Fasteners

Steel Structures Prof. Dr. Namık Kemal ÖZTORUN, Res. Assist.
Ezgi ÖZTORUN, 2015, Page 1/34

( FASTENERS: Rivets, Bolts, Welding )
FASTENED CONNECTIONS:
The purpose of fasteners is to transmit the stresses from a structural member to another safely,
and so to cause the member act as a whole. There are many types of fasteners available to the
designer. In the selection of a specific type the designer should consider the following:
[1]
Steel Structures Prof. Dr. Namık Kemal ÖZTORUN, Res. Assist. Ezgi ÖZTORUN, 2015, Page 2/34
a-) Connection strength required,

b-) Space limitations of the connection,
c-) Available work force to fabricate and erect the structure,
d-) Service conditions,
e-) Total cost of installation.
The behavior and the characteristics of connections with rivets and bolts are generally similar
and therefore similar analyses and design considerations can be used for all of these fasteners.
In this book, the term "fastener" will be used to indicate both types.
I. RIVETS:
A piece of ductile round steel bar forged in place joining several pieces of steel is called a
rivet. Rivets are manufactured with a special head and installed using a riveting hammer
which forms another head at the other end. Rivet heads are usually round in shape (Figure
1.a), called button heads; but if clearance requirements dictate, the head can be flattened
(Figure 1.b) or even countersunk and chipped flush (Figure 1.c). The countersunk and
chipped-flush rivets do not have a head large enough to develop full strength, and they are
also more expensive than the button head type. So they should not be used unless absolutely
necessary. . Rivets which have semispherical heads shall be used in general, and countersunk
types in special cases. The requirements for button head rivets and rivets which are
countersunk and chipped flush are given in TS94Rivets shall satisfy the requirements of
TS94.
b-) Countersunk and chipped

a-) Rivet b-) Flattened head
flush
Figure 1: Types of rivets
Most of the time rivets are heated to ease the driving process. Rivets heated before driving are
called hot-driven rivets. As a hot-driven rivet cools, it tends to shrink in size both lengthwise
and diametrically. Shrinking in length is largely prevented by the plates, thus producing
[2]
tension in the shank of the rivets and compression between the plates which sets up frictional
resistance to sliding.
To be able to insert the rivet into the rivet hole the rivet diameter is usually taken 1 mm.
smaller than the nominal hole diameter. Figure 2 shows the essential steps in riveting. Recall
that, in net section calculations, rivet hole diameter is taken 1 mm larger than the nominal
hole diameter. That means, rivet hole diameter is actually 2 mm. large than rivet shank
diameter.
a-) Riveting hammer
b-) Button head rivet

c-) Driven rivet
d rivet diameter, d’ hole diameter
Figure 2: Essential steps in riveting
Steels used in manufacture of rivets have to be very ductile. Therefore, for ST37 construction
ST34 and for ST52 construction ST44 steel are used. Although the tensile strengths of rivet
steels are less than those of the material that they are connecting, heating and driving together
with air cooling increase the strengths of rivets. Properly driven rivets must be tight and grip
the connected parts securely. Their head must be full size, neatly formed, and concentric with
shank. Loose or defective rivets can be detected by tapping them with a light hammer and
[3]
noting the sound or "ring" of the metal under the blow. Defective rivets, loose or cock-headed
ones, must be drilled out and replaced.
Drilling shall be used for fastener holes. Punching is allowed only if
a-) There are static loads acting on the structure,

b-) The steel used is either ST33 or ST37,
c-) Thickness of the member is less than 10 mm.,
d-) Hole diameter is about 2/3 of plate thickness.
Punched hole shall be perfectly cylinder and normal to the material surface. The holes on the
structural elements to be connected shall be aligned properly. In case of minor misalignments
the holes shall be enlarged rather than having inclined fasteners.
I.1-) Rivet length:

The length L of a rivet (Figure 1.a) is calculated by using the following formulas:
4
L  s     d (For machine-driven rivets) ------------------------------------------------ .1
3
7
L  s     d (For hand-driven rivets) ---------------------------------------------------- .2
5
Where;
d : Rivet diameter
s . Total thickness of the parts to be connected.
I.2-) Rivet diameter:

Following formula may be used to determine the suitable rivet shank diameter d on the basis
of minimum thickness, t, of the stress transmitting parts to be connected:
d  50  t  2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .3
Here, both t and d are in mm. In table 1 the recommended rivet diameters for various plate
thickness are given.
Table 1: Recommended rivet diameters for various plate thicknesses
Plate thickness t
4≤t<6 6≤t<8 8 ≤ t < 12 12 ≤ t < 18 18 ≤
(mm)
Rivet diameter d
12 16 20 24 27
(mm)
[4]
I.3-) Fastener spacing:

Minimum and maximum spacing between fasteners are often prescribed in specifications.
Minimum spacing is specified in order to:
a-) Ease fastener driving,

b-) Reduce stress concentrations,
c-) Limit to reduction of strength due to fastener holes.
Maximum spacing is also specified to prevent:
a-) Corrosion in between the fastener plates,

b-) Buckling of the members between the fasteners.
In steel structures there are two types of fasteners:
a-) Load carrying fasteners,

b-) Fasteners that hold the individual segments together (stitch fasteners)
Different spacing limitations are given for different types of fasteners. Before spacing and
edge distances can be discussed it is necessary for a few notations and terms to be explained,
referring to Figure 3.
Figure 3: Spacing and edge distances of fasteners
The fastener hole diameter and the minimum plate thickness are denoted by d1 and tmin,
respectively. "Pitch" e is the center-to-center distance of fasteners in a direction parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the member. "Gage" g is the center-to-center distance of fastener lines
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member. In Turkish practice g is taken to be
between 3d1 and 3.5d1. Most rolled shapes have standard location for the fastener gage lines.
Usual gage lines are given in profile tables with their detailing dimensions. The edge distance
e1, parallel to the load, is the distance from the center of a fastener to the adjacent edge of a
member. The other edge distance e2 is the distance to the edge also, but now measured in the
direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
[5]
In Table 2, minimum and maximum spacings are given for load carrying fasteners used in
building as specified by TS648. According to TS648, in hot-rolled shapes, for the stiffened
edge (e2)max may be taken as 9tmin as shown in Figure 4 and Table 4
Figure 4: Edge distance for stiffened edges (TS648)
Table 2: Minimum and maximum spacing for load carrying fasteners

