient degree of relation associated with an arrow in a path
analysis (including in structural equation modeling); same as a regres-
sion coefficient from a multiple regression prediction rule in which the
variable at the end of the arrow is the criterion variable and the variable
at the start of the arrow is the predictor, along with all the other vari-
ables that have arrows leading to that criterion variable. (15)
phi coefficient 1␾2 effect-size measure for a chi-square test for inde-
pendence with a 2 * 2 contingency table; square root of division of
chi-square statistic by N. (13)
planned contrast comparison in which the particular means to be com-
pared were decided in advance. Also called planned comparison. (9)
pooled estimate of the population variance 1S 2Pooled2 in a t test for
independent means, weighted average of the estimates of the popula-
tion variance from two samples (each estimate weighted by the pro-
portion consisting of its sample’s degrees of freedom divided by the
total degrees of freedom for both samples). (8)
population entire group of people to which a researcher intends the
results of a study to apply; larger group to which inferences are made
on the basis of the particular set of people (sample) studied. (3)
population parameter actual value of the mean, standard deviation, and
so on, for the population; usually population parameters are not known,
though often they are estimated based on information in samples; popu-
lation parameters are usually symbolized by Greek letters. (3)
positive correlation relation between two variables in which high
scores on one go with high scores on the other, mediums with medi-
ums, and lows with lows; on a scatter diagram, the dots roughly follow
a straight line sloping up and to the right; a correlation coefficient (r)
greater than 0. (11)
post hoc comparisons multiple comparisons, not specified in advance;
procedure conducted as part of an exploratory analysis after an analy-
sis of variance. (9)
power table table for a hypothesis-testing procedure showing the sta-
tistical power of studies with various effect sizes and sample sizes. (6)
predictor variable (usually X) in prediction, variable that is used to
predict scores of individuals on another variable. (12)
probability (p) expected relative frequency of an outcome; the propor-
tion of successful outcomes to all outcomes. (3)
proportionate reduction in error 1r 2 2 measure of association between
variables that is used when comparing associations. Also called pro-
portion of variance accounted for. (11)
Glossary 711
proportion of variance accounted for 1R 2 2 proportion of the total
variation of scores from the grand mean that is accounted for by the
variation between the means of the groups. (9)
quantitative variable same as numeric variable. (1)
randomization test hypothesis-testing procedure (usually a com-
puter-intensive method) that considers every possible reorganiza-
tion of the data in the sample to determine if the organization of the
actual sample data were unlikely to occur by chance. (14)
random selection method for selecting a sample that uses truly random
procedures (usually meaning that each person in the population has an
equal chance of being selected); one procedure is for the researcher to
begin with a complete list of all the people in the population and select
a group of them to study using a table of random numbers. (3)
rank-order test hypothesis-testing procedure that uses rank-ordered
scores. (14)
rank-order transformation changing a set of scores to ranks (for
example, so that the lowest score is rank 1, the next highest rank 2, and
so forth). (14)
rank-order variable numeric variable in which the values are ranks, such as
class standing or place finished in a race. Also called ordinal variable. (1)
ratio scale equal-interval variable measured on a ratio scale if it has
an absolute zero point (such as age or number of children), meaning
that the value of zero on the variable indicates a complete absence of
the variable. (1)
raw score ordinary score (or any number in a distribution before it has
been made into a Z score, deviation score, or otherwise transformed). (3)
rectangular distribution frequency distribution in which all values
have approximately the same frequency. (1)
regression coefficient (b) number multiplied by a person’s score on a
predictor variable as part of a linear prediction rule. (12)
regression constant (a) in a linear prediction rule, particular fixed
number added into the prediction; same as intercept. (12)
regression line line on a graph such as a scatter diagram showing the
predicted value of the criterion variable for each value of the predictor
variable; visual display of the linear prediction rule. (12)
reliability degree of consistency or stability of a measure. (15)
repeated measures analysis of variance analysis of variance for a
repeated measures design in which each person is tested more than
once so that the levels of the grouping variable(s) are different times
or types of testing for the same people. (10)
repeated measures design research strategy in which each person
