•

Lesson Proper for Week 7

The Cognitive Self: The Self-Concept

Several nonhuman animals, including chimpanzees, orangutans, and dolphins, have at least a
primitive sense of self (Boysen & Himes, 1999). We know this information because of several
experiments that have been done with animals. In one study (Gallup, 1970), researchers painted a
red dot on the forehead of anesthetized chimpanzees and then placed the animals in a cage with a
mirror. When the chimps woke up and looked in the mirror, they touched the dot on their faces and
not the dot on the faces in the mirror. This action suggests that the chimps understood that they
were looking at themselves and not at other animals. Thus, we can assume that they can realize that
they exist as individuals. Most other animals, including dogs, cats, and monkeys, never realize that it
is they are looking at themselves in the mirror.

Infants who have similar red dots painted on their foreheads recognize themselves in a mirror in the
same way that chimps do, and they do this by approximately 18 months of age (Asendorpf,
Warkentin, & Baudonnière, 1996; Povinelli, Landau, & Perilloux, 1996). The child’s knowledge about
the self continues to develop as the child grows. By two years of age, the infant becomes aware of
his or her gender as a boy or a girl. At four years old, the child’s self-descriptions are likely to be
based on physical features, such as hair color. By approximately the age of six, the child can
understand basic emotions and the concepts of traits and can make statements such as “I am a nice
person” (Harter, 1998).

By the time children are in grade school, they have learned that they are unique individuals, and
they can think about and analyze their behavior. They also begin to show awareness of the social
situation, that is, they understand that other people are looking at and judging them in the same
way that they are looking at and judging others (Doherty, 2009).

You: Through Other’s Eyes

How do you think others see you? “I am who I am.” The self can be defined in various ways.

According to William James, who was one of the earliest psychologists to study the self, the “I” is the
thinking, acting, and feeling self; meanwhile, the “Me” is the physical characteristics and
psychological capabilities that makes who you are. Likewise, Carl Rogers and his theory of
personality used the same terms, with “I” as the one who acts and decides, and “Me” as what you
think or feel about yourself as an object.

Two types of self that we can be aware of according to Carver and Scheier:

1. the private self or your internal standards and private thoughts and feelings

2. the public self or your public image that is commonly geared toward having a good presentation
of yourself to others

Symbolic Interactionalism Theory

Theories generally see the self and identity as mental constructs, that is, created and recreated in
memory. Current studies point to the frontal lobe of the brain as the specific area in the brain that is
associated with processes concerning the self (Elmore, Oyserman, and Smith 2017, 75).

Under the theory of symbolic interactionism, the following three reasons explain why self and
identity are social products (Elmore, Oyserman, and Smitch 2012, 76):

1. we do not create ourselves out of anything;

2. whether we like to admit it or not, we need others to affirm and reinforce whom we think we are;
and

3. what we value as important to us may also have been influenced by what is important in our
social or historical context.

The Self-Concept

Although each person has a unique self-concept, we can identify several characteristics that are
common across the responses given by different people on the measure.

Physical characteristics are important components of the self-concept, and they are mentioned by
many people when they describe themselves. If you have been concerned lately that you have been
gaining weight, then you might write, “I am overweight.” If you think you are particularly good
looking (“I am attractive”) or if you think you are short (“I am short”), then those things might have
been reflected in your responses. Our physical characteristics are important to our self-concept
because we realize that other people use them to judge us. People often list the physical
characteristics that make them different from others in either positive or negative ways (e.g., “I am
blond” and “I am short”) in part because they understand that these characteristics are salient and
are likely to be used by others when judging them (McGuire, McGuire, Child, & Fujioka, 1978).

A second aspect of the self-concept that is related to personal characteristics is made up of

personality traits, that is, the specific and stable personality characteristics that describe an
individual (e.g., “I am friendly,” “I am shy,” and “I am persistent”). These individual differences are
important determinants of behavior, and this aspect of the self-concept varies among people.

The remainder of the self-concept reflects its external social components, such as memberships in
the social groups that we belong to and care about. Common responses for this component may
include “I am an artist,” “I am Jewish,” and “I am a mother, sister, and daughter.” Group memberships
form an important part of the self-concept because they provide us with our social identity, that is,
the sense of our self that involves our memberships in social groups.

Cultural differences in self-concept have even been found in people’s self-descriptions on social
networking sites. DeAndrea, Shaw, and Levine (2010) examined individuals’ free-text self-
descriptions in the About Me section in their Facebook profiles. Consistent with the researchers’
hypotheses and previous research using the TST, African American participants had the most
independently (internally) described self-concepts, and Asian Americans had the most
interdependent (external) self-descriptions, with European Americans in the middle.

The Difference between Self-Complexity and Self-Concept

Self-concept is a knowledge representation that contains knowledge about us, including our beliefs
about our personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles, as well as the
knowledge that we exist as individuals.

Self-schema refers to a long-lasting and stable set of memories that summarize a person’s beliefs,
experiences, and generalizations about the self in specific behavioral domains. A person may have a
self-schema based on any aspect of himself or herself as a person, including physical characteristics,
personality traits, and interests as long as they consider the aspect of their self-importance to their
self-definition. (Wikipedia)

One way to learn about a person’s self-concept and the many self-schemas that it contains is by
using self-report measures. One of these is a deceptively simple fill-in-the-blank measure that has
been used by many scientists to get a picture of the self-concept (Rees & Nicholson, 1994).

I am (please fill in the blank) __________________________________

I am (please fill in the blank) __________________________________

I am (please fill in the blank) __________________________________

I am (please fill in the blank) __________________________________

I am (please fill in the blank) __________________________________

Self-complexity is the extent to which individuals have many different and relatively independent
ways of thinking about themselves. Some selves are more complex than others, and these individual
differences can be important in determining psychological outcomes. Having a complex self means
that we have different ways of thinking about ourselves.

As we have seen, the self-concept is a rich and complex social representation of who we are,
encompassing both our internal characteristics and our social roles. In addition to our thoughts
about who we are right now, the self-concept also includes thoughts about our past self— our
experiences, accomplishments, and failures; and about our future self— our hopes, plans, goals,
and possibilities. (Oyserman, Bybee, Terry, & Hart-Johnson, 2004)

The multidimensional nature of our self-concept means that we need to consider each component
in isolation and their interactions with each other and their overall structure. Two particularly
important structural aspects of our self-concept are complexity and clarity. Although every human
has a complex self-concept, individual differences exist in self-complexity. Some selves are more
complex than others, and these individual differences can be important in determining
psychological outcomes.

For example, imagine a woman whose self-concept contains the social identities of a student,
girlfriend, daughter, psychology student, and tennis player and who has encountered a wide variety
of life experiences. Social psychologists would say that she has high self-complexity. Meanwhile, a
man who perceives himself primarily as either a student or as a member of the soccer team and
who has had a relatively narrow range of life experiences would be said to have low self-complexity.
For those with high self-complexity, various aspects of the self are separate because the positive and
negative thoughts about a particular self-aspect do not spill over into thoughts about other aspects.

As we may differ in the complexity of our self-concept, we may also differ in its clarity. Self-concept
clarity is the extent to which one’s self-concept is clearly and consistently defined (Campbell, 1990).
Theoretically, the concepts of complexity and clarity are independent of each other; a person can
have either a more or less complex self-concept that is either well-defined and consistent or ill-
defined and inconsistent. However, in reality, they each have similar relationships to many indices of
well-being.

Self-Awareness

Self-awareness is having a clear perception of your personality, including strengths, weaknesses,

thoughts, beliefs, motivation, and emotions. It allows you to understand other people, how they
perceive you, your attitude, and your responses to them at the moment. Similar to any other
schema, the self-concept can vary in its current cognitive accessibility. Self-awareness refers to the
extent to which we are currently fixing our attention on our self-concept. When our self-concept
becomes highly accessible because we are concerned about being observed and potentially judged
by others, we experience the publicly induced self-awareness known as self-consciousness (Duval &
Wicklund, 1972; Rochat, 2009).