Spacing Minimum spacing Maximum spacing
e 3∙d1 8∙d1 or 15∙tmin
e1 2∙d1 3∙d1 or 6∙tmin
e2 1.5∙d1 3∙d1 or 6∙tmin
From the practical point of view only maximum spacings for stitch fasteners are important as
shown in Table 3
Table 3: Minimum spacing for stitch fasteners used in buildings

Spacing Compression members Tension members
e 8∙d1 or 15∙tmin 12∙d1 or 25∙tmin
e1 3∙d1 or 6∙tmin 3∙d1 or 6∙tmin
e2 3∙d1 or 6∙tmin 3∙d1 or 6∙tmin
In general, minimum spacings are used in load transmitting fastened connections, because, by
doing so,
a-) Maximum friction is obtained,

b-) Gusset plate sizes are minimized,
c-) Secondary stresses are reduced.
[6]
The necessary spacing and the edge distances for rivet and bolt holes are shown in Table 4
Distances shall be measured from the centers of the holes and the symbols have the following
meanings:
d: Diameter of the hole.

t: Thickness of the thinnest piece.
For the values in Table 4 which are given both for d and t, the smaller value shall be taken
into account.
Spacing in interior rows may be taken as twice the spacing in the exterior row in large
elements with more than two rows of connections if the spacing in the exterior row is in
accordance with Table 4
Table-4: Distances of the rivets and bolts from the edges and hole distances
Distances from edge
1 Parallel to force 2d
Minimum distance from edge
2 Perpendicular to force 1.5d
Maximum distance from edge 3 In both directions 3d or 6t

Note for case 3: In struts and profiles, on the strengthened edge 9t can be taken instead of 6t.
(See figure).
Distance between holes
Minimum hole interval 1 3d

Load transferring rivets and bolts
including those on the heavily loaded
eaves
2 8d or 15t
Maximum hole interval Stitch rivets and bolts, used to strengthen
the web and compression struts which are
not transferring loads.
3 Stitch rivets and bolts for tension struts. 12d or 25t
Note for Case 3: This hole is also applicable for the flanges of plate girders and for load
transferring rivets or bolts with low stresses.
[7]
I.4-) Rivet weight:

Normally, the weight of the button-headed rivets is calculated for 100 rivets as G100:
  d2
G100  785  L   G R .H ------------------------------------------------------------------ .4
4
Where;
L : Rivet length (mm).

d : Rivet shank diameter (mm).
G R .H : Total weight of rivet heads for 100 rivets (Kgf).
Total values for G R .H are given in Table 5.
Table 5: Total weight of rivet heads for 100 rivets (Kgf).

d (mm) 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 27 30
Weight (Kgf) 0.61 0.97 1.60 2.38 3.48 5.07 6.69 9.58 11.6 16.2
The weight of counter-sunk heads is approximately 4/9 of the values given in Table 5.
I.5-) Modes of failure in fastened connections:

As following modes of failure are observed in fastened connections as shown in Figure 5:
a-) Shear failure across one cross-sections of the fastener,

b-) Shear failure across two or more cross-sections of the fastener,
c-) Bearing failure of the fastener,
d-) Bending failure of the fastener,
e-) Shear out failure of the plate,
f-) Bearing failure of the plate,
g-) Tension failure of plate,
h-) Tension failure of the fastener.
Normally minimum edge distance limitation prevents shear-out failure, so the shear-out
stresses are not calculated. Tension failure is prevented by using net cross-sectional area in
design of tension member. Therefore, in fastener design only shear, bearing and tensile
stresses should be checked.
[8]
a-) Failure by shearing of fastener b-) Double shear failure of a butt joint
c-) Bearing failure of fastener d-) Bending failure of fastener
e-) Shear-out failure of plate behind fastener f-) Bearing failure of plate
g-) Tension failure of plate h-) Tension failure of fastener
Figure 5: Types of fastened connection failures
[9]
I.6-) Types of fastened connections:

Fastened connection can be classified on the basis of the mode of the load transmission by the
fasteners. Fasteners may be subjected to shear or tension depending on this mode. If the load
is transmitted through bearing between plate and the shank, producing shear in the fastener,
the fastener, the fastener is said to be in shear. If the load is transmitted through bearing
between the plate and the head of the fastener, the fastener will undergo tension. When the
load is transmitted by shear in only one section in the fastener, the connection is called a "Lap
Joint" (Figure 6.a). At a lap joint fastener is in single shear. In the lap joint, there is an
eccentricity of load as the center of gravity of stress in one member is not in line with the
center of gravity of stress in the other member. A couple is present which causes a bending in
the connection. The lap joint should be designed with at least two fasteners in a line to
minimize the possibility of a bending failure. Indeed, TS648 requires that there be at least two
fasteners at any connection.
a-) Fastener in multiple shear b-) Fastener in tension
c-) Lap joint, fastener in single shear d-) Butt joint, fastener in double shear
Figure 6: Types of fastener connections
If the fastener connects three member, then the joint is called a "Butt Joint" (Figure 6.d); and
the fastener is said to be in double shear. The butt joint is more desirable than the lap joint for
the following reasons:
a-) The shearing force on each plane of a butt joint is only about one-half of what it would
be on a single plane if a lap joint were used.
[ 10 ]
b-) Since a more symmetrical loading condition is provided, the bending described for a
lap joint is reduced or even eliminated.
Occasionally, the load on the fastener may be transmitted by shear in more than two planes, as
shown in Figure 6.c. On such a connection, the fastener is said to be in multiple shear.
Finally, Figure 6.b shows a connection in which the fasteners are in tension. This type of
direct-load connection is rare in conventional structures because of the fear that the fastener
heads might be pulled off. If the members being connected are not fairly stiff. Some prying
action will occur which will increase the tension in the fasteners. On direct-load connections
with fasteners in tension, bolts should be used instead of rivets.
Another way of classifying fastened connections is according to the location of the resultant
force with respect to the centroid of the fastener group. In this case, following groups can be
named as shown in Figure 7.
a-) Direct-load connection: Resulting force passes through the centroid of the fastener
cross-sectional areas.
b-) Eccentric-load connection: The load does not pass through the centroid of the fastener
group.
c-) Pure moment connection: The load transmitted consist of a pure torque or moment.
d-) Shear and moment connection: The fasteners are both in shear and tension due to
moment transmitted through the joint.
I.7-) Design assumptions and allowable stresses:

Nominal stresses in fasteners are defined as the total load coming to the fastener divided by
the area involved in a particular type of failure. They differ from the real stresses because of
the following assumptions:
a-) The frictional resistance to slip between the plates is neglected.

b-) Deformation of plates under load is neglected.
c-) Tensile stress concentrations due to fastener holes in the plates are neglected.
d-) Shearing stress in the fasteners is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the rivet
cross-section.
e-) Bending of fasteners is neglected.
f-) Bearing stress between fasteners and plates is assumed to be uniformly distributed
over the nominal contact surface between fasteners and plates.
g-) If there is more than one fastener row on the connection, during the elastic
deformation of the joint, the end rows tend to take more than the average load per
fastener. However, this is neglected in the stress analysis, provided that the number of
fastener rows does not exceed five.
The allowable stresses for rivets as specified by TS648 and DIN1050 are given in Table 6.
As seen in the table, these allowable stresses are quite low, but, in fact, these stresses are not
the actual stresses but only nominal stresses to serve as empirical guides in design.
[ 11 ]
Table 6: Allowable stresses for rivets according to TS648 and DIN1050 (Kgf/cm2)
Shear em or all s Bearing ez or  all b Tension çem or all t
Loading EY EIY EY EIY EY EIY
Rivet steel ST34 1400 1600 2800 3200 480 540
Rivet steel ST44 2100 2400 4200 4800 720 810
a-) Direct-load connection b-) Eccentric-load connection
c-) Pure moment connection d-) Shear and moment connection
Figure 7: Types of fastened connections

(Shear and moment, eccentric load, axial load and pure moment connections)
[ 12 ]
I.8-) Design considerations:

The factors determining the strength of a fastener are its diameter and the thickness and
arrangement of the pieces being connected. The allowable load per fastener can be determined
as follows:
a-) For lap joints:
If the shearing stress governs, then


N em   d 2  em , ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ .5
4
If the bearing stress governs, then
Nez  d  t min  ez . ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ .6
b-) For Butt joints:
If the shearing stress governs, then


N em  2   d 2  em , --------------------------------------------------------------------------- .7
4
If the bearing stress governs, then
Nez  d  t min  ez . ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ .8
Here, t min is equal to t or t ' , whichever is smaller. The plate thicknesses t and t ' are defined
in Figure 8. Here, the smaller of N em and N ez should be used as the allowable load for
fastener. In formulas given above:
d : Fastener shank diameter,

em : Allowable shearing stress, em or all s
ez : Allowable shearing stress, ez or  all b
Figure 8: But joint with different plate thicknesses
[ 13 ]
In strength analysis of fasteners, here in this book it is decided to use the fastener shank
diameter as seen in Equation 5 and Equation 8. TS648 does not mention whether hole
diameter d1 or shank diameter d should be used in the equations. In some cases, DIN1050
allows the hole diameter to be used. To be consistent in the example problems to be
presented, in this work always shank diameter shall be used for strength calculations.
However, in net area calculations recall that hole diameters are used and that rivet hole
diameter is taken as 2 mm. larger than the rivet shank diameter and bolt hole diameter is 1
mm. larger than the bolt shank diameter.
In lap joint for a fastener to have equal strength in shear and bearing, the following equality
must hold:
 2
 d  em  d  t min  ez ----------------------------------------------------------------------- .9
4
Since for buildings, ez  2  em , one obtains
d  2.55  t min ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .10
For equal strength. This diameter is sometimes referred to as the most economical diameter of
the fastener for the thickness of materials involved. For d  2.55  t min the fastener should be
designed for shear; otherwise, for bearing.
In a butt joint, the shank diameter of fastener, whose shearing strength equals their bearing
strength is
d  1.275  t min ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .11
In practice d  2  t min , consequently, in general, bearing is critical for butt joints and shear
governs the design of lap joint rivets.
[ 14 ]
II. BOLTS:
Bolts are short pieces of round steel bars with generally a hexagonal head at one end and a
threaded portion at the other. Nuts are used to secure the bolt in place. For a better distribution
of pressure and keeping the threaded part outside the grip, washers are used between the nut
and the plate. Washers sometimes may be used at both ends. Atypical bolt assembly is shown
in Figure 9.
Figure 9: A bolt assembly
II.1-) Types of bolts:

There are several types of bolts which can be used for connecting structural steel members.
These include unfinished bolts, turned bolts, ribbed bolts, and high- strength bolts. Design
calculations for the first three of these types are much the same as for rivets although the
allowable stresses may be different. However, for high-strength bolts there are a few
differences which will be discussed later. Firstly, a few comments are presented about various
types of bolts.
a-) Unfinished bolts (Black bolts):
These bolts are made from 4D low carbon steel which corresponds to A307 steel in the US
designation. They are sometimes called common, machine or rough bolts and they generally
come with square heads and nuts. As they have relatively large tolerances in shank and thread
dimensions their allowable stresses are appreciably smaller than those for rivets and other
types of bolts. The unfinished bolts are primarily used in light structures subjected to static
loads and for secondary members. Design procedures for unfinished bolts are the same as
those for rivets. The requirements for unfinished bolts are given in TS80. Unfinished bolts to
be used in steel structures shall satisfy the requirements of TS80. Unfinished bolts shall not be
[ 15 ]
assumed to act together with rivets and turned bolts. Washers shall be used under the nuts of
all bolts which transmit a load to prevent the extension of the threaded part into the hole.
These washers shall be in accordance with TS79. The length of the unthreaded parts of a bolt
shall at least be equal to the sum of the thickness of the elements to be connected. If the
surface on which the bolt head or the nut rest are sloped, special bevelled washers shall be
placed under the nuts or bolt heads. Precautions shall be ensured to prevent the loosening of
the nuts in structures which are for the most part under the effects of dynamic loads.
b-) Turned bolts:
These bolts are made from 4D low carbon steel for ST37 structures and 5D steel for ST52
structures. They have a precise circular shank. For bolts 20 to 30 mm. diameter, holes with
maximum 0.3 mm. oversize shall be used. For smaller sizes difference between hole and bolt
diameters is smaller. Turned bolts which are used in steel structures are those whose shanks
are thoroughly turned so that they fill the hole as much as possible. If the bolts are assumed to
act together with rivets on the same splice, only turned bolts may be used.
c-) Ribbed bolts:
They have standard rivet heads and raised fins or ribs spaced evenly around their shank. The
ribs cut groves into the connected members insuring tight fits but making the bolts rather
difficult to install.
d-) High strength bolts:
High strength bolts shall be used in steel structures with the permission of the design
supervising authority. Principles of design for high strength bolts shall be determined in
cooperation with the supervising authority. These bolts are made from 10K and sometimes 8G
steel. In the US they are designated by ASTM as A325 and A490 bolts. They are heavy
hexagon-head bolts used with heavy semi-finished hexagon nuts. They are tightened to
develop high tensile stress in them which results in a predictable clamping force on the
connection. This permits loads to be transferred primarily by friction. TS648 allows the use of
high-strength bolts; however, this requires special analysis. In case such bolts are used, the
bearing strength of the structural steel used shall not be less than the shearing strength of the
bolt.
e-) Interference bolts:
This type of bolts is a recent addition to the bolt family. They are made in accordance with the
high strength bolt specifications, but are also of the ribbed type. Their installation with
ordinary spud wrenches is permitted.
II.2-) Advantages of high-strength bolts:

High-strength bolts are rapidly replacing rivets. Some of the advantages of these bolts are
given below:
[ 16 ]
a-) Smaller and relatively less skilled crews of men are involved as compared to riveting.
b-) Inspection procedures in bolted connections are not difficult, while they are in riveted
connections.
c-) In comparison to rivets, fewer bolts are needed to provide the same strength.
d-) Noise in bolting is almost negligible as compared to that in riveting.
e-) Relatively inexpensive equipment is used to make bolted connections.
f-) No fire hazard and no danger are present as from the tossing of hot rivets.
g-) The bolted joints have a higher fatigue strength.
h-) Bolts can be removed very easily, wherever structures are to be altered.
Since the use of high-strength bolts provides all the advantages of rivets while not incurring
any of the disadvantages, rivets are obsolete.
II.3-) Installation of high-strength bolts:

High-strength bolts are placed in holes 1 mm. larger in diameter than the bolts and they are
usually tightened to a minimum tension equal to the proof load of the bolt. The proof load
corresponds to the proportional or elastic limit and equals approximately 70% of the ultimate
tensile strength of A325 bolts. For A490 bolts, the proof load is nearly 80% of the ultimate
tensile strength. The primary requirement when installing high-strength bolts is to provide a
sufficient pretension force (proof load). The AISC code requires a pretension equal to 70% of
minimum tensile strength. There are two general methods of developing the required
pretension (proof load).
a-) Calibrated wrench method: This method includes the use of manual torque wrenches
and/or impact wrenches. The bolts are tightened by using a calibrating device and their
tensions read. The impact wrenches are set to stall at the torque producing the desired tension.
b-) "Turn-of-nut" method: Nuts are spun on until they are snug. The snug point corresponds to
the tightening a man can achieve with his full strength with a spud wrench. From the snug
point the nuts are turned from 1/2 to2/3 turns, depending on the lengths and diameters of the
bolts.
The turn-of-nut method is the cheapest, more reliable, and generally the preferred method.
II.4-) Allowable stress and design considerations:
Allowable shear, bearing and tensile stresses permitted in the unfinished, turned and
anchorage bolts by TS648 are presented in Table 7.
Allowable stresses for high-strength bolts are not included in TS648, for this reason, as far as
high-strength bolts are concerned, one has to refer either to the American specifications or to
the German specifications.
Since high-strength bolts provide high and dependable amounts of clamping, it is reasonable
to assume that the loads in a bolted joint are transferred by both friction and shear.
Accordingly, the AISC provides for two categories of high-strength bolted joints, the friction-
type and the bearing-type; and it presents two allowable shearing stresses. For the friction-
[ 17 ]
type connections there is a high factor of safety against slippage, and for the bearing-type
connections this factor of safety is substantially reduced. Therefore, the allowable shearing
stresses for bearing-type connections are equal to or larger than those for friction-type
connections. This shows that it is the bearing-type connection which makes use of the high
strength bolts of these bolts and gives the best economy.
TABLE 7: Allowable stresses specified by TS648 and DIN1050 for bolts