is tested more than once; same as within-subjects design. (7)
research hypothesis statement in hypothesis testing about the pre-
dicted relation between populations. (4)
restriction in range situation in which you figure a correlation but
only a limited range of the possible values on one of the variables is
included in the sample studied. (11)
RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation) widely used fit
index in structural equation modeling; low values indicate a good fit. (15)
robustness extent to which a particular hypothesis-testing procedure is
reasonably accurate even when its assumptions are violated. (7)
sample scores of the particular group of people studied; usually consid-
ered to be representative of the scores in some larger population. (3)
sample statistic descriptive statistic, such as the mean or standard devia-
tion, figured from the scores in a group of people studied. (3)
scatter diagram graph showing the relationship between two numeric
variables: the values of one variable (often the predictor variable) are
along the horizontal axis and the values of the other variable (often the
criterion variable) are along the vertical axis; each score is shown as a
dot in this two-dimensional space. (11)
Scheffé test method of figuring the significance of post hoc comparisons
that takes into account all possible comparisons that could be made. (9)
score particular person’s value on a variable. (1)
significance level same as alpha 1␣2. (6)
skewed distribution distribution in which the scores pile up on one side
of the middle and are spread out on the other side; distribution that is
not symmetrical. (1)
slope steepness of the angle of a regression line in a graph of the
relation of scores on a predictor variable and predicted scores on a
712 Glossary
criterion variable; number of units the line goes up for every unit it
goes across. (12)
Spearman’s rho the equivalent of a correlation coefficient for rank-
ordered scores. (11)
split-half reliability one index of a measure’s reliability, based on a
correlation of the scores of items from two halves of the test. (15)
squared deviation score square of the difference between a score and
the mean. (2)
square-root transformation data transformation using the square root of
each score. (14)
standard deviation 1SD, S, ␴2 square root of the average of the
squared deviations from the mean; the most common descriptive sta-
tistic for variation; approximately the average amount that scores in a
distribution vary from the mean. (2)
standard deviation of a distribution of means 1␴M, SM2 square root
of the variance of a distribution of means; also called standard error
of the mean (SEM) and standard error (SE). (5)
standard deviation of the distribution of differences between means
1SDifference2 In a t test for independent means, square root of the vari-
ance of the distribution of differences between means. (8)
standard error (SE) same as standard deviation of a distribution of
means; also called standard error of the mean (SEM). (5)
standard error of the mean (SEM) same as standard deviation of a
distribution of means. Also called standard error (SE). (5)
standardized regression coefficient 1␤2 regression coefficient in
standard deviation units. It shows the predicted amount of change in
standard deviation units of the criterion variable if the value of the
predictor variable increases by one standard deviation. (12)
statistical power probability that a study will give a significant result
if the research hypothesis is true. (6)
statistically significant conclusion that the results of a study would be
unlikely if in fact the sample studied represents a population that is
no different from the population in general; an outcome of hypothesis
testing in which the null hypothesis is rejected. (4)
statistics branch of mathematics (and set of research tools used by psy-
chologists) that focuses on the organization, analysis, and interpreta-
tion of a group of numbers. (1)
structural equation modeling sophisticated version of path analysis
that includes paths with latent, unmeasured, theoretical variables and
that also permits a kind of significance test and provides measures of
the overall fit of the data to the hypothesized causal pattern. (15)
structural model way of understanding the analysis of variance as a
division of the deviation of each score from the overall mean into two
parts: the variation in groups (its deviation from its group’s mean) and
the variation between groups (its group’s mean’s deviation from the
overall mean); an alternative (but mathematically equivalent) way of
understanding the analysis of variance. (9)
subjective interpretation of probability way of understanding probability
as the degree of one’s certainty that a particular outcome will occur. (3)
sum of squared deviations (SS) total of all the scores of each score’s
squared difference from the mean; also called sum of squares. (2)
sum of squares (SS) same as sum of squared deviations. (2)
sum of the squared errors 1SSError2 sum of the squared differences
between each predicted score and actual score on the criterion variable. (12)