Not all aspects of our self-concept are equally accessible at all times, and these long-term
differences in the accessibility of different self-schemas help create individual differences in terms
of, for instance, our current concerns and interests. You may know several people for whom the
physical appearance component of the self-concept is highly accessible. They check their hair every
time they see a mirror, worry whether their clothes are making them look good, and do a lot of
shopping for themselves. Other people are more focused on their social group memberships; for
example, they tend to think about things in terms of their role as Muslims or Christians or as
members of the local tennis or soccer team.

Deindividuation refers to the loss of individual self-awareness and individual accountability in

groups (Festinger, Pepitone, & Newcomb, 1952; Zimbardo, 1969) and becomes more attuned to
themselves as group members and to the specific social norms of the particular situation (Reicher &
Stott, 2011).

Two Kinds of Self-Awareness

1. Conceptual self-awareness – what we think about ourselves, which may include judgments,
evaluations, logical conclusions, and things that are easy to put words to.

2. Embodied self-awareness – includes registering various types of inner states. Interoception allows
us to know if we are tired or hungry, excited or in pain, and so forth. Body schema is our awareness
of different body parts and their relationship with each other and to the environment; it lets us be
aware of our movements and coordination. Embodied self-awareness also lets us know our
responses and reactions to internal and external events, such as our emotions, our impulses, our
needs, and wants. Occasionally, when we tune in to what we are experiencing inside, it is hard to
come up with words.

To illustrate the difference between these two types of awareness, refer to the following example:

First, think about your arm. For me, when I think about my arm, I notice that it is small, it is hairy, and the
flab in my upper arm jiggles slightly. I notice that I am critical of my arm. The next directive is to feel your
arm. When I switch to this mode, I almost well up in tears: my arms are connected to my heart, and I
desire to hold people—the world—in my embrace. What wonderful arms!
The Benefits of Self-Awareness

Self-awareness can keep you from doing something dangerous. It can be too much that we are
concerned about being observed and criticized by others (self-consciousness). For example, in a
large crowd, you experience deindividuation, the loss of self-awareness in groups, although this is a
matter of contention (resistance). Therefore, group identity and self-awareness have a considerable
impact on our self-esteem. One way that affects our self-esteem is through social comparison.

Social comparison theory tells us that we learn about ourselves, the appropriateness of our
behaviors, and our social status by comparing aspects of ourselves with other people.

Two Major Types of Social Comparison

1. Downward Social Comparison – comparing ourselves with others worse off than us to create a
positive self-concept and raise self-esteem.

2. Upward Social Comparison – comparing ourselves with those who are better off than us.

While it may be a form of motivation for some, many people feel low self-esteem as they highlight
more of their weaknesses or inequities. Social comparison entails self-evaluation maintenance
theory.

Self-evaluation maintenance states that we can feel threatened when someone outperforms us;
thus, we react in the following three ways:

• we distance ourselves from that person or redefine our relationship with them
• we reconsider the importance of the aspect or skill in which we were outperformed
• we strengthen our resolve to improve certain aspects of ourselves

However, to increase or maintain self-esteem, several people become narcissistic. Narcissism is a

trait that is characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration, and self-centeredness.

The Benefits of Self-Knowledge

"To know thyself is the beginning of wisdom." – Socrates

1. Happiness. You will be happier when you can express who you are. Moreover,
expressing your desires will increase the possibility that you will get what you want.
2. Better decision-making. When you know yourself, you can make better choices about
everything, from small decisions, such as which sweater you will buy, to huge
decisions, such as which partner you will spend your life with. You will have guidelines
you can apply to solve life’s varied problems.
3. Self-control. When you know yourself, you understand what motivates you to resist
bad habits and develop good ones. You will have the insight to know which values and
goals activate your willpower.
4. Resistance to social pressure. When you are grounded in your values and preferences,
you are less likely to say “yes” when you want to say “no.”
5. Tolerance and understanding of others. Your awareness of your weaknesses and
struggles can help you empathize with others.
 6. Vitality and pleasure. Being who you truly are help you feel more alive and makes your
experience of life richer, larger, and more exciting.

Building Blocks of Self: Your VITALS

V = Values. Values are guides to decision-making and motivators for goals, such as “helping others,”
“being creative,” “health,” “financial security,” and so on.

I = Interests. It includes your passions, hobbies, and anything that draws your attention over a
sustained period. To determine your interests, ask yourself the following questions: What do you
pay attention to? What are you curious about? What concerns you? The focused mental state of
being interested in something makes life vivid and may give you clues to your deepest passions.

T = Temperament. It describes your inborn preferences. Do you restore your energy from being
alone (introvert) or from being with people (extrovert)? Are you a planner or go-with-the-flow type of
person? Do you make decisions more based on feelings or thoughts and facts? Do you prefer details
or huge ideas? Knowing the answers to temperament questions can help you gravitate toward
situations in which you can flourish and avoid situations in which you can wilt.

A = Around-the-Clock Activities. This refers to when you like to do things, that is, your biorhythm. Are
you a morning person or a night person? At what time of day does your energy peak? If you
schedule activities when you are at your best, then you are respecting your innate biology.

L = Life Mission and Meaningful Goals. Ask yourself the question: “what have been the most
meaningful events of your life?” You may discover clues to your hidden identity, to your career, and
life satisfaction.

S = Strengths. It includes abilities; skills; talents; and character strengths, such as loyalty, respect for
others, love of learning, emotional intelligence, and fairness. Knowing your strengths is one of the
foundations of self-confidence; not being able to acknowledge your superpowers can lower your
self-esteem.

Reflection on the Self as Proactive and Agentic

According to Albert Bandura, agency is perceived as proactive agents of experiences. It is the

endowments, belief systems, self-regulatory capabilities, and distributed structures and functions
through which personal influence is exercised, rather than reside as a discrete entity.

Main features of human agency:

• Intentionality. It refers to the acts done intentionally. For example, I saw an old woman
who will cross the street; unfortunately, she cannot walk fast. What I did was to help her,
and my only intention is to cross her safe.
• Forethought. It enables the person to anticipate the likely consequences of prospective
actions. For example, I will clean my room not only to make it clean and comfortable but
rather to have a good ambiance for me to study. I am thinking of a good consequence
that should I do.
• Self-reactiveness. It involves making choices and choosing appropriate courses of action,
as well as motivating and regulating them. For example, I chose this course. Thus, I must
 do my obligations to study, pass, and learn from my subjects. I must be reactive toward
the things and circumstances that may happen.
• Self-reflectiveness. It gives the person the ability to reflect upon and the adequacy of his
or her thoughts and actions. For example, I did not study our lesson in Calculus, and I
got a failing grade. Essentially, I will reflect on what happened, and the best thing to do is
to do better and never let your professor or a certain subject bring you down.
 •

Lesson Proper for Week 8

Individualism versus Collectivism

Individualism stresses individual goals and the rights of the person. By contrast, collectivism
focuses on group goals, what is best for the collective group, and personal relationships.

Individualism

• Individualist is motivated by personal rewards and benefits.

• Individualist people set personal goals and objectives based on self.
• Individualistic workers are comfortable working with autonomy and not a part of a team.
• Geographic clusters of individualism may be found in Anglo countries, Germanic Europe,
and Nordic Europe.

Collectivism

• Collectivist is motivated by group goals. Long-term relationships are essential.

• Collectivistic persons readily sacrifice individual benefits or praise to recognize and
honor the team’s success. Being singled out and honored as an individual from the rest
of the group may be embarrassing to the collectivistic person.
• Geographic clusters for collectivism are often located in Arab countries, Latin America,
Confucian Asia, Southern Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.

