S3H

Pakistan Studies (LLB – 112)

Week 7: Pakistan: a nascent Muslim majority state
– Issues and Challenges II (1958 – 1971)

Ms. Rehma Rabab Hyder

rehma.hyder@s3h.nust.edu.pk
Fall 2020

Rehma Hyder | Pakistan Studies | Fall 2020 1

Lecture Outline S3H

Main Topic: Pakistan: a nascent Muslim majority state – Issues

and challenges II (1958 – 1971)

1). First Military Regime (1958 – 1969)

→Constitutional challenge – 1962
→ Indo – Pak War 1965

2). Second Military Regime (1969 – 1971)

→ LFO (1969), 1970 Elections and Constitutional Crisis
→ Indo – Pak War 1971, Separation of East Pakistan

Rehma Hyder | Pakistan Studies | Fall 2020 2

 Field Marshal Ayub Khan (b.1907-d.1974)
Ayub Era: (7th Oct.1958-25th Mar. 1969) S3H

• Ayub Khan became the 1st Pakistani Army Chief in 1951 under PM Liaquat
Ali Khan and in Oct. 1958 he instituted Pakistan’s 1st Military Regime setting
a dangerous precedent.
• The Ayub Khan era began as a benevolent despotism but ended as a
discredited polity – the ‘Decade of Development’ was overshadowed by
anti-govt. protests that transformed into anti-state demonstrations by the
time Ayub Khan resigned.
• An overly centralized system of governance with concentration of power,
largely in the hands of the military and bureaucracy, with US interests in the
region, set the stage for the years to come.
• Ayub Khan laid the foundations of a capitalist economy under military rule.
• This resulted in numerous economic and social contradictions, which
played themselves out, not just in the 1960s, but beyond, where Ayub
Khan’s rule created the social and economic conditions leading to the
separation of East Pakistan, and to the rise of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s awami
inqilaab.
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Ayub, a graduate of Aligarh & prestigious Royal
S3H
Military Academy Sandhurst was welcomed by
masses as a relief from the democratic instability.
[Major Gen. Umrao Khan was the martial law
administrator in East Pakistan in 1958, after 1962
constitution Lt.Gen. Azam Khan became a popular
Governor of East Pakistan].
Ayub’s initial years brought economic & political
stability due to:
• a successful anti-corruption campaign
• rapid industrial development – PIDC
• settlement of Indus Water Dispute under 1960 President Ayub Khan and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Treaty - Green Revolution, Dams construction Nehru standing next to each other as they drove through
• Mutual Defence Treaty with US in 1959, visit of Karachi in September, 1960. Premier Nehru was in Karachi
to sign the Indus Waters Treaty. — Photo: The Adnan
US President Dwight Eisenhower in Dec. 1959 Aurangzeb Collection
and Ayub’s visit to US followed by an address
Refer to: https://www.dawn.com/news/1355171
to US Congress in July 1960.
Rehma Hyder | Pakistan Studies | Fall 2020 4
Indirect elections via Electoral College: Basic
Democracy [BD], 80,000 people (later 120,000 in S3H
1967) directly elected (mostly personally selected)
who would form the electoral college which will
elect the President as well as the members of
national & provincial assemblies. Ayub was ‘elected’
president by BD in 1960.
8th June 1962: martial law lifted, Presidential
constitution promulgated, unicameral in nature [is
termed as one-man constitution]. Pakistan’s name
was changed to just Republic but later Islamic
Republic was restored due to religious parties'
protest.

Prior to this, Ayub Khan passed a Muslim Family

Law Ordinance in 1961 to regulate divorce, dowry,
nikkah certificate & placed condition of 1st wife
Refer to :
consent for enacting 2nd marriage. https://khalidriazblog.wordpress.com/2016/10/09/681/

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• Lifting martial law increased protests against
Ayub. Most pivotal are the anti-constitution
S3H
protests led by H.S. Suharwardy’s coalition of
National Democratic Front (included Awami
League, JI, 4 other parties). All opposition was put
down forcibly and leaders arrested.
• Eventually Ayub called for presidential elections
early 1965. Opposition parties formed a coalition
i.e. Combined Opposition Parties (COP) with
Fatima Jinnah as their candidate who won a
majority in key cities of Karachi, Dhaka &
Chittagong.
• Ayub won overall majority & was accused of
systematic rigging but managed to silence
opposition.
• Miss Fatima Jinnah during her campaign in late 1964
• Ayub’s downward spiral began in 1965 due to leading to the presidential elections in Chittagong, East
[rigged] elections, Indo-Pak war, Tashkent de Pakistan, as a candidate for the Combined Opposition
Declaration 1966 and concentration of wealth in Party whose main opponent was President Ayub Khan. She
Western Wing creating economic imbalance was supported, among others, by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
(left) and his Awami League. — Photo: Dawn/White Star
(creating resentment in Eastern Wing) Archives