symmetrical distribution distribution in which the pattern of frequen-
cies on the left and right side are mirror images of each other. (1)
t distribution mathematically defined curve that is the comparison dis-
tribution used in a t test. (7)
test-retest reliability one index of a measure’s reliability, obtained by giv-
ing the test to a group of people twice; correlation between scores from the
two testings. (15)
theory set of principles that attempt to explain one or more facts, rela-
tionships, or events; psychologists often derive specific predictions
from theories that are then tested in research studies. (4)
total squared error when predicting from the mean 1SSTotal2 sum
of squared differences of each score on the criterion variable from the
predicted score when predicting from the mean. (12)
t score on a t distribution, number of standard deviations from the
mean (like a Z score, but on a t distribution). (7)
t table table of cutoff scores on the t distribution for various degrees of
freedom, significance levels, and one- and two-tailed tests. (7)
t test hypothesis-testing procedure in which the population variance is
unknown; it compares t scores from a sample to a comparison distri-
bution called a t distribution. (7)
t test for a single sample hypothesis-testing procedure in which a
sample mean is being compared to a known population mean and the
population variance is unknown. (7)
t test for dependent means hypothesis-testing procedure in which
there are two scores for each person and the population variance
is not known; it determines the significance of a hypothesis that is
being tested using difference or change scores from a single group
of people. (7)
t test for independent means hypothesis-testing procedure in which
there are two separate groups of people tested and in which the popu-
lation variance is not known. (8)
two-tailed test hypothesis-testing procedure for a nondirectional
hypothesis; the situation in which the region of the comparison dis-
tribution in which the null hypothesis would be rejected is divided
between the two sides (tails) of the distribution. (4)
two-way analysis of variance analysis of variance for a two-way fac-
torial research design. (10)
two-way factorial research design factorial research design in analy-
sis of variance with two grouping variables. (10)
Type I error rejecting the null hypothesis when in fact it is true; get-
ting a statistically significant result when in fact the research hypoth-
esis is not true. (6)
Type II error failing to reject the null hypothesis when in fact it is
false; failing to get a statistically significant result when in fact the
research hypothesis is true. (6)
unbiased estimate of the population variance 1S 2 2 estimate of the
population variance, based on sample scores, which has been cor-
rected so that it is equally likely to overestimate or underestimate the
true population variance; the correction used is dividing the sum of
squared deviations by the sample size minus 1, instead of the usual
procedure of dividing by the sample size directly. (7)
unimodal distribution frequency distribution with one value clearly
having a larger frequency than any other. (1)
upper-level variable in multilevel modeling, a variable that is about
the grouping as a whole. (15)
value possible number or category that a score can have. (1)
variable characteristic that can have different values. (1)
variance 1SD 2, S 2, ␴2, MS2 measure of how spread out a set of scores
are; average of the squared deviations from the mean. (2)
variance of a distribution of differences between means 1S 2Difference2
one of the numbers figured as part of a t test for independent means;
it equals the sum of the variances of the distributions of means associ-
ated with each of the two samples. (8)
variance of a distribution of means 1S 2M, ␴2M2 variance of the popula-
tion divided by the number of scores in each sample. (5)
weighted average average in which the scores being averaged do not
have equal influence on the total, as in figuring the pooled variance
estimate in a t test for independent means. (8)
within-groups (or denominator) degrees of freedom 1dfWithin2
degrees of freedom used in the within-groups estimate of the popula-
tion variance in an analysis of variance, denominator of the F ratio;
number of scores free to vary (number of scores in each group minus 1,
summed over all the groups) in figuring the within-groups population
variance estimate. (9)
within-groups estimate of the population variance 1S 2Within,
MSWithin2 estimate of the variance of the population of individuals
based on the variation among the scores in each of the actual groups
studied. (9)
Z score number of standard deviations that a score is above (or below,
if it is negative) the mean of its distribution; it is thus an ordinary
score transformed so that it better describes the score’s location in a
distribution. (3)
Z test hypothesis-testing procedure in which there is a single sample
and the population variance is known. (5)
Glossary of Symbols
Numbers in parentheses refer to chapters in which the term is introduced
or substantially discussed.