used in buildings (Kgf/cm2)
ST52 or 5D ST38 or 4D ST38 or 4D
Anchorage
Turned Bolts Turned Bolts Unfinished Bolts
Bolts
(For ST52) (For ST37) (Black Bolts)
Loading EY EIY EY EIY EY EIY EY EIY
Shear em or alls 2100 2400 1400 1600 1120 1260 - -
Bearing ez or  all b 4200 4800 2800 3200 2400 2700 - -
Tensile çem or all t 1500 1500 1120 1120 1120 1120 1120 1120
For high-strength bolts the German Codes specify allowable loads rather than allowable
stresses. Allowable load for 8G steel is 70% of that 10K steel. Tension can be 80% of the
proof load; however, the total tension on a joint should be less than or equal to 60%of sum of
the proof loads there. Table 8 gives the proof loads and the allowable loads for high-strength
bolts recommended DIN.
TABLE 8: Proof loads and allowable loads for high-strength bolts according
to DIN (Tons)
Proof load ST37 ST52
(Tons) EY EIY EY EIY
M12 5.2 1.85 2.15 2.50 2.85
M16 9.9 3.55 4.05 4.75 5.40
M20 15.5 5.60 6.35 7.45 8.45
M22 19.2 6.90 7.85 9.20 10.45
M24 22.1 7.95 9.05 10.60 12.05
M27 29.2 10.70 11.95 14.00 15.90
[ 18 ]
III. DESIGN OF FASTENED CONNECTIONS:

In this section, design procedures for various types of riveted and bolted connections are
presented. Unless indicated otherwise, the design methods are the same for both riveted and
bolted connections.
III.1-) Direct shear connections:

When the line of action of the load coincides with the center of gravity of the fastener shear
areas, the connection is said to be a direct shear connection. The following procedure is
suggested for the design of such connections:
a-) Make a general layout of the connection and determine plate thicknesses and fastener
sizes. These are often governed by considerations of the structure as a whole.
b-) Compute the fastener value (= allowable force for one fastener) whether governed by
shear or bearing.
c-) Compute number of fasteners required as the total load divided by the fastener value.
d-) Space fasteners properly. For economy and compactness of the connection, it is
necessary to space fasteners as close as possible. This also reduces the additional
material required for connection.
e-) Check net section. If net section is not adequate, plate thickness may be increased or
the fasteners may be rearranged so as to increase net section.
f-) Check fasteners for spacing limitations.
III.2-) Pure moment connections-fasteners in shear:

Consider the transmission of a pure moment T through a fastened connection with fasteners in
shear as shown in Figure 10. The following assumption are made:
a-) Plates are rigid.
b-) Fasteners are perfectly elastic.
c-) Friction between plates is neglected.
d-) Shearing deformation in the fasteners are proportional to and normal to the radius
from the center of rotation.
The applied moment T will produce a slight relative rotation d between the plates about a
center 0. Then the displacement at fastener i is:
 i  ri d ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .12
Where ri is the distance from the fastener to the center of rotation O. The shear stress i is
proportional to ri , and it is given by the following formula:
Ni
i   k  ri ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .13
Fi
Where N i is the shear force at the ith fastener, Fi is its cross-sectional area, and k is a
constant. N i is perpendicular to ri . The x and y components of N i are
[ 19 ]
a-) Applied moment b-) Free body diagram of a fastener
Figure 10: Moment connection, fasteners in shear
yi y
N ix  N i   k  ri  Fi  i  k  Fi  y i ------------------------------------------------------- .14
ri ri
x x
N iy  N i  i  k  ri  Fi  i  k  Fi  x i ------------------------------------------------------- .15
ri ri
The equation of equilibrium for the fastener group can be obtained as follows:
N ix   k  yi  Fi  0 , --------------------------------------------------------------------- .16.a
y F i i
 0 .------------------------------------------------------------------------ .16.b
N iy   k  x i  Fi  0 , --------------------------------------------------------------------- .17.a
x i  Fi  0 .------------------------------------------------------------------------ .17.b
Equation 16 and Equation 17 indicate that the center of rotation O has to coincide with the
centroid of the fastener group.
To determine the constant k, note that the moment to be transmitted must be balanced by
resisting moment of the fasteners. From Figure 10:
T   Ni  ri   Nix yi   Niy x i ,
[ 20 ]
T T
k  ,-------------------------------------------------------------- .18
 Fi  ( x i  y i )  Fi  ri
2 2 2
Defining,
J   Fi  ( x i  yi )   Fi  ri , --------------------------------------------------------------- .19
2 2 2
One obtains,
T
k , ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .20
J
Following equations can be written using Equations 13-15 as:
T  ri T  yi T  xi
Ni   Fi , N ix   Fi , N iy   Fi , -------------------------------------- .21
J J J
If all fasteners have the same cross-sectional area, as it is in many practical cases, then
T T
k  2 ,--------------------------------------------------------------- .22
F   ( x i  yi ) F   ri
2 2
Where F is the cross-sectional area of one fastener. Defining
J   ( x i  yi )   ri , ----------------------------------------------------------------------- .23
2 2 2
And using Equation 22
T
k ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .24
FJ
Where J is the polar moment of inertia of the fastener group. In terms of J, the shear force at
the ith fastener and its components are given below:
T T T
Ni   ri , Nix   yi , Niy   x i , ------------------------------------------------- .25
J J J
And finally,
Ni  N ix  N yi ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- .26
2 2
III.3-) Eccentric load connection-fasteners in shear:

An eccentric force at a connection can be reduced to a moment about the centroid of the
fastener group and a shear force passing through the centroid, as shown in Figure 11. Here,
the moment T is
[ 21 ]
T  Py  x 0  Px  y 0 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- .27
a-) Applied force b-) Equivalent force components
Figure 11: An eccentric load condition
Defining
N'İ  Shear in ith fastener due to direct load,