Rehma Hyder | Pakistan Studies | Fall 2020 6

Indo-Pak War 1965 S3H

• Sparks of conflict as India made attempts to declare Kashmir its integral

part (Dec.1964) - Pakistan highlighted this in UN & pressed upon impartial
plebiscite in J&K (China did not possess veto power in UNSC at that time &
USSR used its veto power in India’s favor).
• India is internationally blamed as the aggressor in this war as India
occupied Kargil; 15th Aug. 1965 & crossed international border (6th Sept)
attacking Lahore & Sialkot.
• After 17 days of War, both nations accepted ceasefire
• Pakistan received full support of majority 3rd world states & most
importantly China; cautious support from UK & USA
• “Inconclusive” Tashkent Declaration mediated by USSR signed 10th Jan.
1966

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Tashkent Declaration – 1966
• Ayub Khan agreed to mediation by USSR; he and Indian PM S3H
Lal Bahadur Shastri met between 4th-10th January 1966, at
Tashkent (now capital of Uzbekistan). The talks were
mediated by Alexei N. Kosygin (Chairman, Council of
Ministers, the USSR delegation).

• Indian aim was to secure a No-War Pact from Pakistan &

bypass the Kashmir dispute in which it was successful. The
declaration provided for:
1. the reaffirmation by both sides of their obligation under the UN
Charter to settle disputes by peaceful means
2. the withdrawal of all armed personnel by 25th February 1966 to
positions held prior to 5th August 1965
3. discontinuance of hostile propaganda
4. restoration of full diplomatic representation
5. machinery to continue joint India-Pakistan discussions on other President Ayub Khan and Indian Prime
issues of direct concern Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri
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 1966 – 1969: Political Crisis
S3H
• The Tashkent declaration was denounced in Pakistan followed by resignation of
Foreign Minister Z.A.Bhutto who laid the foundation of PPP (Pakistan People’s
Party) in 1967.
• Protests begun by 1965 war widows quickly spread into an all-out anti-Ayub
demonstration led by Z.A.Bhutto.
• The movement accelerated with Bhutto’s arrest in Nov.1968 and police action
against protestors worsened Ayub’s case. Also, Ayub’s son Capt. Gohar Ayub was
rumored to be involved in land estate corruption that went against Ayub’s
entire anti-corruption campaign.
• On the Eastern Front, Awami League’s Sheikh Mujib had tabled the six-point
programme as a solution to West-East Pakistan power sharing and economic
imbalance issue. See pg. 214, Chap. 28, Kazimi, M.R. (2012)
• points 3 of separate currencies & point 6 of maintaining a para-military force
became a contentious issue and overall, the points were deemed secessionists
by the govt. Rehma Hyder | Pakistan Studies | Fall 2020 9
• agitation for 6 points programme was further
inflamed by arrest of Sheikh Mujib and other S3H
leaders in the Agartala Conspiracy Case of 1968 -
https://www.thenews.com.pk/tns/detail/565832-50-years-agartala-
conspiracy-case
• Amidst political agitation, Ayub tried to hold on to
power and announced he would not run for
president again on Feb. 1969.
• Eventually he resigned on 25th March 1969,
abrogated 1962 constitution and transferred the
powers of chief martial law administrator and
president to Gen. Yahya Khan.
• As per the 1962 constitution, in the event of absence
of president (death/ailment/resignation) power was
to be transferred to the speaker of the National
Assembly.
• In this case Abdul Jabbar Khan, a Bengali leader had a
better chance on negotiating with Awami League &
restoring political order to Pakistan, but this was not
done so
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Yahya Khan (b.1917-d.1980)
(25th Mar.1969- 20th Dec.1971) S3H

Pakistan’s Second Military Regime (began and ended with political chaos - secession
of Eastern wing)
Legal Framework Order (LFO): Initially Yahya banned all political activity then he
set about drafting LFO to determine the course of general elections and governance
of the state.
• On 28th Nov. 1969, he dissolved one Unit & restored provinces: NWFP, Punjab,
Sindh, Baluchistan and East Pakistan.
• Parity between two wings was also revoked (meaning; seats of National Assembly
would be determined on population ratio i.e.; East Pakistan would get more seats as
it had more population than western wing).
• under LFO, elections were to take place on universal adult franchise basis (one
vote per person of/above 18 years of age).
• A simple majority was sufficient for framing new constitution which was to be
framed in 120 days; failure meant National Assembly would be dissolved. All the
above was incorporated in the LFO, promulgated on 30th March 1970.
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1970 Elections and Constitutional Crisis S3H

• Elections were set for Oct. 1970, but a devastating cyclone hit East Pakistan moving
elections to Dec. 1970 (West wing did not extend the required support to the Eastern
wing to deal with the natural disaster adding to their grievances of disparity)
• In Pakistan’s first general elections held based on direct universal adult franchise,
Awami League won 167/169 seats in Eastern wing; in Western wing out of 144 seats
PPP secured 81 seats (rose to 88 after independent candidates [Azad umeedwar]
joined PPP) predominantly in Punjab & Sindh while Balochistan & NWFP were
secured by National Awami Party (NAP) led by Khan Abdul Wali Khan.
• Based on the electoral result, Yahya declared Sheikh Mujib as next PM on 14th
January 1971 with 3rd March 1971 set as the date for the constitutional assembly to
convene in Dhaka.
• However, things did not unroll smoothly and a political deadlock between Z.A.Bhutto
(refused to recognize Sheikh Mujib as PM, also wanted 120 days constitution making
deadline removed) and Sheikh Mujib (refused to deviate from the 6 points
programme of 1966) made Yahya Khan postpone the constituent assembly session.
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• The postponement did not settle well with East Pakistan and following a
charged speech by Mujib on 7th March 1971, East Pakistan became S3H
engulfed in a civil disobedience movement.
• On the Western side Bhutto added to the anti-East Pakistani sentiment by
holding rallies. Islamist parties (like JI, JUI) went so far as denouncing
Bengali Muslims as pro-Indian & pro-Hindu due to their language &
cultural difference from the western wing. -
https://www.dawn.com/news/1392750
• To restore law and order, Khan ordered a military action in Eastern Wing.
• The action called Operation Searchlight led by Gen. Tikka Khan begun on
25th March 1971 that resulted in military brutality, indiscriminate killing
(created violence culture) and ignited Bengali Nationalism as Shahid
minar, a memorial of 1952 language movement was destroyed while main
leaders were arrested. – Anthony Mascarenhas https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-
16207201
• Finding an opportunity, it is believed that Indian troops began facilitating
the training of Mukti Bahini (Liberation Army) against Pakistani govt.
Rehma Hyder | Pakistan Studies | Fall 2020 13
 Indo-Pak War (Nov. –Dec. 1971)
16th Dec. 1971- Bangladesh proclaimed S3H

• Officially war broke out on 22nd Nov. 1971

when India launched an all-out offensive in
East Pakistan. (Indian interference is
recorded as early as mid-1970 for training a
Bengali militant wing).
• On 3rd December 1971 to relieve pressure
on the eastern front, Yayha ordered a
counter offensive against India in the west.
• On 16th December 1971, Bangladesh
proclaimed Independence duly recognized
by Indian PM Indira Gandhi while Pakistani
troops surrendered to Indian Army on 17th
Dec. Lt Gen Naizi, Corps Commander of Eastern
Command signing the documented instrument in
• In face of failure, Yahya Khan handed over Dhaka in presence of Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora,
power to Z.A.Bhutto on 20th December 1971 GOC-in-C of Indian Eastern Command.
who became the 1st civilian martial law
administrator.
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• Internationally USSR provided diplomatic & military support (arms, ammunition) to S3H
India while US & China supported Pakistan’s cause calling India the aggressor state
but both states did not support Pakistan militarily (US maintained arms embargo of
Pakistan despite Yayha Khan invoking 1959 Mutual Defence Treaty).
• Also, US & China govt. were involved in secret talks so US may finally recognize PRC
(Beijing China) hence, both states wanted to avoid military involvement.
• On 5th December 1971, George Bush Sr. (then US envoy to UN, Richard Nixon was US
President) condemned India as the aggressor. UNSC tabled a resolution calling for
official ceasefire but USSR vetoed it on India’s behalf.
• By 6th December 1971, it was foreseeable that East Pakistan was a lost cause but US
had to intervene to stop Indian aggression transferring from East Pakistan towards a
war in Kashmir. On 9th Dec. President Nixon ordered the 7th Fleet’s USS Enterprise to
move towards Bay of Bengal demonstrating US show of force.
The war of 1971 left a land of violence, with a legacy of intolerance of difference & a
tendency to respond to political opposition with intimidation, brutalization &
extermination.
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Next Week: S3H

Main Topic: Examining Democratic and Dictatorial Interplay I (1971 – 1988)

Pakistan: A new Dawn? – Consolidation post 1971

• Zulfikar Ali Bhutto – Evaluating the 1st PPP government (1971 – 1977)
Democracy restored and a new constitution

• Third Military Regime (1977 – 1988)

Constitutional challenges: hudood ordinance and amendments to
constitution
Soviet –Afghan war and impact of Pakistan state and society

Rehma Hyder | Pakistan Studies | Fall 2020 16