The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts

Different cultures and varying environments carry different perceptions of the “self.” We
usually distinguish between cultures and people using the Eastern-versus-Western dichotomy,
wherein Eastern represents Asia, and Western represents Europe and Northern America. While
countries that are geographically closer to each other may share commonalities, many factors also
create differences. Since the Philippines is made of different regions, each region may have a similar
or varying perception regarding the “self.” (citation pending)

In Search of the Self: Eastern versus Western Perspectives

“I believe that if we are honest with ourselves, that the most fascinating problem in the
world is ‘Who am I?’ What do you mean, what do you feel, when you say the word I—I, myself. I don’t
think there can be any more fascinating preoccupation than that,” begins a lecture by the late British
philosopher Alan Watts, who is known for his interpretations of Eastern philosophy and mythology.
In his other lectures and many of his books, Alan Watts discussed the world’s two great myths of the
self, that I, the myth in this sense that is not used as something false but as a way of interpreting
oneself and one’s reality.
 The myth of the “world as an artifact” pervades in the West, wherein a distinction between
the creator and the created, the godhead and his creations, in the same way as a potter is distinct
from pots and a carpenter from his/her constructions. In the East, there is the myth of the world as a
drama, “in which all of the things in the world are not made, but acted, in the same way as a player
acts parts,” wherein there is no distinction made between creator and created, and the godhead is
not distinct from the creation. All that exists is a function of the same existence.

According to Alan Watts, “these are the two great images which govern respectively the
religions of the West, descending from Hebraism, that is to say, Hebraism itself, Christianity and
Islam, and on the other hand, the myth that governs those religions which have had their origins in
India, most particularly, Hinduism itself, and to a lesser extent Buddhism.” Watts quickly clarified his
statement by saying that this is how the two great myths of the self are expressed at a popular level,
that is, they are what it is like, not what it is, and that most sophisticated adherents to the particular
religions of the East or the West have a much deeper and profound understanding of themselves
and their reality.

Genealogical Self and a Confucian Way of Self-Making

In Anglo-European West and East Asia, moral philosophy starts from understanding the
self's true nature. Different conceptions of self or answers to the questions such as "what am I?" and
"how do I become myself?" often lead to varying ways of moral life to varying answers for the
question "what ought I do to live my life?"

The three main ways of understanding the relationship between myself and the
surrounding contextual others in contemporary studies of Confucianism are as follows:

1. the “universal self”

2. the “organismic self”
3. the "relational self”

All these three influential understandings of the Confucian conception of self either still stand in the
shadow of the Indo-European metaphysical traditions of self or are not sufficient to go beyond that
shadow. Thus, they may not lead us to a complete and appropriate understanding of the unique and
the true spirit of the conception of self in Confucianism.

Based on how Chinese characters get themselves generated “genealogically,” the

genealogical self is an alternative understanding of the Confucian conception of self. It is rooted
much deeper in the Chinese social, cultural, and linguistic traditions than any other three
conceptions.

Taoism: Deceptiveness of Language

Taoism shows us how language deceives us. (Ho, 1995) Centuries later, Berkeley argued
that words impede thinking. Taoism predates the philosophy of linguistic analysis of the 20th
century. The Tao De Ching (Classic of the Way and of Potency, Graham, 1989) begins by asserting the
following:
The Way that can be ‘Way’-ed

Is not the constant Way.

The name that can be named

Is not the constant name. (p. 219)

The Tao is timeless and all-encompassing yet nameless and indescribable. Any
representation of the Tao through language is false, that is, “the knower does not say, the sayer
does not know” (Ho, 1995) (Tao De Ching, see Graham, 1989, p. 220). “This presents an
insurmountable predicament to Taoists; it places them in the awkward position of being unable ever
to articulate what the Tao is.” (Ho, 1995) However, being mystics, “Taoists are not troubled by this
predicament. The point they make is the need to be mindful of the limitation inherent in language.
Chuang-tzu’s witty aphorisms, anecdotes, and arguments are particularly forceful in inducing
skepticism about whether any utterance makes sense at all.” (Ho, 1995)

“Taoism itself is the embodiment of paradoxes and contradictions. The sage acts without
action, and the ruler rules without governing.” (Ho, 1995) An intelligent person is similar to a small
child. “Things are relative yet identical because the Tao is unitary. Being and nonbeing produce each
other; each derives its meaning from the coexistence of the other. Taoism predates Derrida’s (1978)
critique of logocentrism and his deconstructive aim to undo the notions of identity and hierarchy
fundamental to Western thought (cf. Graham, 1989; Sampson, 1989).” (Ho, 1995)

Buddhism

Buddhism has evolved into many sects in other great traditions, each of which, with its
school of thought departing in various ways, occasionally radically, from its founder Gautama's
teachings. Making the diagnosis that holds onto the illusion of individual selfhood is the source of
suffering. Buddhism provides a prescription for enlightenment. Self-renunciation holds the key to
salvation. Given that life is viewed as intrinsically futile, the goal is deliverance from the self and “not
from worldly sufferings due to social conditions.” (Ho, 1995) Nirvana, which is the ideal to be
attained, “is a state of transcendence devoid of self-reference. Buddhism has worked out an
elaborate system of practice to enable one to attain transcendence. Meditation is an instrumentality
central to this system.” (Ho, 1995)

Hinduism

“In Hinduism, the conception of selfhood is strongly informed by monistic metaphysics. This
conception is elaborated in Vedanta, which is one of the major orthodox systems of Indian
philosophical thought.” (Ho, 1995)

The Social Construction of the Self in Western Thought

• Plato was one of the first philosophers to state that the soul is eternal (H, 2017); thus, a
man's soul makes up his enduring self because the soul continues to exist even after
death.
 • Rene Descartes stated that “thinking is an attribute of the soul” and that “the continuity
of his thinking mind is what makes him remain the same person.” In other words, our
consciousness is a result of our “soul” or “enduring self.” He believed that if he cannot
think, then he cannot exist. Thus, thinking in and of itself is what constitutes a self.
• John Locke said that the self is a person’s memory. In other words, our memory allows
us to identify ourselves, and the process of identifying ourselves enables us to formulate
the idea of a self.

West

The eternal reality of the universal truth is self-liberation by getting rid of the false “Me”
and discovering the true “Me.”

• Regarding the lifestyle. Western influence developed early independence. Self-expression

is given freely. You are responsible for yourself and must live on your own. One’s own
goals take priority as motivated by “I-dominated” materialistic preferences, needs, and
rights.
• Regarding relationships. Tasks are more important than relationships. Cognitive skills are
independent of social skills. Concepts such as arranged marriages are not expected.
They go for unions based on love as they believe in the idea that love comes before
marriage.
• How is a child taken care of? The overriding goal of the parents is to make the child
independent and “self-reliant.” Babies are bundles of potential, and a good parent is one
who can uncover the latent abilities and talents in their child and encourage the good
while discouraging the bad.
• How does senior life look like? An elder is given preference over the family. Thus, he is
flexible and free to make decisions on his own.
• On education. Western educational systems focus on theideas of creativity. The system
means that numerous things are bound together, but it still does its best to elevate
individual ways to deal with various students. Western education moves further and
aims to transform students into undeniable members of the training procedure. They
are urged to make inquiries and think critically.
• Leadership. It is informal and egalitarian, believing that all people are equal and deserve
equal rights and opportunities (source: Oxford Languages).
• On Leadership. People are the most comfortable with their social equals because the
importance of social rankings is minimized. Hands-on; walking ahead of people; speech
is golden. “Leadership is done from in front. Never ask others to do what you, if challenged,
would not be willing to do yourself.” – Xenophon. In terms of evolution and improvement,
hence has a goal. Development stops when the goal is reached.
• Regarding beauty. Men are more attracted to women with tanned, copper skin with
mature features. Meanwhile, women are attracted to muscular guys—however,
personality-wise, women like sassy, witty, strong, and real men.
Confucianism: Concept of Religion and Spirituality

“According to Confucians, spiritual development comes after physical, emotional, and

mental development. One must first learn to know, respect, and honor oneself as one goes about
daily business. As Confucius said, “if you don't know how to live as a person, how can you serve the
spirit?” (Confucian Analects, Confucius 1971 [500 B.C.E.]).” (JRank, n.d.)

Concept of Jen as a loving relationship. Jen is a proper relationship between two parties,
that is, “a loving and caring relationship to reach humanity. Meditation is considered a cornerstone
to search for self, find the truth, and achieve individual and collective goals.” (JRank, n.d.)

Concept of harmony. “A central feature of Confucianism is harmony between people and

their environment, nature, or Tao. The Tao Chi (Yin-Yang diagram) is an example of the value of
harmony with the environment. It is also applied to the concept of health for energy (qi/chi), balance
for disease prevention, healing, and the development of human potential. Meditation is a way of
managing energy that is applied to reach physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual harmony for
individual holistic health.” (JRank, n.d.)

This core value of Confucianism had positive and negative effects on Chinese history; it
became detrimental to women and children. Contemporary Confucians recommended family
conflict resolution as a solution to this problem. “Younger generations are not allowed to express
their opinions before their elders. According to social standards, women and children who have
been abused are still expected to be submissive. Social workers and helping professionals must
understand the hidden cultural dynamics to deal with the root philosophies and beliefs as they help
people.” (JRank, n.d.)

Family conflict resolution. “According to Yin Yang theory from the Tai Chi diagram,
contemporary Confucians, such as Douglas K. Chung (1993a), recommended the family conflict
resolution model. It is an example of an innovation of Confucianism in redefining the image of Tao
through daily practice. In the model, any system’s solutions to conflict resolutions and goals for
development aim to integrate love (Jen), justice, freedom, and fidelity (the image of Tao) in the
dynamics. This approach aims to fulfill human needs (love). Justice is seen by the end of the cycle
under perfectly equal treatment. Freedom is practiced by volunteer choice and participation in
negotiation and compromise, that is, the flexibility of mean line and the possibility of forming new
systems. Faithfulness is reached by the stability, repeatability, and accountability of leadership
and/or revealed by natural laws. Therefore, role equity and change in the role are the core
implications of Yin-Yang theory.” (JRank, n.d.)

Humanistic Psychology

Between the 1930s and 1970s, the “cognitive revolution” replaced B.F. Skinner’s radical
behaviorism is the reigning psychological paradigm. Cognitive psychology is the study of mental
processes such as “attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and
thinking.” (Wikipedia, 2020) Humanistic psychology rose into prominence in response to the
limitations of Freudian psychoanalysis theory that is seen as unscientific and Skinner’s narrowly
reductionist behaviorism.
 Abraham Maslow’s book Motivation and Personality (1954) started a philosophical revolution
that grew humanistic psychology. It changed the view of human nature from a pessimistic view that
a man is a conditioned organism to a more positive perspective. A man is motivated to realize his
full potential. This phenomenon is reflected in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and his theory of self-
actualization. Maslow saw “self-actualization” as the desire for the self-fulfillment of capability or
potential or motivation for constant betterment.

“Theory of the Universe – (humanism or secularism as opposed to the supernatural)

Confucius cared about humans, that is, the human condition and not metaphysics (grand theories of
the universe.) Confucius said, ‘worry about humans, not gods; worry about life, not death.’ He
emphasized that good government would promote social harmony and general well-being
(Confucius is primarily a political thinker).” (Messerly, 2014)

Confucius remains metaphysical when he says that morality is embedded in the universe
and within humans. The essence of morality is a concern with the general welfare. Plato, Aristotle,
Locke, and Hobbes, and American Presidents Jefferson, FDR, LBJ, Jimmy Carter, etc., shared this view.
Such concern is out of fashion with large parts of American politics today. Confucius claimed
that the decree of heaven would not support rulers who rule for their benefit instead of the
general welfare.

“Another metaphysical concept in Confucian thinking is the idea that several things are
beyond our control—they are the result of destiny. Confucius talked as if destiny is a design of the
heavens that is beyond human understanding. Humans can conform to the decree of heaven if they
choose by promoting the general welfare, but our destiny is beyond our understanding and control.
Humans should follow the decree of heaven by being unconcerned with wealth, status, longevity,
etc.” (Messerly, 2014)

The Tao is the way of the sages, essentially the way that previous good rulers followed the
decree of heaven and endorsed the common good, thereby promoting social cohesion.

“Theory of Human Nature – Confucius was optimistic about human potential; he wanted
people to be sages or wise persons who instantiate the goodness of the heavens within them. This is
accomplished by being benevolent. The result of being moral, essentially benevolent, is joy.”
(Messerly, 2014)

Confucius was not clear on why few people become wise, benevolent sages, but he
suggested that it may be because we freely choose not to be good. He also thought
that our environment plays a significant role in shaping us. Thus, we need to be molded to achieve
moral perfection that is “molded especially by a culture and a social system conducive to our moral
development.” (Messerly, 2014)

Diagnosis – “Social discord is ‘caused by selfishness and ignorance of the past.

Consequently, human interaction is marred by strife, rulers govern with attention only to personal
gain, common people suffer under unjust burdens, and social behavior in general is determined by
egoism and greed.’” (Messerly, 2014) Why is life so bad? According to Confucius, it is because of 1)
profit motive, 2) lack of respect for parents, 3) lying, 4) ignorance of the past and 5) minimal
benevolence.

Prescription – Confucius prescribed self-discipline for individuals and rulers to cure the ills
of society. “In other words, society will be better when the people who make it up are better. This
approach provides answers to the five problems listed above.” (Messerly, 2014)
 • “Do what is right because it isright and not for profit. By struggling to be moral, we align
ourselves with the decree of heaven, with something similar to the natural order. We
also shield ourselves against disappointment because we care about moral virtue”
(Messerly, 2014) instead of things we cannot be assured of achieving, such as fame and
fortune. Moral excellence is its reward, whether we are recognized for it or not. It
encourages us to keep working for righteousness in the world, although no one
appreciates you for it. If we are motivated by what is right, we will find joy in our efforts,
although we do not fully succeed. Thus, destiny plays a role in human life. However,
moral excellence is within our control, and we should struggle to attain it through self-
discipline. We should cultivate self and not social recognition, fame, or fortune.
• Cultivatingself implies that you will be a better family member. “Being a good family
member reverberates through society. A person who is good to their parents and
siblings and children will be good to others as well.” (Messerly, 2014) The transformation
of the self and benevolence begins in the family and spreads outward.
• About lying, Confucius said that we need word and deed to conform; in other words,
actions should reflect words. If we all lie, then trust will disappear. “Words are easy to
produce; if a person or government uses them to conceal the truth, then social chaos
ensues. Trust is a critical ingredient of all dependable social interaction.” (Messerly, 2014)
• “The answer toignorance of the past is education, study, and scholarship.” (Messerly,
2014) The most important thing for Confucius is the study of the cultural legacy of our
past to revealing how moral perfection can be achieved. “Such education is also crucial
for good government.” (Messerly, 2014) Only after one received good education should
one be allowed to be a leader.

Benevolence refers to kindness, goodwill, charity, compassion, generosity, and philanthropy. It “is
the primary means of moral perfection. For Confucius, the process of becoming benevolent involves
three elements, that is, a) clinging to benevolence at all times, b) treating others as you would like to
be treated and not doing to others what you do” (Messerly, 2014) not want to be done to you, and c)
habituating action according to moral rules that we learn from studying the classics. Benevolence is
achieved by acting following “the moral rules we learn by studying, which is to live according to the
way of the heavens.” (Messerly, 2014)
 •

Lesson Proper for Week 9

The Biological Self

According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, the biological notion of Self and non-self
defines the characteristics of identity that distinguish individual organisms from similar kinds.