N' 'İ  Shear in ith fastener due to moment,
Ni  Resultant shear in ith fastener,
Then the following formulas are obtained:
Px Py
N 'ix   Fi , N 'iy   Fi , --------------------------------------------------------- .28
 Fi  Fi
T  yi T  xi
N ' 'ix   Fi , N ' 'iy   Fi , ------------------------------------------------------ .29
J J
Where J is defined by Equation 19. The x and y components of the total shear force acting in
the ith fastener are
Nix  N'ix  N' 'ix , Niy  N'iy  N' 'iy , --------------------------------------------------- .30
Finally, adding these vectorially gives the total shear force in the fastener:
Ni  Nix  Niy ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- .31

2 2
[ 22 ]
If all fasteners are of the same cross-sectional area, then Equation 28 and Equation 29 take the
following form
Px Py
N 'ix  , N'iy  , ----------------------------------------------------------------- .32
n n
T T
N' 'ix   yi , N' 'iy   x i , ------------------------------------------------------------- .33
J J
Where n is the number of fasteners on the connection and J is defined by Equation 23.
The AISC Recommendations

The procedure described above gives conservative results. The AISC recommendations (not a
specification) given its manual is to use a reduced effective eccentricity of load in accordance
with the following:
a-) The fasteners equally spaced on a single gage line:
For the kind of connection shown in Figure 12.a The AISC recommends that a reduced
effective eccentricity e eff be used which is given by the following formula
1  2n
e eff  e  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .34
4
Where n is the number of fasteners in one line.
b-) The fasteners equally spaced on two or more gage lines:
This kind of connection is shown in Figure 12.b. The effective eccentricity is
1 n
e eff  e  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .35
2
These AISC recommendation should be used for shear connections involving no more than
four gage lines and a maximum of about 10 fasteners in one line.
Method of Instantaneous center of rotation

An eccentric load produces a pure rotation about some point different from the centroid of the
fastener group. This point is called the instantaneous center. It is always on a line
perpendicular to the line of action of the load and passing through the centroid of the fastener
group as shown in Figure 13. The advantage of the method of instantaneous center of rotation
is the case in determination of the critical fastener, the fastener subjected to maximum stress.
The instantaneous center Oi is located using the condition that an imaginary fastener located
at Oi would carry no stress. The fastener force at Oi due to direct shear is
[ 23 ]
a-) One line of connectors b-) Two or more gage lines of connector
Figure 12: AISC recommendation for effective eccentricity
Figure 13: Instantaneous center of rotation
[ 24 ]
P  Fi
N 'i  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .36
 Fi
And that due to moment T  P  e is, from Equation 21,
N' 'i 
T   Fi  ro 
P  e   Fi  ro ------------------------------------------------------------ .37
F  r F  r
2 2
i i i i
Where ro is the distance between the instantaneous center and the centroid. To have no shear
stress at o i
N'i  N' 'i  0
F r
2
r0  i i
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .38
e   Fi
If all the fasteners have the same cross-sectional area, then
r
2
r0  i
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .39
en
Once the instantaneous center of rotation has been found, the direction of resultant load in any
fastener is located perpendicular to its radius vector ri from that center, and the magnitude is
given by
P  e  ro   ri  Fi
Ni  . ------------------------------------------------------------------------- .40
 Fi  ri
2
For equal fastener sizes,
P  e  ro   ri
Ni  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- .41
 ri
2
Recall that ro has a minus sign.
This method is useful in determining the fastener with the greatest unit shearing stress.
Evidently the fastener with the greatest value of ri has the greatest displacement and hence
the greatest stress. Knowing that instantaneous center Oi is on the side opposite to the
eccentric load P and on a perpendicular to P through the centroid O, the fastener with the
greatest stress can often be determined by inspection.
[ 25 ]
IV. COMBINED SHEAR AND TENSION:

In a large of commonly used connections, both shear and tension occur and must be
considered in design. A few typical connections in which the fastener are simultaneously
subjected to both shear and tension are shown in Figure 14. Present practice limits the amount
of combined shear and tension in a fastener by interaction equations which are based on
experimental results. Neglecting initial tension, friction and bearing, the interaction equation
in terms of the allowable stresses may be approximated by the following equation.
2
  ç 
2
 
      1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- .42
 
 em   çem 
Where
 : Nominal unit shear stress,

ç : Nominal unit tensile stress under external load,
em : Allowable shear stress in absence of external tension,
 çem : Allowable tensile stress in absence of shear.
The AISC gives a simpler straight-line interaction which requires a reduction for combined
effects only in the most severe loading conditions. The straight-line expression given by the
AISC is
 ç
  c --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .43
 em  çem
The interaction equations given by Equation 42 and Equation 43 are compared in Figure 15.
According to the AISC, the constant in Equation 43 is 1.40 for A307 bolts. For A325 and
A490 bolts, it is 1.25 and 1.30, respectively, in bearing-type connections.
V. MOMENT AND SHEAR CONNECTIONS, (Fasteners in tension):