␣ Significance level, such as .05 or .01; probability of a Type I error in
hypothesis testing. (6) Also Cronbach’s alpha, a measure of internal
consistency reliability. (15)
␤ Probability of a Type II error in hypothesis testing. (6) Also a stan-
dardized regression coefficient. (12)
␮ Population mean. (3)
␮M Mean of a distribution of means. (5)
␴ Population standard deviation. (3)
␴M Standard deviation of a distribution of means. (5)
␴2 Population variance. (3)
␴2M Variance of a distribution of means. (5)
⌺ Sum of; add up all the scores following. (2)
␾ Phi coefficient; effect size in chi-square analysis of a 2 * 2 contin-
gency table. (14)
␹2 Chi-square statistic. (13)
a Regression constant. (12)
b Regression coefficient. (12)
d Effect size for studies involving one or two means. (6–8)
df Degrees of freedom. (7–13)
df1, df2, and so on Degrees of freedom for the first group, second
group, and so on. (8–10)
dfBetween Between-groups (numerator) degrees of freedom in the analy-
sis of variance. (9)
dfColumns, dfRows, dfInteraction Degrees of freedom for columns, rows,
and interaction (in the factorial analysis of variance). (10)
dfTotal Total degrees of freedom over all groups. (8–10)
dfWithin Within-groups (denominator) degrees of freedom in the analy-
sis of variance. (9)
F ratio In an analysis of variance, ratio of between-groups population
variance estimate to within-groups population variance estimate. (9, 10)
GM Grand mean; mean of all scores in the analysis of variance. (9, 10)
M Mean. (2)
M1, M2, and so on Mean of the first group, second group, and so on. (8–10)
MColumn, MRow Mean of the scores in a particular column or a particu-
lar row (in the factorial analysis of variance). (10)
MSBetween Mean squares (mean of the squared deviations from the
mean) between. (9)
MSColumns, MSRows, MSInteraction Mean squares (mean of the squared
deviations from the mean) between for columns, rows, interaction (in
the factorial analysis of variance). (10)
MSError Mean squares (mean of the squared deviations from the mean)
error. (9)
MSWithin Mean squares (mean of the squared deviations from the
mean) within. (9)
n Number of scores in each group in the analysis of variance. (9)
N Number of scores overall. (2)
N1, N2 and so on Number of scores in the first group, second group,
and so on. (8–10)
NCategories Number of categories in a chi-square test for goodness of fit.
(13)
NColumns, NRows Number of columns, number of rows (in a factorial
analysis of variance and in a contingency table in a chi-square test for
independence). (10, 13)
NCells Number of cells in a factorial design. (10)
NGroups Number of groups in the analysis of variance. (9, 10)
p Probability. (3)
r Correlation coefficient. (11)
r 2 Proportionate reduction in error (proportion of variance accounted
for) in bivariate regression. (11)
R Multiple correlation coefficient. (12)
R 2 Proportionate reduction in error (proportion of variance accounted
for) in multiple regression and analysis of variance. (9, 10, 12, 15)
R 2Columns, R 2Rows, R 2Interaction Proportion of variance accounted for by
columns, rows, interaction (measure of effect size in the factorial
analysis of variance). (10)
S Unbiased estimate of the population standard deviation. (7)
S 2 Unbiased estimate of the population variance. (7)
S 21, S 22, and so on Unbiased estimate of the population variance based
on scores in the first sample, second sample, and so on. (8–10)
S 2Between Between-groups estimate of the population variance. (9)
S 2Columns, S 2Rows, S 2Interaction Estimated population variance between groups
for columns, rows, interaction (in factorial analysis of variance). (10)
SDifference Standard deviation of the distribution of differences between
means. (8)
S 2Difference Variance of the distribution of differences between means. (8)
SE Standard error (standard deviation of the distribution of means). (5)
SM Standard deviation of the distribution of means based on an esti-
mated population variance; same as standard error (SE). (7)
S 2M Variance of a distribution of means based on an estimated popu-
lation variance in a t test or as estimated from the variation among
means of groups in the analysis of variance. (7, 9)
S M1, S 2M2, and so on Variance of the distribution of means based on a
2
pooled population variance estimate, corresponding to the first sam-
ple, second sample, and so on. (8, 9)
SPooled Pooled estimate of the population standard deviation. (8)
2
S Pooled Pooled estimate of the population variance. (8)
S 2Within Within-groups estimate of the population variance. (9)
SD Standard deviation. (2)
SD 2 Variance. (2)
SS Sum of squared deviations from the mean. (9)
SSBetween Sum of squared deviations (from the mean) between groups. (9)
SSColumns, SSRows, SSInteraction Sum of squared deviations (from the
mean) between columns or rows or due to interaction (in the factorial
analysis of variance). (10)
SSError In prediction, sum of squared error when predicting from the
linear prediction rule. (12)
SSTotal Total sum of squared deviations from the mean (or from the
grand mean, in the analysis of variance). (2, 9, 10)
SSWithin Sum of squared deviations (from the mean) within groups
(or within cells). (9, 10)
t score Number of standard deviations from the mean on a t distribu-
tion. (7, 8, 11)
X Score on a particular variable; in prediction (regression), X is usually
for the predictor variable. (1, 2, 11, 12)
X1, X2, and so on First predictor variable, second predictor variable,
and so on. (12)
Y Score on a particular variable; in prediction (regression), Y is usually
for the criterion variable. (11, 12)
Yn Predicted value of criterion variable Y. (12)
Z A score’s number of standard deviations from the mean. (3)
713
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