Three (3) Categories of the Biological Self:

1. Physical self
2. Biological Blueprint
3. Heredity

"Physical Self refers to the body, this marvelous container, and complex, finely tuned, a machine with
which we interface with our environment and fellow beings. The Physical Self is the concrete dimension,
the tangible aspect of the person that can be directly observed and examined." The Physical Self is
categorized into two types: Physical features - face, body structure, height, weight, and fitness (crucial
aspects), and Physical Components - physical competencies, evaluation of physical worth, and perception
of beauty. "Scientifically, however, this important aspect of our Self seems to have lost somewhere
between the Eastern detachment and Western narcissism, so much so that sufficient theoretical
development on this issue is lacking. However, directly or indirectly, the discussion on Physical Self has
found a place in various schools of psychology like psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanism, etc. with
some of its most ardent exponents and followers dealing with the issue in varying proportions." (Singh,
n.d.)

Physical Self-esteem is a person's evaluation of their physical self, including evaluations of physical
appearance and physical competencies, also known as Physical Self - worth.

Physical beauty is the degree to which a person's physical traits are considered pleasing or beautiful.
It is a combination of qualities, such as shape, color, or form, that pleases the aesthetic senses,
especially the sight of people.

Three Qualities of Beauty

- Genetics - how we actually look

- Health and Grooming- how we take care of ourselves

- Positive Self-Regard- how we feel about how we look

"Perception surrounds beauty, and body types not only vary by culture but have evolved significantly
throughout history up until today, in which society' standard of beauty sets women's ideal body
types." (The Physical and Sexual Self.pdf)

The Biological Blueprint is a dynamic biological and chemical process that contributes to physical
features. It is the Physiological processes that trigger bodily changes and sustain survival. It also
shows genetic transformation and biological development embodied in heredity that triggers
physical characteristics.

"DNA is the "genetic blueprint" that determines each organism's genotypic makeup. In its purest form, DNA
consists of two strings of nucleotides, or bases (abbreviated A, C, G, and T), wound around each other. The
bases composing DNA have specific binding capabilities: A always binds to T, and C always binds to G.
These binding capabilities are useful for scientists to understand since, if the nucleotide sequence of one
DNA strand is determined, the complementary binding allows the sequence of another strand to be
deduced. In the case of humans, DNA is organized into 24 structural units called chromosomes. Each
chromosome consists of compacted coils of DNA. While much of this DNA has no known function (these
stretches of DNA are conveniently referred to as spacer DNA or junk DNA), a significant portion of the DNA
codes for genes. Each gene provides the information necessary to produce a protein, which is responsible
for carrying out cellular functions. The complement of proteins in an organism is very important, with
diseases often manifesting when a protein does not function properly." (GENOME PROJECTS:
UNCOVERING THE BLUEPRINTS OF BIOLOGY)

Heredity

"It is defined by vocabulary.com that heredity is the biological process responsible for passing on physical
traits from one generation to another. If your mom and dad both have dreamy blue eyes, and so do you,
then you have got hereditary to thank for your movie-star gaze." (heredity - Dictionary Definition, n.d.)

What is a gene?

"Genes play an important role in determining physical traits - how we look and lots of other stuff about us.
They carry information that makes you who you are and what you look like: curly or straight hair, long or
short legs, even how you might smile or laugh. Many of these things are passed from one generation to the
next in a family by genes. Each cell in the human body contains about 25,000 to 35,000 genes. Where are
these important genes? Well, they are so small you cannot see them. Genes are found on tiny spaghetti-like
structures called Chromosomes. They come in matching sets of two (or pairs), and there are hundreds -
sometimes thousands - of genes in just one chromosome. The chromosomes and genes are made of DNA,
which is short for deoxyribonucleic acid." (Nemours KidsHealth, n.d.)
What is Maturation?

"Maturation is the development of the individual through growth processes. It is controlled by internal
biological factors. Maturation means the ordinary development of growth and aging. It occurs naturally
without any conscious effort on the part of the individual." (What is the meaning of maturation in
psychology?, n.d.)

"Sexual maturation is a process that extends from the early embryonic differentiation of the sexual organs
to full maturity of these organs and fertility. Puberty is a transitional period between childhood and
adulthood during which the sex organs and the reproductive system mature and the growth spurt takes
place. Major psychological, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional changes also occur during
puberty." (Beunen, Rogol, & Mal, 2006)

SEXUAL SELF

This is a part of yourself where you learn and understand your sexual development and how
people's sexual activity, beliefs, misconceptions, and unlimited access from the internet on sex can
influence your sexual behavior and responses.

Sexual Development is a lifelong process that starts at the moment of conception (Tsiaras, 2016). It
is a part of human development.

3 Reasons Why an Individual's Sex Is Important in Life-long Development

1. Develop attitude and behavior patterns

2. Learning Experience

3. Parent's attitudes and significant others

The Human Productive System

Sex is not only for reproduction; it helps strengthen relationships, encourages a man to stick around
to take care of his child, and affects not only health but well-being. (Tsiaras, 2006)

Female Reproductive System

- Ovaries - 400,000 eggs

- Ovum -100,000 times larger than the sperm cell

- X chromosome

- Puberty - 8-13 y/o (menarche)

Male Reproductive System

- Testes -200M sperm cells

- X or Y chromosomes

- Puberty - 10-15 y/o

- Hormones are constantly active

Human Sexual Response

- Androgens, Estrogens, Progesterone

- Sexual motivation - refers to the libido, a person's overall sexual drive or desire for sexual
activity.

The Cycles of the Human Sexual Response

1. Excitement (desire/arousal) - a sudden increase in blood pressure, pulse, and

increased blood supply to the surface of the body resulting in increased temperature
2. Plateau may feel physical and emotional excitement and have physical sensations of
sensitivity, warmth, and even appear flushed.
3. Orgasm - is a feeling of intense pleasure that happens during sexual activity. It's
sometimes called coming or climaxing. (What is an orgasm? , n.d.)
4. Resolution - the body slowly returns to its normal functioning level and swelled, and
erect body parts return to their previous size and color.

(Sexual Response Cycle: Learn About the Phases of Sex, n.d.)

5 Circles of Sexuality

1. Sensuality - awareness, and feelings about your own body and other people's body.
2. Sexual Intimacy - the ability to be emotionally close to another human being and
accept closeness in return.
3. Sexual Identity - a person's understanding of who he/she is sexual, including the sense
of being male and/or female.
4. Reproduction and Sexual Health - a person's capacity to reproduce and the behaviors
and attitudes that make sexual relationships healthy and enjoyable.
5. Sexualization - aspect of sexuality in which people behave sexually to influence,
manipulate, or control other people - "shadowy" side of human sexuality

The Diversity of Human Sexuality

● Gender Bias - means holding stereotyped opinions about people according to their gender.

● Sexual Orientation - an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction to men,
women, or both sexes. It refers to a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related
behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions.

(INTERVIEW: THE LGBT COMMUNITY IN TANZANIA, n.d.) (What Is Sexual Orientation?,

n.d.) (Essentials of Psych DOUBLE Jeopardy Jeopardy Template, n.d.)

The Diversity of Sexual Behavior

Sexual behavior transcends in different forms. It may be influenced by the basic psychological
aspect of sexuality and expectations, attitudes, beliefs, and state of medical and biological
knowledge. Heterosexuality - it is the sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex. More
than male-female intercourse, it involves kissing, petting, caressing, massaging, and other sexual
activities.

Homosexuality and Bisexuality

“Homosexuality is a romantic and/or sexual attraction between members of the same

sex.” (Chapter_7_-_Sexual_Self_with_Gender_and_sexuality_(1).pdf, n.d.) Bisexuals are those who can
be romantically or sexually attracted to the same sex and the other sex. Some male homosexuals
prefer the term "gay," and some female homosexuals prefer the term "Lesbian."

Transsexuality

These are people who believe that they were born with the body of the other gender. Transsexuals
sometimes seek sex-change operations, which undergo several steps such as intensive sexual
counseling, hormone injections, living as a member of desired sex for several years, surgery.

NATURAL & ARTIFICIAL METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION

Natural Contraception

This is a classification of birth control types that depend on observations on a woman's body
through monitoring and recording different fertility signals during her menstrual cycle. Though there
are different methods, one may predict when a woman will be more likely to get pregnant. Natural
contraceptives may be through abstinence, calendar method, symptothermal method, ovulation
detection, lactation amenorrhea method, and coitus interrupt us. (Chapter_7_-
_Sexual_Self_with_Gender_and_sexuality_(1).pdf, n.d.)
Artificial Methods

Artificial methods are diverse methods of contraception to prevent a woman's conception. Artificial
contraception depends on the individual's health status, age, sexual activity, and/or the number of
sexual partners. Samples of artificial methods are oral contraceptives, transdermal patch, vaginal
ring, subdermal implants, hormonal injection, intrauterine device (IUD), chemical barriers,
diaphragm and cervical cap, male and female condoms, etc.
Sexual Disorders

- Paraphilia is a frequent, intense, sexually arousing fantasies or behaviors that involve inanimate
objects, children, or non-consenting adults, or suffering or humiliation of oneself or the partner.
- Paraphilic Disorders are paraphilics that cause distress or cause problems functioning in the
person with the paraphilia or that harm or may harm another person. Most people with paraphilia
are men, and many have more than one type of paraphilia. Some of them also have severe
personality disorders, such as antisocial personality disorder or narcissistic personality
disorder. (Paraphilias and Paraphilic Disorders, n.d.) (Brawn, 2019)

Common Paraphilic Disorders

- Pedophilic disorder - characterized by recurring, intense sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or

behavior involving children (usually 13 years old or younger).

- Voyeurism - involves becoming sexually aroused by watching an unsuspecting person how is

disrobing, naked, or engaged in sexual activity. Voyeuristic behavior involves acting on voyeuristic
urges or fantasies and feeling distressed by or unable to function because of those urges and
fantasies. (Paraphilic Disorders - DSM-5, n.d.)

- Transvestism - involves recurrent, intense sexual arousal from cross dressing. Transvestic
disorder is transvestism that causes significant distress or substantially interferes with daily
functioning.

- Exhibitionism - involves exposing the genitals to become sexually excited or having a strong
desire to be observed by other people during sexual activity. Exhibitionistic urges or fantasies or
being distressed by or unable to function because of those urges and fantasies. (The psychology
behind public masturbation and indecent exposure, 2018)

- Sexual Masochism - involves acts in which a person experiences sexual excitement from being
humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise abused. Sexual masocthat causes significant distress or
substantially interferes with daily functioning.

Sexual Sadism - involves acts in which a person experiences sexual excitement from inflicting
physical or psychological suffering on another person. Sexual sadism disorder causes significant
distress, substantially interferes with daily functioning, harms another person, or involves someone
who has not given consent.
 •

Lesson Proper for Week 10

TO BUY OR NOT TO BUY? THAT IS THE QUESTION!

William James – a psychologist and philosopher who had a significant influence on the
development of psychology in the United States

– the father of American psychology

– the first to teach a psychology course in the U.S.

THREE COMPONENTS OF THE EMPIRICAL SELF

William James used the term “the empirical self” to refer to how people answer the question “Who
am I”? His analysis is broad. James grouped various components of the empirical self into three
subcategories, that is, (a) the material self, (b) the social self, and (c) the spiritual self. (University of
Washington, n.d.)

1. “Material Self refers to tangible objects, people, or places that carry the designation “my” or
“mine.” Two subclasses of the material self can be distinguished” (University of Washington, n.d.),
that is, the bodily self and extracorporeal (beyond the body) self. Rosenberg (1979) referred to the
extracorporeal self as the extended self.

“People’s emotional responses to their possessions also attest to their importance to the self. A person who
loses a wallet often feels greater anguish over a lost photograph than over any money that is missing.
Similarly, many car owners react with extreme anger when their cars are damaged, even when the
damage is only slight in physical terms. Finally, many people who lose possessions in a natural disaster go
through a grieving process similar to the process people go through when they lose a person they
love.” (McLeod, 1984 cited in Belk, 1988).

Material Self Investment Diagram

· Body. For James, it is the core of the material self. It is the innermost part of our material self.
We are directly attached to this commodity that we cannot live without. We strive hard to make sure
that these body functions are well and good. Intentionally, we are investing in our bodies. Any
ailment and disorder directly affect us. Some people get certain body parts insured. For example,
Mariah Carey used 1 billion USD to insure her vocal cords and legs. David Beckham also used 70
million USD to insure his legs.

Rudolf Hermann Lotze – a German philosopher and logician. He had a medical degree and was
well versed in biology. He argued that if the physical world is governed by mechanical laws, then
relations and developments in the universe can be explained as the functioning of a world mind.

· Clothes – William James believed that clothing is an essential part of the material self. He
believed a person’s clothes are one way they express who they feel they are. Clothes are a way to
show status, thereby forming and maintaining one’s self-image. In his book, Microcosmus, Lotze
stipulated that “anytime we bring into the surface of our body, we invest that object into the
consciousness of our existence taking in its contours to be our own and making it part of the self.”

The fabric and style of the clothes we wear bring sensations to the body, directly affecting our
attitudes and behavior. Thus, clothes are placed in the second hierarchy of material self. Clothing is
a form of self-expression. We choose and wear clothes that are a reflection of our self.

· Immediate family – It includes our parents, siblings, and other family members. We view
them as parts of ourselves. According to the Business Dictionary, your immediate family includes
spouse, parents, grandparents, children (adopted, half, and stepchildren are generally included in
the definition), grandchildren, siblings, and in-laws (mother, father, brother, sister, daughter, and
son). (What Is Considered Immediate Family?, n.d.)

Immediate and other family members can be determined using the following two ways:

o Relation by blood – This means they share the same lineage or parent, such as siblings, children,
or grandchildren.
o Relation by marriage – This means they share a common bond through the marriage of one
member of each family, such as with in-laws or stepchildren. (What Is Considered Immediate
Family?, n.d.)

· Home – Home is where our heart is. It is the earliest nest of our selfhood. The home is an
extension of self because, in it, we can directly connect ourselves.

1. Social self refers to how we are regarded and recognized by others. James’s analysis of the
social self was broad. “James went on to make an additional point about these social selves. He
posited an instinctive drive to be noticed and recognized by others.” (University of Washington, n.d.)
James argued that we affiliate not because we like company, but because we crave recognition and
status. Building on James’s analysis, modern researchers proposed that we also possess a relational
self, which is self-defined in terms of specific interpersonal relationships. The relational self includes
all “individuals we regard as “ours,” such as our parents, siblings, romantic partners, close friends,
and colleagues.” (Andersen & Chen, 2002; Chen, Boucher, & Tapias, 2006)

Social Comparison Theory

“Social comparison theory proposes that we use social comparisons to construct our self-concept,
especially when we have no other objective standard available to us (Festinger, 1954). How do you know if
you are shy, competitive, rich, anxious, or anything else? These subjective ideas only become meaningful in
comparison to others. For example, if you are walking alone on the beach, then you may not even be
thinking about your physical appearance. However, when someone much more attractive than you walks
by, the unflattering social comparison can deliver a small shock to your previously contented self-concept
(Bachman & O’Malley, 1986; Marsh, Köller, & Baumert, 2001).“ (The Social Self)

Two Types of Social Comparison:

· Upward Social Comparisons – “we compare ourselves to someone better than us. This type of
comparison can be useful when we want to improve on a particular skill. Most people who like to watch
cooking shows with celebrity chefs enjoy getting tips on how to make their food taste or look better. The
same is true for people who get ideas about home decorating from Martha Stewart or by reading
magazines with ideas, or when athletes learn from coaches. However, constantly comparing ourselves to
people who have excelled can lead to frustration or even depression.” (The Social Self) Why cannot my
cupcakes look as good as the ones on Pinterest?

· Downward Social Comparisons – when we compare ourselves to someone worse than we are.
This might not help us improve, but it makes us feels better. For example, my cupcakes may not win
any cupcake reality show contest, but it is better than the cupcake my daughter tried to make. My
tennis skills may not be on a professional level, but I am better than the guy in the next court who
cannot hit a single ball over the net. (The Social Self)
How do we know the self is social?

1. “Self-perception theory notes that when we form impressions of others, we do so by observing their
behavior and then making guesses about those people’s values, opinions, and so on. The theory suggests
that we form our self-concept in the same way; we observe our behavior and form our self-concept by
inferring what our values, opinions, and so forth are based on our behavior.

2. Self-discrepancy theory is the idea that instead of one single self-concept, we have three self-concepts.
Our actual self is our perception of who we are right now, while our ideal self is the person we would like
to be. Finally, our ought self is the self-concept we have that reflects what we think other people in our
social world expect of us. The self-discrepancy theory hypothesizes that when our actual self and ideal self
do not match, we will feel dejection-related emotions, such as disappointment and shame. Meanwhile,
when our actual self and ought self do not match, we feel agitation-related emotions, such as guilt or
anxiety.

3. Self-expansion theory suggests that we all want to grow and improve over time, reaching the best
possible self-concept. One way to “expand” our self-concept is to include other people into our cognitive
view of self, which provides us access to other people’s skills, memories, perspectives, and so on. A
measure of the degree to which we have included someone else into our self-concept is called
the Inclusion of the Other in the Self scale, which asks people to choose one pair of overlapping circles
out of seven choices. The choices show the progressive degrees of overlap with one circle labeled “self” and
the second circle labeled ‘other.’” (The Social Self)

2. Spiritual Self – “is our inner self or our psychological self. It is comprised of our self-perceived
abilities, attitudes, emotions, interests, values, motives, opinions, traits, and wishes. Many aspects of the
spiritual self are evaluative. People think of themselves as attractive or unattractive, intelligent or
unintelligent, and honest or dishonest.” (University of Washington, n.d.)

James claimed that the spiritual self is the most intimate version of self because of the satisfaction
experienced when one thinks of one’s “ability to argue and discriminate, of our [one’s] moral
sensibility, and conscience, of our indomitable will” (James 1890, 164) is purer than other sentiments
of satisfaction. Then, James described several bodily processes in which becoming introspective can
make the acts entirely mindful, conscious processes, thereby providing further insight into an
intimate, spiritual self.

“James concluded that our possessions, which are aspects of the material self, and our emotions,
attitudes, and beliefs, which are components of the spiritual self, are closely related. As Abelson (1986)
observed, this similarity is captured in our language. A person is said to have a belief from the time the
belief is first acquired to the time it is discarded or lost. We also say things like “I inherited a view” or “I
cannot buy that!” Finally, we speak of people who have abandoned their convictions or disowned an
earlier position. These terms imply that possessions and attitudes share an underlying conceptual
property: they are both owned by the self (see Gilovich, 1991; Heider, 1958 for an elaboration of this view).
Our tendency to treat our opinions as possessions can create interpersonal difficulties. When people find
themselves in a disagreement, they often react as if they are being personally attacked, instead of simply
acknowledging that different people have varying perspectives (De Dreu & van Knippenberg, 2005). In turn,
this perception leads them to become belligerent and uncompromising. Mediators are often needed to
broker solutions, in part, because they are not invested in holding one view or the other.” (University of
Washington, n.d.)
Lesson Proper for Week 11

SUPERNATURAL: BELIEVE IT OR NOT

The spiritual self will be cohesive in its belief and practices that one’s belief is echoed by one’s act.

The spiritual self is one of the four constituents of the “self,” according to William James in his
book The Principles of Psychology in 1890. The spiritual self is the most intimate and inner subjective
part of the self because the satisfaction experienced when one is thinking of one’s ability to argue
and discriminate one’s moral sensibility and conscience is purer than all other sentiments of
satisfaction. The ability to use moral sensibility and conscience may be seen through the
expressions of religion, that is, its beliefs and practices. In the same manner, cultural rituals and
ceremonies are several manifestations of what people believe in. Seeking the meaning of life is a
journey that the spiritual and self are on.

Religion – an organized group that believes and performs the same religious and spirituals.
Rebecca Stein (2011) defined religion as a set of cultural beliefs and practices that generally includes
some or all of the following characteristics.

Characteristics of Religion:

• belief in an anthropomorphic supernatural being, such as spirit and gods;

• focus on the sacred supernatural; sacred refers to a feeling of reverence and awe;
• “presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural being and
physical beings and objects;”
• “performance of ritual activities that involves the manipulation of a sacred object to
communicate to supernatural beings and/or to influence or control events;”
• articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and other means; and
• provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social control
within a community and an explanation for the unknown and a sense of control for
individuals.

(SlideShare, n.d.)

Ritual – is the performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by a tradition or sacred law

(Brittanica, 2017). It is a specific, observable mode of behavior exhibited by all known societies.

Three characteristics of ritual:

1. feeling of respect and fascination relative to sacredness;

2. dependence upon belief expressed in myth; and
 3. symbolic relationship with the reference.

The self can be described as a ritual being who exhibits a striking parallel between their
verbal behavior. Like languages, as symbols based upon rules, the ritual may be viewed as a system
of the symbol.

Some World Religious Beliefs and Practices

Different religions with varying beliefs and practices exist. Some of the major religions are
Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism. Excerpt of practices and beliefs from the
University of London’s Religion and Belief Guide 2017.

1. Buddhism – is a religion that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in

India.

• Beliefs
• Life is composed of sufferings, pain, and frustrations.
• Reactive cycle: wanting and halting, like and dislike, craving and aversion
• Meditation to break the cycle

• History
• Born from a noble family, a king and a queen (Nepal)
• Mother has a dream
• Made four trips at the age of 29
• Found enlightenment during meditation in a fig tree at Gaya for 49 days

• Noble Truths
• Dukkha – the truth of suffering
• Samudaya – the truth of the cause of suffering
• Niroda – the truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering

• Dharma Wheel/Darmachakra – a widespread symbol of the Noble Eightfold Path or

the Middle Way
The eight items in the Dharma wheel symbolize the Noble Eightfold Path

• Custom and Practices

Two Types of Meditation Practices

1. Samatha: mindfulness of breathing and development of loving-kindness

2. Vipassana: practices aim at developing insight into reality. Acquiring wisdom is by
studying Buddha’s teachings, that is, the Dharma. Through the reflection of the
Dharma, Buddhists can achieve a deeper understanding of life. Buddhists believe in
the nonviolence principle.

• Some of the Buddhist celebrations

• Parinirvana Day in February
• Buddha day (Wesak) in May
• Dharma Day in July
• Padmasambhava Day in October
• Sangha day in November

2. Christianity – a religion that is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ.

• Beliefs
• Christians believe in Trinitarian God, that is, one God with three persons: God the Father
(Creator), God the Son (Savior), and God the Holy Spirit (Sustainer). Eternal life after
death will be achieved through faith in Jesus Christ.
• Jesus Christ is God the Son who came into flesh to spread the Good News of salvation.
He died on the cross for the sin of humanity but resurrected from death so that anyone
who will believe will be saved and have eternal life.
• The Holy Bible is the selection of books that is divided into two, that is, the Old and New
Testaments.

• Customs and Practices

• Christians practice sacraments of baptism and communion. The sacraments of baptism
symbolizes the birth in the Christian world, while the sacrament of communion is the act
of remembering Jesus’s sacrificial love.
• Christmas and resurrection (Easter) are two major celebrations in Christianity. Christmas
is held on December 25 to commemorate the birth of Jesus Christ, while resurrection
(Easter Sunday depends on the lunar calendar) celebrates the resurrection of Jesus
Christ from death.

3. Hinduism – the main religion of India that includes the worship of many gods; it
believes that after you die, you return to life in a different form. (Merriam-Webster,
Incorporated, n.d.)

• Beliefs
• Hinduism covers a wide range of traditional beliefs and religious groups; thus, there is
no single founder or leader. Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death, and
rebirth as governed by Karma.
• Karma is a concept where the reincarnated life will depend on how the past life is spent.
Hindus believe that the soul passes through the cycle of successive lives, and its next
incarnation is always dependent on how the previous life was lived. (BBC, n.d.)
• Mahabharata and Ramayana are the two important texts of the Hindus.
• Vedas are the sacred scriptures of Hindus.

• Customs and Practices

• Diwali and Navrati are the most celebrated festivals of the Hindus. Diwali is a festival of
lights, while Navrati is a nine-night festival celebrating the triumph of good over evil.

4. Islam – teaches there is only one God and Muhammad is God’s prophet.

• Beliefs
• Muslims believe in Allah, who is their “One God.” They believe in the unity and
universality of God.
 • Muslims have a strong sense of community or “ummah” and awareness of solidarity
with all Muslims worldwide. It means “willing submission to God.”
• Muslims believe that Mohammed is the last and final prophet sent by God. Mohammed
was born in Mecca in 570 CE (Common Era) and received revelations from God through
Angel Gabriel for 23 years. (SlideShare, n.d.)
• Quran is the Holy Book of Israel as taught to be recited in Arabic because any translation
is seen as inadequate.

• Custom and Practices

Five Pillars of Islam (the foundation of Muslim life):

1. Shahadah – statement of faith, “there is no God, but one true God and the
Mohammed is his messenger of Allah.”
2. Salat – the ritual prayer that is practiced five times a day in a set form
3. Zakat – monetary offering for the benefit of the poor. It comprises 2.5% of Muslim
assets.
4. Hajj – the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims who can afford are asked to do it once
in a lifetime.
5. Sawm – the fasting during the month of Ramadan. Muslims fast from eating food,
drinking fluids, and performing sexual acts from dawn to sunset during the
celebration of Ramadan. Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar.

(SlideShare, n.d.)

Two of the Major Festivals in Islam

1. Eidul-Fitr is the celebration at the end of Ramadan.

2. Eidul-Adha is celebrated with the completion of the Hajj (pilgrimage).

5. Judaism – the religion developed among the ancient Hebrews that stresses belief in
God and faithfulness to the laws of the Torah. (geoalliance.asu.edu, n.d.)

• Beliefs
• The Jews believe in the coming of the Messiah, the Savior.
• The sacred scriptures of Jews are called Torah, or the Law, and serve as the guide of the
Jewish living. The study and interpretation of the Torah are part of Jewish culture.

• Custom and Practices

Five major festivals:

1. Rosh Hashanah – the New Year

2. Yom Kippur – the Day of Atonement
3. Pesach – Passover
4. Shavuot – Pentecost
5. Sukkot – Tabernacles

The Jewish Sabbath begins on Friday evening at sunset and is an important time when families
gather for a Sabbath meal.

Cult of Death. The members of Peoples Temple at Jones Town, Guyana committed mass
suicide after the American Preacher Jim Jones has ordered them to drink poison. Over 900 people
were killed during this event in November 1978.

Animism – a belief that inanimate objects, such as trees, plants, sun, and sea or all of them at
the same time, may be worshipped. This was the belief in the Philippines before the Spaniards
came.

In the Philippines

• Hanging coffins in Sagada along the mountain’s crevices would bring the dead closer to
gods.
• Spiritual or faith healers – alternative healing but occasionally the main go-to of Filipinos.
They use the spirits to diagnose and cure the sick.
• Tawo of Bicol. They are invisible creatures that are thought to cause a wide range of
illnesses and can only communicate with faith healers or albukaru.
• Belief in supernatural beings – Aswang, mangkukulam, tikbalang, tiktik, kapre, duwende,
etc.

However, it is not unusual to see people with strong faith adhering to superstitious beliefs.
Our spiritual beliefs affect our decision politically and economically. Example: RH bill – the Catholic
Church is a strong critic of this bill.

The Practice of Religion

1. Worship 7. Celebration
2. Rites 8. Meditation
3. Rituals 9. Dances
4. Sacrifices 10. Matrimonial
5. Fiestas 11. Funeral
12. Baptism
6. Trances

These acts become religious when they are considered sacred by the practitioners, depending on
their belief. Ex: Wine, incense, flowers

• Article 33 of the Revised Penal Code – One can be imprisoned for committing the
crime of offending religious feelings.

The Concept of Dungan

The concept strips man of everything, the body and all the physical faculties, and the only
thing left would be his soul.

In Hinduism, the atman is the universal, eternal self. The cycle of death and rebirth continues
until the time the soul has attained its karmic perfection and becomes one with brahman, which is
the ultimate reality (permanent home).

In Islam, the soul exists simultaneously as the body, but it will survive bodily death, which will
then have a life of its own.

In ethnic groups (animism), our soul can exist outside the body in dreams or visions (e.g.,
ghosts). It may also reincarnate in the next life in another form, such as humans, animals, or plants.

For Babaylan, the Dungan, a companion that coexists, gives life, animation, and sensibilities,
dwells inside a person’s body. It can temporarily leave the body during sleep.

In indigenous concepts, the soul is a separate entity. It is the life force, energy, an ethereal
entity, and a spirit with a will of its own that resides in the human body and provides the essence of
life.

Rituals and Ceremonies

Archeologists have found that rituals existing 100,000 years ago, acknowledging that all
known communities have their rituals and some form of religion. The main benefit of religion is the
promotion of cooperation as an effective social mechanism. Rituals or patterned behavior are forms
of communication that signify a commitment to their group members. It is done publicly as it is the
manifestation of the belief, values, and basic ideals. It also gives assurance that the person will do
their fair share of the “work.” This creates a deeper bonding with other members and the
community. Examples include fasting of Muslims, Jews standing under the scorching sun, etc. When
members make sacrifices, it means that people are able to achieve the higher demands of religion.
The higher demands of religion, the higher the commitment should be. The higher the commitment
is, the greater the cooperation among people.

Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft

Magic refers to methods that somehow interface with the supernatural and by which people
can bring about particular outcomes. For Edward Tyler, magic is not part of the religion because it
does not involve spirits. For James Frazer, magic is the initial step before it becomes a religion, which
will evolve into science. For Emile Durkheim, a religious ritual involves the community, while magic
gravitates to the needs and wants of an individual only.

How does magic affect our spiritual self?

Victor Frankl is a psychiatrist who was imprisoned for three years in a concentration camp
during World War II. He wrote a book entitled “Man’s Search for Meaning,” where he discussed
logotherapy (ways in finding the meaning of life). This varies from time to time and from person to
person. (Shafier, 2011)

Finding and Creating Meaning of Life

Logotherapy is the man’s primary motivational force to search for the meaning of life,
whatever the situation is. In logotherapy, meaning can be discovered by creating a work or doing a
deed, experiencing someone’s attitude toward unavoidable suffering. According to Victor Frankl,
logotherapy uses the philosophy of optimism in the face of tragedy where people can turn suffering
into human achievement and accomplishment, derive from guilt the opportunity to change oneself
for the better, and derived from a life of incentive to take responsible action.

Basic Concepts of Franklian Psychology:

1. Life has meaning under all circumstances.

2. The main motivation for living is our will to find the meaning of life.
3. Freedom to find meaning.

Franklian Psychology aims to:

1. be aware of spiritual resources

2. be conscious of spiritual resources
3. use the “defiant power of the human spirit” and stand up against adversity

Logotherapy Assumption
Philosophical assumption about a person:

1. A human is an entity consisting of body, mind, and spirit.

2. Life has meaning under certain circumstances, even the most miserable.
3. People have a will to meaning.
4. People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to find meaning.
5. Life has a demanding quality to which people must respond if decisions are to be
meaningful.

(Psychology Benefits Society, 2017)

Frankl Purposive Sources of Meaning:

1. Purposive work. To find the meaning of life starts with holding a future goal.
2. Courage in the face of difficulty
3. Love is the only way to grasp another human being in the innermost core of his
personality.

Definition of Terms

• Belief – It sets the foundation for one’s action and not readily recognizable.
• Practice – It is the action that manifests the belief of the person and is observable.
• Prayer – It is a general practice in almost all religions.