In a typical bracket such as shown in Figure 16, the eccentric lad produces both shear and
tension in the fasteners. The design of fasteners in such connections is conventionally based
on the computation of combined stresses. The stresses in the fasteners may be computed by
using one of two approaches;
a-) That of neglecting any initial tension in the fasteners,

b-) That of considering the initial pretension forces in the fasteners.
When fasteners such as A307 bolts are used neglecting any initial tension is reasonable. On
the other hand, when high-strength bolts are used the initial pretension forces are of utmost
importance and must be taken into account.
[ 26 ]
a-) b-) b-)
d-) e-) f-)
g-) h-) i-)
Figure 14: Typical combined shear and tension connections
[ 27 ]
Figure 15: Non dimensionalized shear-tension interaction curve
a-) Initial tension neglected
Consider the pure moment connection in Figure 17.a. The moment is transmitted by tension in
the fasteners above the neutral axis and by compression on the bearing surface below the
neutral axis. Since the upper part of the bracket is assumed to pull away from the column, the
effective width b e , of the part above the neutral axis is
Fm
be  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .44
e
Where
F : cross sectional area of one fastener assuming all fasteners are the same,
e : spacing of fasteners,
m : number of fastener rows (columns).
Equating the moments of the effective areas above and below the neutral axis,
1 1
 b e  c t   b  c b or be  c t  b  cb ------------------------------------------------- .45
2 2 2 2
2 2
or
Fm
cb be e --------------------------------------------------------------------------- .46
 
ct b b
[ 28 ]
cb 1 1
In practıcal problems varies between to . Since approximate area is used this ratio
ct 4 8
1 h
may be taken as . Note that cb  c t  h ; therefore c b  and moment of inertia of the
6 7
equivalent area can be computed as
1
 
I   b e  c t  b  c b ------------------------------------------------------------------------- .47
3
3 3
= +
a-)
Stress due to moment Stress due to shear
b-)
+ +
Stress due to moment Stress due to shear Stress due to proof load
Stresses considering pretensioning effect of fasteners
Figure 16: Forces and stress distribution on fasteners in an eccentric connection
[ 29 ]
Stress due to moment Stress due to shear
b-)
Stress due to moment Stress due to shear Stress due to proof load
Figure 17: Moment effect, neglecting initial tension
Finally the tensile stress in the top fastener is obtained by the flexure formula:
M  ct
ç  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .48
I
The effect of the shear stresses must be added to the effect of the moment stresses, using
Equation 13.
b-) Initial tension considered
Assuming that the proof load in the bolt is not exceeded, the plates or sections making up the
connection will be in complete contact with the column; however, due to the effect of the
bending moment there will be reduction in contact pressure on the tension side as shown in
[ 30 ]
Figure 18. In this case, the neutral axis will occur at the midpoint of the connection. The
initial bearing pressure, 0 , is assumed to be uniform over the area bh. The tensile stress 
at the top due to the applied moment is
M M
   ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ .49
bh 2
W
6
+ =
Initial compressive stress Stress on contact area due

Final stress on contact area
on contact area to applied load
Figure 18: Moment effect, considering initial tension
The effective tensile force at the top row fastener is expressed as
6Me
Tf    be  ------------------------------------------------------------------------- .50
h2
Adding the effect of the shear stress to the effect of the moment stress, combined stress
analysis must be made.
[ 31 ]
TS648 REQUIREMENTS:
Construction rules related to connection and splices (TS648):

In general, each element shall be connected by means of at least two rivets or bolts.
Different elements of a cross-section shall be connected together as far as possible without

using another piece between them. The number of rows of rivets in the lateral direction shall
be increased by the number of extra plates used in the connections. The same shall be applied
for the filler plates which transmit load if they are not connected by means of a row of rivets
before the connection or splice region.
Flanges of plate girders shall be connected by means of at least two lateral rows of rivets
before the theoretical beginning point. The second of these rows may fall on the theoretical
beginning point for the plate girder.
VI. DESIGN RULES (TS648):

VI.1-) GENERAL DESIGN RULES (TS648):
The thickness of elements used in steel structures shall be at least 4 mm.
Structural elements shall be designed in such a way that their inspection and maintenance can
be carried out easily. Where the danger of rusting exist to a large extent, the design of the roof
truss members consisting of two angles with two parallel legs and with spacing equal to the
thickness of the gusset plate shall be avoided. If the distance between such close surfaces is
less than h/6 or 10 mm. a filler plate shall be used as shown in following figure.
All parts shall be suitable for easy discharge of water. Gutter plates shall be provided where
unavoidable water accumulation occurs.
In open slabs of small slope such as in roofs, the necessary precautions shall be provided to
avoid ponding as a result of deflections due to loads. Such deflections may be eliminated by
giving a camber to the beams at roofs and purlins.
[ 32 ]
When filler materials which have undesirable effects on steel (such as coke slag) are used
steel parts shall be protected by means of some suitable precautions.
The contact surfaces of the steel structural members shall be clean, unrusted, dry and shall be
given a prime coat of paint. If members, manufactured from high strength steel, are joined
with rivets and subjected generally to dynamic loading (except wind bracing) there is no need
for a prime coat of paint when joint surfaces are without a gap.
There is no need for a prime coat, if the member is going to be fixed into concrete, concrete
paste or another material.
In the case of loading, transporting, unloading and storing the steel members, bending due to
overloading shall be prevented. Lifting parts of the members where hooks and chains are
fixed be given special care.
The size and shape shown in the project shall not be changed. Continuous attention is
necessary during erection to prevent warping and misalignment. Overloading of all members
shall be prevented and stability maintained by using precautions.
Additional supports and diagonal members shall not be removed before full statical
equilibrium has been obtained.
The design and the construction of the scaffolding elements, which are used to support the
steel structure for some time and used to maintain access during the construction stage, shall
be done according to a scaffolding plan. During dismantling of the scaffolding the structure
shall only deflect as planned and carry its own weight and also no element shall be
overloaded.
VI.2-) RULES FOR WORKING THE MATERIAL (TS648):
A steel structure member shall either be cold or red-hot during rolling or processing.
Processing shall not be done in between cold and red-hot (for example blue purple colored)
temperatures (for example to change shape by bending shall be avoided).
The irregularities of the hot rolled material shall be smoothed. In the case of contact with
another member, the signs of the manufacturing firm shall also be smoothed.
In manufacturing and assembly, the elements shall be aligned in such a way that they can be
connected without being unduly stressed also the smoothness of the contact shall be ensured.
No cracks and deformations shall occur on the surfaces due to the bending process. These can
be prevented by choosing a larger radius of bending according to the material properties and
process at a suitable temperature.
If riveting and hammering shall be performed on bent members, attention shall be paid to the
changes in the material properties of these members.
Generally hot rolled sections shall be chosen for the members carrying static loads. If hot
rolled sections are cut with oxy-acetylene welding or presses, the irregularities on the cut
surfaces shall be smoothed as much as possible. However if some dynamic loads might act on
[ 33 ]
the hot rolled member, the cut surfaces shall be smoothed by chip removing equipment (for
example by grinding, filing, milling etc.). All irregularities and cracks shall be removed, as
shall scratches due to two toothed files, deep pits, faults in grinding etc.
Formed hard portions of thicknesses greater than 30 mm. at the ends due to oxygen welding
and cutting process in the steels of higher quality than FE-37 shall be removed by mechanical
means.
Fabrication faults on the surface of the material irregularities, can be removed by grinding.
These areas shall not be smoothed by welding.
Corners shall be pierced by a drill, and tearing of the material shall be prevented.
VI.3-) CONSTRUCTION RULES FOR RIVETED AND BOLTED

CONNECTIONS (TS648):
The holes of rivets and bolts shall be formed by drilling. If the following conditions are
satisfied holes may be punched.
a-) If the structure is under the action of static loads,

b-) If the material of the structure is FE33 or FE37,
c-) If the thickness of the plate is less than 10 mm.,
d-) If the hole diameter is up to 2/3 of the plate thickness,
The punched hole shall be exactly cylindrical and perpendicular to the surface of the material.
Also there shall exist no cracks on the edges due to punching. All irregularities and scale shall
be cleaned before riveting.
Holes in members to be connected shall be aligned. Aberrations which prevent penetration of

the rivets or bolts into the holes shall be removed by widening.
When the rivet is at white heat, it shall be driven by supporting in the reverse direction. After
driving, the rivet hole shall be fully filled by the material. Burned rivets shall not be used. Full
contact shall be made by the rivet head and along the rivet axis. The head that is formed by
driving shall be full and satisfactory. The scale which is accumulated on the sides shall be
cleaned. No cracks or notches shall exist on the rivet head.
In long riveted connections, driving the rivets, shall start from the middle. In the rivets which
are placed side by side, driving shall be continued in parallel.
In the members which are made of several pieces, rivets shall be driven in the manufacturing
workshop, as far as possible.
Driven rivets shall be checked to verify if they are properly placed.
The outer part of a load carrying bolt shall exceed the thickness of the member to which it is
connected. Rivets and bolts which do not obey the requirements shall be removed properly
and shall be replaced by faultless ones.
[ 34 ]

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Steel Structures Prof. Dr. Namık Kemal ÖZTORUN, Res. Assist.

Ezgi ÖZTORUN, 2015, Page 1/34

a-) Connection strength required,

b-) Countersunk and chipped

a-) Riveting hammer

b-) Button head rivet

Drilling shall be used for fastener holes. Punching is allowed only if

a-) There are static loads acting on the structure,

I.1-) Rivet length:

I.2-) Rivet diameter:

Table 1: Recommended rivet diameters for various plate thicknesses

I.3-) Fastener spacing:

a-) Ease fastener driving,

Maximum spacing is also specified to prevent:

a-) Corrosion in between the fastener plates,

In steel structures there are two types of fasteners:

a-) Load carrying fasteners,

Figure 3: Spacing and edge distances of fasteners

Figure 4: Edge distance for stiffened edges (TS648)

Table 2: Minimum and maximum spacing for load carrying fasteners

e 3∙d1 8∙d1 or 15∙tmin

e1 2∙d1 3∙d1 or 6∙tmin

e2 1.5∙d1 3∙d1 or 6∙tmin

Table 3: Minimum spacing for stitch fasteners used in buildings

e 8∙d1 or 15∙tmin 12∙d1 or 25∙tmin

e1 3∙d1 or 6∙tmin 3∙d1 or 6∙tmin

e2 3∙d1 or 6∙tmin 3∙d1 or 6∙tmin

a-) Maximum friction is obtained,

d: Diameter of the hole.

Maximum distance from edge 3 In both directions 3d or 6t

Distance between holes

Minimum hole interval 1 3d

I.4-) Rivet weight:

L : Rivet length (mm).

Total values for G R .H are given in Table 5.

Table 5: Total weight of rivet heads for 100 rivets (Kgf).

I.5-) Modes of failure in fastened connections:

a-) Shear failure across one cross-sections of the fastener,

c-) Bearing failure of fastener d-) Bending failure of fastener

g-) Tension failure of plate h-) Tension failure of fastener

Figure 5: Types of fastened connection failures

I.6-) Types of fastened connections:

a-) Fastener in multiple shear b-) Fastener in tension

Figure 6: Types of fastener connections

I.7-) Design assumptions and allowable stresses:

a-) The frictional resistance to slip between the plates is neglected.

Loading EY EIY EY EIY EY EIY

Rivet steel ST34 1400 1600 2800 3200 480 540

Rivet steel ST44 2100 2400 4200 4800 720 810

a-) Direct-load connection b-) Eccentric-load connection

c-) Pure moment connection d-) Shear and moment connection

Figure 7: Types of fastened connections

I.8-) Design considerations:

a-) For lap joints:

If the shearing stress governs, then

Nez  d  t min  ez . ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ .6

b-) For Butt joints:

If the shearing stress governs, then

Nez  d  t min  ez . ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ .8

d : Fastener shank diameter,

Figure 8: But joint with different plate thicknesses

Since for buildings, ez  2  em , one obtains

d  2.55  t min ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .10

d  1.275  t min ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .11