Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Module Handbook
Level 4
2016-17
Module Leader:
Dr Gareth Whittleston BEng(Hons), MSc, PhD, PgCertE, FHEA
Newton Building, 101, University of Salford, Greater Manchester, M5 4WT
Email: g.s.whittleston1@salford.ac.uk
Forward
This text is intended to give an introduction to the subject of structural engineering for civil
engineering students, although it may prove useful to students of other engineering disciplines,
surveyors and architects; and practicing structural engineers who require an everyday
reference for design.
Although analysis and design are presented separately they must be applied simultaneously.
Undergraduate teaching of structures has historically focused on analysis techniques as they
are conceptually and numerically challenging (and therefore worthy of university study).
Analysis is pointless without design, further, analysis is merely a means of estimating sufficient
internal forces and deformations to justify a chosen design.
This handbooks is the first in a series which form the basis of required structures knowledge for
undergraduate civil engineering courses:
Structures 1 – analysis of statically determinate structures and design of simple steelwork and
timber elements.
Structures 2 – analysis of statically indeterminate structures and design of reinforced concrete
and masonry elements.
Structures 3 – plastic analysis and finite elements, design of plate structures.
‘the science and art of designing and making, with economy and elegance,
buildings, bridges, frameworks, and other similar structures so that they can safely
resist the forces to which they may be subjected’
so structural engineering has wide application in many fields of engineering, manufacture and
architecture. Most importantly, structures is a core subject for all civil engineers.
Civil engineering structures are generally subject to the laws of statics. Mechanical engineers
are generally concerned with machines (structures) which must resist dynamic loading.
The education of UK civil engineers was undertaken on a personal tutelage basis until the first
degree in engineering science was offered by Oxford University, even after this undergraduate
education was rare until the later half of the 20th century. Professional recognition and
regulation took off with the formation of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1818. The study of
structures became so important that in 1908 the Concrete Institute was formed to advance
study of the new and increasingly popular material. Due to the widening scope of materials
and structures of interest its name was changed to The Institution of Structural Engineers in 1922,
it remains the only international professional body concerned solely with structural engineering.
Membership of IStructE is a career goal of everyone who practices structural engineering.
In light of the recent proliferation of cheap and powerful personal computing and
sophisticated structures software, it is now paramount that undergraduates should learn to
analyse and design structures by hand – if only to be able to validate the output of computers.
The process of qualifying professional engineers in the UK is now controlled by the Engineering
Council who delegate the task to the professional engineering institutions. The process covers
education and practical experience, and is summarised below.
Module Requirements
Structures 1 is a two semester, 20 credit module taken by all year 1 civil engineers. This means
that students are expected to devote 200 hours of study over two semesters.
Student self study and on-line lecturing will be the main vehicle of acquiring knowledge.
Lectures will introduce each topic and explain the important concepts which underpin it.
Face-to-face tutorial sessions offer a chance to work through examples under guidance.
Worked Examples are used throughout the notes to assist in understanding of the theory and
application to real life structures.
Self Assessment Exercises are provided at the end of each topic to allow students to judge
whether they have understood the theory and application. Completed solutions are available
to allow rating of understanding (these are posted on Blackboard).
The Examination is a two and a half hour opportunity to demonstrate how much has been
learnt during the course. The results of the examination form 80% of the assessment. Three
Blackboard online tests must be passed before the examination can be attempted.
The Design Exercise is continually assessed group work which spans five modules and
constitutes a solution to a client brief. The results of the coursework form 20% of the assessment.
The Design Exercise lasts all academic year and feedback is available every week.
A one week Workshop Session will be held in the civil engineering laboratories and on the
University campus during the inter-semester period, where students will undertake practical
work which supports the learning outcomes of the module. A group Laboratory Report on four
of the experiments undertaken and an account of other experiments observed will be required.
This will form part of the Design Exercise and the marking scheme can be found in the
Integrated Design Exercise Handbook. Guidance on how to write laboratory reports is included
in this modules Blackboard site and expounded in the Civil Engineering Communication
module.
Students must pass the module, based upon an aggregated mark. A student who does not
attempt the last element of assessment of a module (in this case the examination) must be
expelled from the course.
The University of Salford provides students with access to the Blackboard Virtual Learning
Environment (vle.salford.ac.uk). This is an on-line aid to learning where you will find this
handbook, answers to tutorial questions, email access and discussion boards. You are
encouraged to use the Discussion Board to ask any questions you have about the course
material, this way all students who have the same question can see the answer provided.
Students are also provided with an ATHENS login and password which can be used to access
the websites of many technical publishing houses and www.info4education.com where
electronic copies of many publications can be found.
All civil engineering students are encouraged to join The Institution of Civil Engineers and
Institution of Structural Engineers in year 1. Student membership is free of charge and gives
access to Institution libraries and evening meetings. Join in week three by completing the
spreadsheet provided by Mr Haybes or on-line (web addresses are in the References section of
this handbook). All students should also consider getting involved with the Salford University
Engineers Union, details at www.sueu.co.uk
Recommended Reading
In order to acquire an understanding of structures you must read more than this module
handbook. This is because you will need to experience a diversity of opinion and methods to
fully understand the subject. The Clifford Whitworth library (first floor) retains a large amount of
high quality material on this subject (in the aeronautical, mechanical and civil engineering
sections). Students should refer to texts listed in the references section at the end of this
handbook, many of which are held in the Clifford Whitworth Library but any book titled
Structural Mechanics, Strength of Materials or Solid Mechanics is likely to be of use. The final
slide of each lecture Powerpoint stored on Blackboard gives a specific recommendation for
reading on the topic covered by that lecture.
Contents
Forward ...................................................................................................................................................... iii
Module Requirements ...............................................................................................................................v
Contents ................................................................................................................................................... vii
Study Plan ...................................................................................................................................................x
Assessment which contributes to learning ............................................................................................................... x
Outline module timetable ......................................................................................................................................... xi
Plagiarism ........................................................................................................................................................................ i
Participation in learning ............................................................................................................................................... i
The inverted classroom ............................................................................................................................................... ii
How to use this handbook ......................................................................................................................................... iii
How to use Blackboard .............................................................................................................................................. iv
How to use info4education.com .............................................................................................................................. vi
The Summative Blackboard Tests ............................................................................................................................ vii
1. Strength of Materials .............................................................................................................................2
1.1 Material Properties .................................................................................................................................................2
1.1.2 Young’s Modulus, E ................................................................................................................................. 2
1.1.3 Poisson’s Ratio, ...................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1.4 Shear Modulus, G..................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1.5 Coefficient of thermal expansion, ..................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Elastic Section Properties ......................................................................................................................................5
1.2.1 Centroid of Area ..................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Second Moment of Area, Iyy and Izz ........................................................................................................ 6
1.2.3 Theorem of the Parallel Axis ................................................................................................................... 7
1.2.4 First Moment of Area, Wel ........................................................................................................................ 8
1.2.5 Polar Second Moment of Area, Ip ....................................................................................................... 13
1.2.6 Radius of Gyration, iyy and izz .................................................................................................................. 13
1.2.7 Shear Centre.......................................................................................................................................... 13
1.2.8 Modular Ratio ........................................................................................................................................ 14
2. Rigid Body Statics ................................................................................................................................17
2.0.1 Mass and Force ..................................................................................................................................... 17
2.0.2 Actions and Reactions ......................................................................................................................... 17
2.1 The Four Forces .....................................................................................................................................................18
2.1.1 Axial, N .................................................................................................................................................... 18
2.1.2 Shear, V................................................................................................................................................... 18
2.1.3 Bending, M ............................................................................................................................................. 18
2.1.4 Torsion, T ................................................................................................................................................. 18
2.2 The Three Laws of Static Equilibrium .................................................................................................................18
2.2.1 Load intensity, shear force and bending moment ............................................................................ 25
2.2.2 Statical Determinacy ............................................................................................................................ 26
2.2.3 The Principle of Superposition .............................................................................................................. 27
2.2.4 How to draw a parabola ..................................................................................................................... 28
3. Pin Jointed Frameworks ......................................................................................................................33
3.1 Resolution at the Joints ............................................................................................................................ 34
3.2 Method of Sections .................................................................................................................................. 37
4. Buckling of Struts..................................................................................................................................45
4.0.1 Effective Length, LE ............................................................................................................................... 45
4.0.2 Slenderness, ........................................................................................................................................ 46
4.0.3 Euler buckling capacity, PE .................................................................................................................. 47
4.0.4 Rankine buckling capacity, PR............................................................................................................. 48
4.0.5 Imperfect struts ...................................................................................................................................... 49
4.0.6 Perry-Robertson buckling capacity, Nc ............................................................................................... 49
5. Stress Analysis ......................................................................................................................................57
5.1 Direct and Shear Stress ............................................................................................................................ 57
5.1.1 Bending Stress, fm ................................................................................................................................... 57
5.1.2 The Equation of Simple Bending .......................................................................................................... 59
5.1.3 Axial Stress, fn .......................................................................................................................................... 59
5.1.4 Combined Direct Stress ........................................................................................................................ 60
5.1.5 Plane Shear Stress, S ............................................................................................................................. 66
Study Plan
This module forms one sixth of the level 4 syllabus, and is worth 20 credits which equates to 200
hours of study (depending upon ability, some students may need to commit more time). It is
important to plan study time and more importantly to start immediately. The following plan is
an indication of the number of hours to devote to each learning activity.
Students are responsible for their own learning - university education is wholly student centred,
so please note that only 44 hours are lecturer led learning. The remainder of the 200 hours that
a student should spend on this module are attributed to:
Self study for the formative Blackboard tests,
Preparation for the summative Blackboard tests,
Completing tutorial questions,
Participation in the workshop session (3 hours) and writing aboratory reports
Students must devise their own revision regime to prepare for the end examination.
The Joint Board of Moderators accredit UK Civil Engineering degrees. The board sets out
expectations for the skills, knowledge and understanding which graduates must have to be
awarded an accredited degree. When the board visit Salford to inspect student assessments they
look for threads of ability on three main themes.
JBM threads are:
Design - provides the basic skills to allow students to progress smoothly into engineering practice
Health & Safety - a basic grasp of the practical application of health and safety risk management
Sustainability - to engineer projects which minimise our impact on the environment
Plagiarism
Civil engineering students enrol on a university degree course to obtain an education, not a
degree. Your degree certificate is little more than wall covering but the knowledge acquired
will be used for a working life. Many students confuse the requirement to learn with the need to
progress through the course. Coursework is a means of helping the student learn, it is set and
assessed to help staff gauge the level of understanding which each student has.
Plagiarism is:
copying coursework submissions from other students (in whole or in part). Students who
allow their work to be copied are also guilty of plagiarism.
copying work from other sources (internet, books, journals etc.) without referencing the
source.
Plagiarism in higher education is the equivalent of aggravated assault in wider society. In year
one, the student fails the module; in year three, the students fails the module and has all other
modules capped at 40% (this equates to a third class degree); at Masters level, the student is
dismissed from the university with no degree.
Citation and referencing are dealt with in the Civil Engineering Communications module and in
the universities Student Channel webpages.
Participation in learning
Although many lecturers give didactic lectures where information is delivered to a theatre wide
audience, lecturing for this module is much more interactive. Students are expected to
participate in the learning experience. This is not some fanciful modern approach to
education, it is based upon research outcomes. Work by Biggs shows that knowledge retention
improves with increasing participation.
read 4
Knowledge Retention
hear 14
see 24
see & hear 44
discuss90 64
use in life
80 74
teach others 90
70
60
50
% 40
30
20
10
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Civil engineering requires communication skills. Lectures, tutorials and laboratory exercises offer
an opportunity to question. Remember, the question in your head is also in most other students
heads, so there is no shame in asking the question, it may even promote debate.
The inverted classroom process is depicted in the figure below, and additional information on
the following pages will help you to use the technology required.
formative
Word Cloud
test
summative
test
lecturer
monitors output
of formative assessments to
student further identify cohort wide
The process
develops uses
ability the university’s virtual learning environment (VLE) – Blackboard.
based Students
problems, willtailors
then
need to readinthe
upon activity topic in the handbook and watch video lectures before answering
lecture a test.to suit
lecture activities
There are two types of VLE based tests:
formative – no marks awarded but indicating your understanding of the topic and forms the
basis of weekly lecture content
summative – marks awarded but only one attempt is permitted, provides an indication of your
likely end examination performance
read topic
in
handbook
complete Bb
get wrong self ssessment
answers exercises
Students frequently learn together, this is a good way to share and extend knowledge and
ability.
When you log in, the first screen displayed will show any new
Announcements
messages from the module leader.
An introduction to Structures 1
Module Information
Module Specification – syllabus and learning outcomes
Bibliography of useful books and reference material
Strength of materials
- Analysis -
Analysis of beams
Analysis of trusses
Strut buckling
Weekly formative
Stress analysis
Blackboard tests
Deflection of beams
Deflection of trusses
Unsymmetrical bending
Each test comprises ten numerical questions. The minimum pass mark is 40%.
Each test will only be made available on certain dates, but there will be no time
limit (though they are designed to take one hour to complete), so students must
be at an internet computer in a suitable environment at the designated time with
all equipment required for the test (paper, pen, calculator, handbook);
Students are required to type numerical answers to one decimal place, there are
no multiple choice questions;
The mark will be displayed at the end of the test, failing students will be allocated
a time to resit the test at a later date. The test must be attempted until a pass
mark is achieved;
50 kN 12 kN/m 60 kN 12 kN/m 25 kN
100 kN 350 kN
10 kN/m
12 kN/m 50 kN 20 kN 45 kN
400 kN 50 kN
100 kN 80 kN 50 kN 12 kN/m 75 kN
100 kN 250 kN
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
50
kN
50 kN
25 kN
50 kN
50 kN
50 kN
1. Strength of Materials
This section will introduce elastic materials and their use in engineering structures. Students will
learn to calculate elastic material properties and elastic section properties, which are
subsequently used in calculation of deflections and stresses in all structural elements.
You should read this section of the handbook in conjunction with the following Powerpoint
lectures on Blackboard: 3. Material Properties.ppt , 4. Section Properties.ppt , 4a. Section
Properties Tutorial.ppt
Principal References: Buckle, I.G. The elements of structure. Urry, S.A & Turner, P.J. Solving
Problems in Solid Mechanics, Volume 1.
The slope of the initial linear region is the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity, which will be a constant
value for each material (at any given temperature and pressure) regardless of whether the
applied force is tension, compression or bending. The initial linear section of the graph indicates
elastic behaviour, where the specimen would return to its original length if unloaded. The stress
at which the material stops behaving elastically is called the yield stress and locates the limit of
proportionality. Loading beyond this point results in a permanent set (or plastic deflection).
F failure point
stress, f
A limit of
proportionality
L e
f F e FL
slope, E
A L Ae strain, e
Test piece after failure L
Stress may generally be defined as force divided by area. It is worth noting that stress is not
real, it is merely a convenient concept used by engineers to assess strength.
Strain may generally be defined as extension divided by original length. It is worth noting that
strain is real, we can measure dimensions and use them to derive stress.
Materials which exhibit a long plastic region (like mild steel) are said to be ductile. Ductility, or
an ability to sustain large strains before failure, is a very useful property because there will be
visible changes in the section of structural elements which warn of impending failure and
therefore aid safety. Materials which are not ductile are said to be brittle, and would typically
suffer strains of less than 5% at failure.
As materials approach failure (at large strains), they often display apparent increases in
strength. This is called strain hardening and results from the reduction in area as the specimen
necks. Usually materials which strain harden will also display reduced ductility.
Structural elements subject to repetitive stress cycling (loading and unloading) often fail at
stress levels below yield stress. This is due to fatigue cracking which develops at changes in
geometry such as notches, holes and sudden changes in thickness.
600
high tensile steel
500
mild steel
Stress, f (N/mm2)
400
300
aluminium
200
100
glass
timber
0
0 5 10
Strain,
15
(%)
20 25 30
L e
A table of common material properties is included at the end of the section on Writing
Laboratory Reports.
Thermal expansion becomes a hot topic when differing materials are attached together, as
exposure to normal temperature changes can cause intolerable stresses to be developed in
the structural connectors. Alternatively, night/day thermal change can set up fatigue stresses
withn the same material. In steel frame buildings, movement joints are required to releive these
internal expansion stresses every 100m in low-rise industrial buildings, or every 50m in multi-storey
commercial buildings.
To calculate the location of the centroid of area, we take moments about the top (or right)
edge, but rather than using force we take moments of area.
The general term for centroid of area is Ay A y n n which means, the sum of moments of
area of the parts is equal to the equivalent moment of area of the total area about the
centroid, or, AT y A1 y1 A2 y2 ...... An yn
where AT is the total area of the section, y is the distance to the centroid, An is the area of a
part and yn is the distance to the centroid of that part. An example will clarify the calculation
procedure.
The position of the centroid of a section will be defined about two axes, necessitating the
calculation of y and z . First consider z - the distance along the Z-Z axis to the centroid,
Z
z 25
Y Y
This denotes the
position of the centroid 125 We will begin by
measuring
distances down
from this line
y
10
100
Z
We know that the centre of gravity of a rectangle is half way along each side, so we can
conveniently chop this angle section into two rectangular parts.
Area No 2 – 100 x 10
95
O
This process of dividing a section into simple shapes and taking moments of area may be
applied to more complicated shapes. To help avoid error when doing this, it is helpful to
tabulate the calculation. to recalculate z as an example,
If we wish to be able to calculate the position of the centroid for a section which is not formed
from rectangles then we may use the standard values in the next figure.
z
2
.dA is called the Second Moment of Area (Iyy) about the neutral axis. This function is not
A
easy to visualise in a practical manner, however evaluating it is not difficult. Let us consider the
most common shape - a rectangle;
I yy z .dA z b.dz b
2 2
d
2
d
2
3 d 2 12
Y
db 3
Y similarly, I zz
12
In this way standard relationships for basic shapes
may be derived and combined to evaluate I for
more complex shapes.
If we wish to calculate I for built-up sections, the process is very simple when the axis of bending
coincides with the centroid of area,
Z
1.2.3 Theorem of the Parallel Axis
The second moment of area of a compound section (one built up from standard shapes)
about the neutral axis is the sum of I for the individual elements plus the product of the element
areas and their centroidal distance from the section neutral axis, or
I N . A I Ah 2
The is best demonstrated by an example, let us consider the angle section examined earlier to
locate the centroidal axis.
First consider y-y bending:
for area 1 (100x25), the distance from its
Z zero datum
Area 1 centroid to the compound section centroid is
h1 = 18mm
z 30 bd 3 100 25 3
h1 =18 I 130208mm 4
Y Y 12 12
h2 =45 Ah 2 100 25 18 2 810000mm 4
Area 2
I yyN . A I Ah 2
130208 810000 833333 2025000 3,798,541mm 4
k1 = 13
for area 2 (100x10), the distance from its
zero datum
centroid to the compound section centroid is
k2 = 32mm
y 63 db 3 100 10 3
k2 = 32 I 8333mm 4
12 12
Z Ah 100 10 32 2 1024000mm 4
2
I zzN. A I Ah 2
2083333 422500 8333 1024000 3,538,166mm 4
This process is also best undertaken in tabulated form, to reduce and identify calculation errors.
z
A. z 30.4 mm I yyN. A.
bd3
Ah2 3798542 mm
4
A 12
So, we have just calculated I for the angle section in the previous section, let us now calculate
Wel about the y-y axis.
Z
The first moment of area is also known as the Section Modulus. Section property tables will
often quote Elastic Section Modulus (traditionally represented by Z) and Plastic Section Modulus
(traditionally represented by S)
Z
175
20
z
A.z
8
A
350
Y Y
I yyN . A I Ah 2
30
250
Z
Element b d A=bd z A.z h zz I bd 3 12 Ah2
No (mm) (mm) (mm2) (mm) (mm3) (mm) (mm4) (mm4)
125
z
A.z
Y Y
A
600
I yyN . A I Ah 2
250 250 175 250 250
Z
4mm thick mild steel
75
z
A.z
A
Y Y
230
I yyN . A I Ah 2
75
98
100 100
Z
Element b d A=bd z A.z h zz I bd 3 12 Ah2
No (mm) (mm) (mm2) (mm) (mm3) (mm) (mm4) (mm4)
Y Y
EI yyN . A E I Ah 2
Five 25mm diameter steel
reinforcing bars
25 Esteel = 210 kN/mm2
I d 4 64
Z
Element A z A.z h zz I Ah2 E(I+Ah2)
No (mm2) (mm) (mm3) (mm) (mm4) (mm4) (x106 Nmm2)
26
PFC Y-Y
z
A.z
Y-Y Y-Y A
UB Y-Y
I yyN . A I Ah 2
230
Crane beam manufactured from :
457x191x82 UB and 300x90x41 PFC
Z
Element A z A.z h zz I Ah2
No (cm2) (cm) (cm3) (cm) (cm4) (cm4)
1 104 37100
2 52.7 404
75 x 75 timber flange
Etimber = 10 kN/mm2
z
A.z
A
Y Y
600 x 12 plywood web
Etimber = 25 kN/mm2
I yyN . A I Ah 2
Z
Element b d A z A.z h zz I Ah2 E(I+Ah2)
No (mm) (mm) (mm2) (mm) (mm3) (mm) (x106 mm4) (x106 mm4) (x106 Nmm2)
D 4
For solid shafts Ip
32 D
D d
4 4 d D
For annular shafts Ip
32
For general sections where the centroids of the compound section and elements coincide
then, Ip = Iyy + Izz
F1
V S2 Shear force distribution
tf
F2
y-y axis
s h
2
e b F3
VA' z
If the section is of uniform thickness, S1 S 2 and F1 S1 t f b 0.5
bI y
Vertical equilibrium, V 0, F V 2
Horizontal equilibrium, H 0, F F 1 3
h Fh
Moments about shear centre, M 0, F 2 e 2 F1 , so e may be calculated, e 1
2 F2
Most civil engineering composites contain steel because it is one of the few materials
which performs well in tension, and has a high modulus of elasticity.
The modular ratio of a composite is the ratio of the two Young’s moduli. So for the
flitched timber beam,
Esteel 210,000
m 21 which means steel is 21 times stiffer than timber, and if we
Etimber 10,000
wished to obtain a single second moment of area of the composite section,
I timber
I composite I steel to give an answer in units of steel.
m
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 3. Material Properties.ppt , 4. Section Properties.ppt
, 4a. Section Properties Tutorial.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the lecture will
suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Strength of Materials Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on
Sunday evening.
3. Have a rest.
1. sketch the stress-strain relationship you would expect to obtain from a tensile test on
a mild steel specimen. Indicate the following on your graph:
the elastic region
the limit of proportionality
the yield stress
Define the relationship which is attributed to the slope of the graph in the elastic
region.
5. An aircraft wing is formed from 2mm thick aluminium sheets and 3mm thick mild
steel zed-sections. Obtain the flexural rigidity (EI) of a 1.00m wide section for major axis
bending. Take Esteel = 210 kN/mm2 and Ealuminium = 70 kN/mm2
N.A Y Y
According to Newton’s second law, a mass is subject to a force dependant upon the
gravitational acceleration (g) exerted upon it. On Earth, g = 9.81 m/s2
and, Force = Mass x g
Newton’s third laws states that all actions have equal and opposite reactions. Actions are the
forces applied to structures. Taking a beam as an example of a structure which spans between
supports:
actions may be of any intensity but we will only consider point
and uniformly distributed actions.
The beam is assumed to be isotropic (unchanging cross section)
and homogenous (unchanging material throughout).
Various support conditions are possible, depending upon the
amount of restraint.
Beam supports are drawn in many ways but all depictions are intended to signify the number
and direction of the support reactions. Reactions are the forces exerted by foundations to
support the structure. There are three types of reaction:
Roller support
The end of the beam is permitted to rotate
and roll horizontally but not displace
vertically.
2.1.1 Axial, N
N N Axial force is applied along the longitudinal
axis of the beam. If the beam shortens, the
force is compressive. If the beam lengthens,
V the force is tensile.
2.1.2 Shear, V
A shear force acts perpendicular to the
V
longitudinal axis of the beam, and attempts to
sever the beam.
2.1.3 Bending, M
M M
A bending moment is a twist applied in the
plane of the beam. Usually, bending moments
are a result of forces acting at a lever arm but
a couple is a special case of an in-plane twist
applied to a beam.
T
T 2.1.4 Torsion, T
A pure torque is a twist applied along the
longitudinal axis of the beam.
0 0 4. To finish the shear force diagram, hatch the area between the zero
axis and the line we have just constructed.
Pb
L
Mmax
VB b
And now an example with numerical values and a uniformly distributed action.
30 kN 12 kN/m
Taking moments about A, M 0
5
10VB 30 2 12 5 3 2 ,VB 51kN
2
HA A B vertical equilibrium, V 0
VA VB 30 12 5,VA 39kN
VB
horizontal equilibrium, H 0
VA
2 3m 5m
H A 0kN
10 m
Now plot the shear force diagram.
39
Shear Force Diagram (kN)
2. go down 30kN The point where the shear force diagram cuts the zero
1. go up 39kN
3. go down
12kN/m x 5m
-51 We may locate the point of zero shear by using similar
4. go up 51kN
triangles:
9 51
9 5-x , x 0.75m
x 5 x
x
Therefore zero shear occurs 4.25m from B.
51
To draw the bending moment diagram with all values, we must calculate the bending
moment at three points:
At the 30kN point action
A cut a free body diagram, M 0
M30 2VA M 30 , M 30 2 39 78kNm
VA
2m 12 kN/m
At the left end of the uniform action
B
cut a free body diagram,
M 0
Mudl 5
5VB M udl 12 5 , M udl 5 51 150 105kNm
5m 2
VB
12 kN/m
At the point of zero shear
B
cut a free body diagram, M 0
Mmax 4.25
4.25VB M max 12 4.25
4.25 m 2
VB M max 4.25 51 150 108kNm
Bending Moment
78
105
108 this part will be a parabola
hung from the dotted line
2. plot reaction -100 1. plot 100 kN Now plot the axial force diagram using forces parallel
100 to the beam.
Diagram (kN)
Axial Force
0 0
Shear Force Diagram (kN)
1. go up 3.5 kN
4. go down 10kN
10 Now plot the shear force diagram using forces
9.5 perpendicular to the beam.
0 0
3. go up 45.5kN Locate the point of maximum bending using similar
triangles:
2. go down 9.5 35.5
15kN/m x 3m -35.5 , x 0.633m
x 3 x
9.5 3-x Therefore zero shear occurs 2.633m from A.
x
35.5
To draw the bending moment diagram with are interested in the maximum values of
bending moment in the span and on the cantilever:
A At point D
MD cut a free body diagram, M 0
VA 2VA M D , M D 2 9.5 19kNm
2m
10kN
At point B (cantilever support)
MB
B
cut a free body diagram, M 0
15 kN/m
10 2 M B , M B 20kNm
A 2m
D At the point of max bending
0.633
Mmax cut a free body diagram, M 0
VA 0.633
2.633 m m 2.633V A M max 15 0.633
2
M max 22kNm
20
Bending Moment
Diagram (kNm)
0
Now plot the bending moment diagram.
0
3.00 m 2.00 m
The deflected shape can be seen by
clamping a ruler at the edge of a desk
and pushing the free edge downwards. A 40 kN 20 kN
HA
The only support is at the fixed end. 70 kN
There must be a horizontal reaction (HA), a MA B C
vertical reaction (VA)and a moment no rotation at the
reaction (MA) – which acts anti-clockwise VA fixed support
deflected
position.
70
AFD
horizontal equilibrium, H 0 0 0
H A 70kN
60
SFD
V 0
20
vertical equilibrium, 0 0
V A 40 20 220
BMD
V A 60kN 40
0 0
B
M A 220kNm 2m
deflected
VA 53.1kN
shape
point of zero shear =
point of max moment
53.1
The maximum bending moment will be at
SFD
13.1
point C (the point of zero shear) 0 0
16.9
46.9
0 0
BMD
79.7
95.7
M 0
112.4
Taking moments to right of B,
M B 1.5 53.1 1.50 m
M B 79.7kNm
MB
M 0
53.1
Taking moments to left of C, 40 kN
M C 4.0 53.1 2.50 40
free body diagrams
M C 112.4kNm
MC
53.1
3 VF 100 2
B E
VA VC VF
VF 66.7kN no deflection
deflected
at supports
M 0
shape
Taking moments about A,
5 VC 9.5 VF 35 2 100 8.5
5VC 9.5 66.7 70 850 33.2
10.9
VC 57.3kN
SFD
0
V 0
0
vertical equilibrium,
V A 57.3 66.7 35 100 24.1
V A 10.9kN 66.7
H 0
50.5
horizontal equilibrium,
BMD
H A 0kN 0 0
21.8
M 0
2.00 m
Taking moments to left of B,
free body diagrams
M B 2 10.9
MB
M B 21.8kNm 10.9
35 kN
Taking moments to left of C, M 0
M C 5 10.9 3 35 MC
10.9
M C 50.5kNm 2.00 m 3.00 m
There is a relationship between loading, shear and bending moment which may be
investigated at this point, and explains why the maximum bending moment occurs at zero
shear force.
Consider a beam subject to any uniform loading, w (kN/m). If we extract a small element of
length x then the uniform load may be considered constant over its length.
V B V A w.x
sin ce, V B V A v
x x then, V A v V A w.x initial slope final slope
w.x v 0 -ive +ive
MA
and if the elemental dimension x is very small and tends to
MB=MA+M zero, then
dv
VA x VB=VA+V w which may be interpreted as;
dx
the rate of change of shear force at a section = minus the load intensity
the change in bending moment between two points = the area of the shear force diagram
between the same two points
m9
r 3
j6
(9 3) 2 6 0
statically determinate
m 1
r 3
j2
(1 3) 2 2 0
statically determinate
m 10
r 3
j6
(10 3) 2 6 1
statically indeterminate
m 1
r 3
j2
(1 3) 2 2 0
statically determinate
If all points in a structure are linearly elastic, then the effect of a number of forces acting
simultaneously is the sum of the forces applied individually.
This is best demonstrated by an example. A beam is loaded with a central point action and a
uniform action
Now consider the two loadings separately, taking the equations for shear and moment from
the Standard Cases at the end of the text.
30 kN 12 kN/m
P wL
15 60
2 2
Shear Force
Diagrams (kN)
Bending Moment
Diagrams (kNm)
PL
75
4
this shape is a
parabola
wL2
150
8
Clearly the central ordinate of the bending moment diagram is 75kNm + 150kNm = 225kNm, as
calculated above. The Principal of Superposition works.
intervals
3. Join corresponding ordinates with straight
lines. 1
4. Join the intersection points to form a
smooth parabola.
1 2 3 4 5
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 5. Analysis of Beams.ppt , 5a. Analysis of Beams
Tutorial.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further
reading.
2. Attempt the Rigid Body Statics Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on
Sunday evening.
3. Have a rest.
reach = 10m 2m 1m
45kN/m
downward triangular uniformly distributed action
and an upward point action.
Locate the centroid of the triangular action and
calculate the total action.
Calculate the reactions.
Sketch the shear force diagram.
Calculate the maximum bending moment.
9. A two span simply supported beam has three supports and contains a pin within the
first span.
Calculate the reactions by taking moments about points E and A (where the moment
must equal zero), then solve for VA, VC and VE.
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams.
12 kN/m 90 kN
B D
A C E
3m 3m 2m 2m
6m 4m
10. Sketch deflected shapes, axial force, shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the following beam and loading arrangements.
12 kN/m 30 kN 30 kN
12 kN/m
75 kN 85 kN
deflected
shape
shape
AFD
AFD
SFD
SFD
BMD
BMD
10 kN
5 kN/m
70 kN 90 kN
deflected
shape
shape
AFD
AFD
SFD
SFD
BMD
BMD
10. Cont’d.
50 kN/m
100 kN 125 kN 60 kN 50 kN/m
75 kN 85 kN
deflected
shape
shape
AFD
AFD
SFD
SFD
BMD
BMD
65 kN -15 kN
75 kN 10 kN/m
25 kN 40 kN
deflected
m
shape
shape
AFD
AFD
SFD
SFD
BMD
BMD
So far the analysis of beams has have considered but for long spans this will often produce very
heavy structures. An alternative is the pin-jointed framework, which has a high strength to
weight ratio for long span structures.
Efficient beams use an I-section. This is because the majority of the material is located the
maximum distance from the centroidal axis – in the flanges. The web largely resists shear
stresses which are less significant than bending stresses in simply supported beams. If we
extend this to its logical extreme, we may remove parts of the web material to form a
lightweight perforated structure called a pin-jointed framework.
compression
shear
tension
an I section
Pin-jointed frameworks are more commonly called trusses, and may span vertically or
horizontally. A truss is manufactured from discrete elements, connected together at joints.
Although we idealise the joints as pins (no moment is transmitted) in reality this is never
achieved.
We shall consider the analysis of two dimensional trusses only.
top chord in
compression (strut)
pin joint
bottom chord in
tension (tie)
Assumptions must be made to permit simple analysis:
The elements are straight, weightless and inextensible,
All actions are applied at joints,
The truss is statically determinate.
The truss is split into triangular panels.
Like the simply supported beam, the pin-jointed framework will experience compression in the
top chord and tension in the bottom chord. The force in the internals may be either tension or
compression. So, although the framework is resisting bending moment, the elements of the
framework experience only axial force (and some shear). Axial forces will be minimised if
elements intersect at 450, although this may produce a deep framework.
It is important to use a consistent sign convention when analysing a pin-jointed framework.
T C
Note that the
internal element
force opposes the
+ive external force in -ive
magnitude and
direction
T C
Element in tension, force positive Element in compression, force negative
There are three common methods to obtain forces in frameworks:
1. The graphical method (using Bow’s notation).
2. The method of resolution at the joints.
3. The method of sections (most commonly used when only a selection of forces are
required).
4 kN
3-4-5 right angle triangle we also know the forces
must be in the same proportion (3kN-4kN-5kN).
4.000 m
5.000 m
3 kN
F
3.000 m
V
y
The vertical component is, V .F
z
x
The horizontal component is, H .F
z z
y
4 75 kN
H 75 75 60kN 60 35 50 kN
5
for the 75kN force, 45 35
3 3 5 √2
V75 75 45kN 1
5 4 1
1
H 50 50 35kN +R
2 +V
for the 50kN force,
1
V50 50 35kN
2 +H
We may now algebraically sum the components to obtain the resultant force (a single
equivalent force which replaces the two inclined forces).
H 60 (35) 25kN
V 45 35 80kN
R H 2 V 2 252 802 83.8kN
A C
B
2m
D
3m 5m
8m
H 0 H 0 a
Calculate the internal forces in the framework members, and determine whether each is in
tension or compression.
A FAB
at joint A resolve vertically
2 3.606
FAD 31.3 2.0
3.605 3.0
FAD 56.4kN (T ) FAD
31.3 kN
vertical reaction (↑) equals vertical component of AD (↓)
50 kN
at joint A resolve horizontally
3
FAD FAB
3.605 47kN
FAB 47kN (C ) FBC
horizontal component of AD (→) equals AB (←)
B
FBD 50kN(C )
vertical action (↓) equals BD (↑)
T 47 47
50.4
50
56.4
31.4
18.7
+ive
47 47
Sign Convention VA = 31.3kN VC = 18.7kN
T
M 0
3.000 m
Moments about A,
4VD 3 200 VD 150kN
H 0, H A 200kN
V 0,V A 150kN A D
4.000 m
at joint A resolve horizontally
4
FAC 200
5 FAC
FAB
FAC 250kN (T )
5.0
horizontal reaction (←) equals horizontal component of AC (→) 3.0
4.0
at joint A resolve vertically 200 kN A
3
FAB FAC 150kN, FAB 0 kN
5
vertical reaction (↓) equals vertical component of AC (↑) 150 kN
3.000 m
horizontal action (→) equals BC (←) 0
+250
-150
150
The summary of forces is: 200
T
A D
200
+ive 4.000 m
M L K J H
6 panels @ 4 m = 24m
60 4 70 8 3 FKJ 186.7 8 50 kN 60 kN 70 kN
FKJ 231.2kN (Tension)
FDE E
Moments about K, M 0 F G
50 4 60 8 70 12 3 FDE 186.7 12 3m
FDE 240.1kN (Compression) FKE
lever arm (L) for force FKE about FKJ 186.7 kN
point J is obtained from trigonometry, K J H
4
Tan , 53.13 L 4m
3
L
Sin , L 3 Sin53.13 2.4m
3
Moments about J, M 0
60 4 70 8 186.7 8 3 FDE FKE 2.4
FKE 11.1kN (Tension)
Determine the sense and magnitude of the unknown forces in the following framework
elements:
20 kN
25 kN 15 kN
25 kN F HK
F BG 30 kN
3m 25 kN
15 kN
3m F HJ 6m
10 kN
8m
F AB
F PS
50 kN T
39 kN F AC
3m
2m +ive
1m 4m
F PQ
30 1.732m
Sign Convention
(Best attacked by resolving components of the 10kN action) T
FBG= -17.7 kN, FAC= +15 kN, FAB= -40 kN, FHK= +10 kN, FHJ= -35 kN, FPQ= -8.7 kN, FPS= -34 kN
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 12. Analysis of Trusses.ppt , 12a. Analysis of Trusses
Tutorial.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further
reading.
2. Attempt the Pin-jointed Frameworks Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm
on Sunday evening.
3. Have a rest.
3m
weighs 50kN. Given that
framework and actions K H
A G
are symmetrical
J
calculate the axial
forces in all the elements
4 panels @ 4 m = 16m
using resolution at the
joints.
B C D
2. Using the method of
sections, calculate the axial
4m
forces in elements CD, CF and
FG only. A G F E
E
40 kN 25 kN
3 panels @ 8 m = 24m
6. A steel tower crane is formed from triangulated pin-jointed bars. It has a permanent
counterbalance of 100kN.
If an action of 100kN is lifted at the maximum jib length, obtain forces DE, CE and CF.
If the yield stress is 325N/mm2 calculate the cross-section area of bar DE to achieve a
factor of safety = 1.00
Sketch the deflected shape of the tower crane.
Confirm the sense and magnitude of forces in these pin-jointed framework are correct
using resolution at the joints or the method of sections. State your sign convention.
7. 60 kN 90 kN
A B D
C
3.00 m
60 kN 90 kN
F E 93 93 106
117 133
80
10
70
80
93 13
106
VA = 70kN VD = 80kN
106
5
3
8.
C
HC = 66.7kN
83.4
50
3m
VC = 50 kN
67
A B HA = 66.7kN
67
50 kN 50 kN
4m
9. 100 kN
A B C 6.00 m
D
8.00 m 8.00 m
100 kN
66.7 66.7
HA = 0 kN
100
83.3 83.3
50
VC = 50 kN 67 VC = 50 kN
10.
C
100 kN 100 kN
141
4.00 m
100
100
100
100
B D
160
5.00 m
125
100 225
100
A E HA = 100 kN
4.00 m
VC = 225 kN VC = 225 kN
11.
G 333
F
5.0m 3.0m 333
250
417
250
250
4.0m 417
250 kN 250 kN
E 333 333
D 167
125
208
500
125
208
167
HA = 0kN
167 167
B
VA = 125kN VC = 375kN
Tension +ive
12. (resolve the applied force into horizontal and vertical components)
C D E 400 400
300
300
300
300
500
400
B
G F 400
400
5.0m
300
300
300
3.0m
500
4.0m
HA = 400kN
VA = 0kN VH = 300kN
13.
B C B 115 C
2.60m
115 115
6.0m 115
50
50
115
E HA = 0 kN
57.7 E 57.7
57.7 57.7
100 kN 100 kN
VA = 50 kN VD = 50 kN
Use a scale rule and vectors to draw the forces on the pin-jointed frame below.
10 kN
4.000 m
20 kN
4.000 m
3.000 m
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Force Scale (kN)
Use a scale rule and vectors to draw the reactions for the arches below. Scale off the
horizontal and vertical components of the reactions.
2 kN/m
2 kN/m
20.000 m
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Force Scale (kN)
4. Buckling of Struts
This section will introduce the phenomena of buckling action in compressed structural elements.
Students will learn to understand and predict this problematic behaviour and calculate the
axial capacities of structural elements.
You should read this section of the handbook in conjunction with the following Powerpoint
lectures on Blackboard: 18. Struct Buckling.ppt , 18a. Struct Buckling tutorial.ppt
Principal References: Megson, T.H.G. Strength of Materials for Civil Engineers.
A strut is a structural element subject to compression. Short (or stocky) struts may be
compressed until yield stress is reached, this is called the Squash Load and is largely
independent of cross-sectional shape. However, useful struts are relatively long in comparison
to their cross-sectional area and suffer buckling before achieving yield stress. Buckling is a
phenomenon caused by lateral displacement of an axially loaded strut. Long, or slender, strut
buckling capacity is highly dependant upon length and cross-sectional shape.
P P P P
E E E E
LE=0.7L
L LE=1.0L LE=0.5L
LE=2L
End restraint
Pin-pin Pin-fix Fix-fix Free-fix
conditions
Euler buckling 2 EI 2 2 EI 4 2 EI 2 EI
capacity, PE L2 L2 L2 4L2
Theoretical LE 1.0L 0.70L 0.50L 2.0L
Design LE 1.0L 0.85L 0.70L 2.0L
4.0.2 Slenderness,
Slenderness is a measure of a structural element’s propensity to buckle (or displace sideways).
It may be defined mathematically as the quotient of effective length and radius of Z gyration, or
LE
tf
i
Since struts may be made of non-symmetrical sections, the effective
length and radius of gyration may be different about the principal h
Y Y
axes (y-y and z-z). It is usually necessary to calculate slenderness tw
about each axis and select the largest slenderness ratio for design.
A strut buckles about the axis which has the largest slenderness ratio. Z
b
3m
LEz = 3m
4m
LEy = 4m
LEz = 4m
The same analysis may be applied to the other three end restraint conditions to obtain the
equations listed in the effective length section.
I
We know that the radius of gyration is i
or I Ai 2
A
2 EAi 2 LE PE 2 E
then PE and a pin ended strut has so, f E 2
L2 i A
If the buckling stress is plotted against slenderness
Stress, fE (N/mm2)
E
fy
we may remove from the equation as it will be a material constant for each strut. This
2E
material constant is usually denoted by a (and must be obtained by experimentation but 0.0001
is common) giving,
fyA fyA
PR
L
2
1 a2
1 a E
i
The Rankine buckling capacity is a significant improvement upon the Euler buckling capacity
for short struts, and a slight improvement for intermediate struts.
defining y 0 sin
x
we have
x
d 2 z P sin L y
0 and the general solution is
L dx 2 EI
k 2 x
y A cos kx B sin kx 2 sin
k2 L
L2
Considering the boundary conditions at supports (and taking the origin at the top),
L
when x and sin 1 then y c
2 2 PE
P 1
so we may obtain the final lateral deflection (yc) of a strut from the Euler buckling capacity, the
initial midheight displacement ()and the anticipated axial load.
yc
If a strut which has an initial curvature is loaded,
the relationship between load and central
deflection can be used to estimate the initial
yc curvature, as shown in the adjacent graph.
P
f
1
2
f y f E 1
1
4
f y f E 1 f y f E this is the Perry formula.
2
This solution required the additional work of Robertson who produced solutions for and we
now use this formula in a modified form to accurately predict the stress in struts of any
slenderness. f c
1
2
f y f cr 1
1
4
f y f cr 1 f y f cr
2
2E
where, fc is the strut stress, fy is the material yield stress, f cr 2 (the critical buckling stress) and
0.003 .
4
Izz (cm ) 1770
Z iyy (cm) 8.91
izz (cm) 5.18
Y A (cm2) 66.3
Y
Z
To interpret the information in the question, the words ‘restrained in position’ means pinned and
‘restrained in position and rotation’ means fixed.
The deflected shapes for buckling about both axes will be as shown below.
z z
y y
Calculate the effective lengths and slenderness ratio’s about both axes.
Minor axis buckling Major axis buckling
LEz 1.0L 4.000m (bottom storey) LEy 1.0L 7.000m
LEz 1.0 L 400 LEy 1.0 L 700
zz 77 yy 79
i zz i zz 5.18 i yy i yy 8.91
Since 79>77 only calculate Euler buckling capacity for major axis (y-y has maximum )
2 EI yy 2 210 10 3 5260 10 4
PEy 2224890 N 2225kN
L2Ey 7000 2
Since slenderness <85 this capacity is unlikely to be an acceptable value.
PE 2224890
The Euler buckling stress may be obtained from, f E 336 N / mm 2 which
A 6603 10 2
fc
1
2
f y 1 0.003 yy f cr
1
4
f y 1 0.003 yy f cr f
2
y f cr
fc
1
275 1 0.003 79 332 1 275 1 0.003 79 3322 275 332
2 4
1 685 2
f c 685 91300 342.5 161.3 181N / mm 2
2 4
Perry-Robertson axial capacity given by,
181 66.3 10 2
N cy f c A 1200kN
10 3
Clearly, at the relatively low slenderness ratio of 97, the Euler buckling capacity equation is
unsafe and should not be used. The Rankine and Perry-Robertson capacity predictions are
close (within 7%).
A hollow tube strut forms part of a tower crane structure. It is 2.0m long and its cross sectional
dimensions are 30mm outside diameter and 20mm internal diameter. The tube is formed from
mild steel of elastic modulus = 210x106 kN/m2. One end of the tube is fixed against rotation, the
other end is not.
The strut is examined and found to be curved, such that the mid-length is displaced laterally by
5mm. If the strut is to be subject to a compressive load of 10kN, calculate the compressive
capacity of the strut accounting for this imperfection.
Firstly, calculate the Euler buckling load, assuming the tube is perfectly straight.
D 2 d 2 302 202
Cross-sectional area, A 393mm4
4 4
D 4 d 4
304 204
Second moment of area, I 31907mm4
64 64
I 31907
Radius of gyration, i 9.0mm
A 393
For a strut pinned at one end and fixed at the other LE=0.85L
LE 0.85 2000
Slenderness, 189 >120 so Euler theory will apply
i 9
2 EI 2 200 106 319.07 106
PE 21.8kN for a perfect strut.
LE
2
0.85 22
5 5
The final deflection is given by, yc 5 5 4.2 9.2mm
PE 21.8 1.18
P 1 10 1
2m 2m
Calculate the maximum value of P which the framework may carry using Euler theory. Check
that Euler theory will be applicable.
D 2 d 2 322 262
A 273mm2
4 4
I
D d 4
4
32 264
4
29040mm4
64 64
all elements have effective length of LE=1.0L so assess element AB (longest strut)
2 EI 2 70 103 29040
PE AB 2
5015 N 5kN
LE 20002
P
Analyse forces in framework,
Vertical reaction = 0.5P
Vertical equilibrium at joint A,
P P
1 5
FAD 0.5P, FAD P
5 2 √5
P
Horizontal equilibrium at joint A, 0.5P
1
2 2
FAD FAB , FAB P 0.5P
5
Vertical equilibrium at joint B,
FBD = P
Therefore, P = 5 kN
LE L 2000
For top chord member, E 194 >120, LONG
i I 29040
A 273
L LE 1000
For vertical strut member, E 97 >85, INTERMEDIATE
i I 29040
A 273
No strut members are SHORT, therefore Euler theory is applicable.
The top chord of a truss is loaded with three identical forces, it is restrained in position but not
direction at quarter points and at the supports. If the top chord is a 203x203x52UC S275,
calculate the maximum value of W if the strut capacity is calculated using the Rankine formula.
W
W
W
4.0 m
3.0 m
3.0 m
3.0 m 12.0 m
Calculate the effective lengths and slenderness ratio’s about both axes.
Minor axis buckling Major axis buckling
LEz 1.0L 12.000m LEy 1.0L 3.000m
LEz 1.0 L 1200 LEy 1.0 L 300
zz 232 yy 34
i zz i zz 5.18 i yy i yy 8.91
Since 34<232 only calculate buckling capacity for minor axis (z-z has maximum )
Assume a 0.0001 and f y 275N / mm2
PR fy 275
fR 43N / mm2
A 1 a 1 0.0001 232
2 2
The Rankine axial capacity is given by,
43 66.3 10 2
PR f R A 286kN
103
Analysing the truss, end reaction = 1.5W and the force in the top chord FAD
4 5 1.5
FAD 1.5W , FAD W 1.875W
5 4
3 3
FAD 286kN,1.875W 286, W 254kN
5 5
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 18. Strut Buckling.ppt , 18a. Strut Buckling
Tutorial.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further
reading.
2. Attempt the Struts Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.
1. A mild steel scaffold tube strut (circular hollow section) is 32mm outside diameter
and 3mm thick. Assuming the strut is perfect and a family car is of mass 1500kg, how
long may the tube be if it is required to support one family car. Assume pinned end
restraint at top and bottom.
2. A one metre long aluminium bar is 15mmx 5mm and has a yield stress of 270N/mm2.
If the bar is axially loaded until it buckles, calculate the central deflection at the onset
of buckling. Assume pinned end connections.
If the action is now removed and the maximum lateral deflection remains as an initial
deformation, what will the final deflection be if 75N is then applied to the strut.
Estimate the Euler buckling capacity and the initial central deflection.
PE PE PR
PR
4.000 m
PE PR
PR PR
3.750 m
4.000 m
88.9CHS6.3
4.500 m
S355
5. Stress Analysis
This section will address the calculation of local stresses within elastic engineering structures.
Students will learn to calculate direct and shear stresses used in the design of structural
elements. The concept of principal stress and elastic failure will also be introduced.
You should read this section of the handbook in conjunction with the following Powerpoint
lectures on Blackboard: 20. Stress.ppt , 20b. Principal Stress.ppt
Principal References: Megson, T.H.G. Strength of Materials for Civil Engineers.
We have studied the calculation of global internal forces (axial, shear, torsion and bending)
which exist in the structure. When we examine the local distribution of force at a point in a
structure we must use stress and strain.
y y
y y y y y
y y y
z z z z
z
I-section Rectangular Channel Tee Zed section
Doubly Symmetrical Singly symmetrical Unsymmetrical
The following text will only deal with bending stress in doubly or singly symmetrical sections
(special equations apply to unsymmetrical sections). Place a mirror on the axis, and if the
reflection shows an unchanged section the section is symmetric.
If a beam is subject to pure bending, the resulting geometry will be a beam curved to a
circular arc, as shown below.
If the material is linearly elastic and homogeneous then as it deforms under load the top
surface will shorten in length (being compressed) and the bottom surface will stretch (being in
tension). Clearly there must be point where the fibres are being neither stretched or
compressed, where there is zero bending stress. This is called the neutral axis.
For a beam subject to a bending moment M and bent to a circular arc of radius R, the small
element A-B is of length x which is an arc length of R.
When the element is subject to tension the change in length is given by;
e R z x R z R z.
e z. z
the direct strain is given by
L R. R
f z
and since the beam is linearly elastic we know that E , or rearrangin g f E E
R
since the stress block for bending moment shows
compression forces in opposite directions, to ensure equilibrium
the resultant normal force over the whole section
must be zero,
H 0
0
E R 0,
z
f .dA 0, substituting taking out constants
A
tension 0 0
Neutral Axis (N.A)
z.dA 0
E E
z.dA 0, since cannot equal zero then
R R
A A
0
z.dA is called the First Moment of Area (W ) about the neutral axis.
A
el
z z
E 2
M f .z.dA, and M 2
.dA 0 of which .dA is called the Second Moment of Area (Iyy)
R
A A A
about the neutral axis.
E
The last equation may therefore be rewritten, M . I and if we include the equation for
R
direct strain we have the Engineers equation of simple bending;
12 12
using Simple Bending, at the point of maximum
Diagram (kNm)
bending moment,
78 M f E
,
105
108
I z R
Mz 108 10 6 200
fm 41N / mm 2
I 533 10 6
For axial tension forces this calculation will deal with all circumstances. However, when the
force is compressive this approach is only adequate for very stocky elements. Reference
should be made to the Struts section in this text, as axial compression in slender elements
requires more consideration.
30 kN 12 kN/m
If we extend the analysis of the previous
example from the Rigid Body Statics section by
adding an axial compression force of 400kN,
400 kN we may calculate the axial stress.
HA A
B
The axial force will compress the beam from
VA VB
end B to end A, where the horizontal reaction
2 HA will resist movement.
3m 5m
10 m A b.d 100 400 40000mm2
Diagram (kN)
N 400 103
Axial Force
fn 10 N / mm2
A 40000
Neutral
Axis + =
41 0 0 31 0
Bending Stress (N/mm2) Axial Stress (N/mm2) Combined Stress (N/mm2)
At the point of maximum bending, the combined stress may be calculated as follows,
the top surface is in bending compression and axial compression,
f top f m f n 41 (10) 51N / mm2 (compression)
the bottom surface is in bending tension and axial compression,
fbottom f m f n 41 (10) 31N / mm2 (tension)
1 18
22.5
S.F.D. (kN)
z
22.5
275
2
96 8
450
200
Second moment of area about the y-y axis, taking datum from top surface:
Element breadth depth area distance A.z h = z - .z Ah 2 bd 2 / 12
No b (mm) d (mm) A (mm ) z (mm)
2
(mm ) 3
(mm) (mm4) (mm4)
1 100 18 1800 9 16200 143 36962132 48600
2 8 245 1960 141 276360 11 250215 9804083
3 200 12 2400 269 645600 -117 32686063 28800
A = 6160 A.z = 938160 69898410 9881483
z
A. z 152 mm I yyN. A.
bd3
Ah2 79779894 mm
4
A 12
Axial Stress,
P 500 103
fn 81N / mm2 (compression)
A 6160
The axial compression of 500kN is applied at the mid-height of the section, creating an eccentricity
moment. Moment at centre span due to axial load eccentricity (downward)
7300000
M azial P e 500 103 (275 152) 7.3kNm
2 106
123
Bending Stress,
the maximum bending stress will occur at the position of maximum moment,
the total bending moment, M M bend M axial 56.3 7.3 106 63.6kNm
Mz 63.6 10 6 152
the top surface bending stress, f mt 121N / mm 2
I yyN . A. 79779894
but the bottom surface is not the same distance from the neutral axis so it will be at a different
stress,
+ =
98 +17
cross section axial stress bending stress combined direct stress
Pre-stressed concrete uses eccentric axial compression to ensure the concrete is always in
compression (concrete has poor tensile strength), so let us examine a pre-tensioned concrete
floor plank and determine the axial compression required to eliminate tension and avoid the
need for steel reinforcement. The axial compression is applied by casting a steel tendon into
the plank and stretching it after the concrete has cured.
z 15
Y Y
S.F.D. (kN)
e 150
600
15
Cross section at midspan
B.M.D. (kNm)
Calculate the vertical reactions, moments about left
support,
6
5 6 6VB VB 15kN and VA 15kN
2 22.5
A.F.D. (kN)
3
M bending 5 3 15 3 M bending 22.5kNm
2
N
For a rectangle (standard case);
d 150
z 75mm
2 2
bd 3 600 150 3
I yy 168.75 10 6 mm 4
12 12
Since the tendons are below the neutral axis, the compressive force will bend the beam
upwards (against the vertical action bending moment). Start by calculating the bending stress
due to vertical action alone;
Bending Stress,
the maximum bending stress will occur at the position of maximum moment,
M z 22.5 106 75
bending stress, f m 10 N / mm2
I yy 168.75 10 6
As we have three 20mm diameter tendons in this plank, using high tensile steel for the tendon,
the yield stress is f y 450 N / mm2 . It is normal practice to place tendons eccentrically
because this provides upwards bending (or pre-camber) which allows floors to be horizontal
when construction is completed; it also reduces the amount of force which needs to be
applied to the concrete.
450 20 2
N f y D
2
The force carried by a round tendon will be, 3 424115 N
4 4
To cancel out the bottom surface tension (final combined stress = 0), we need an axial stress to
equal the final bending stress,
N 424115
fn 4.71N / mm 2 (compression)
b d 600 150
424115 e
M axial P e 0.424e kNm
10 6
the total bending moment, M M bend M axial 22.5 0.424e
bending stress, fm
Mz
4.71
22.5 0.424e 10 6 75 e 28mm
I yy 168.75 10 6
+ =
+4.7 -0.01
Cross section thro’ beam Timber bending stress Steel bending stress
E s 210000
Modular ratio, m 21
Et 10000
To calculate maximum load capacity, use maximum permissible timber stress.
bd 2 75 250 2
For timber alone, moment capacity, M t f m Wel f m 7.5 5.8kNm
6 6 10 6
75 75
Maximum steel stress, fs
fm m 7.5 21 95 N / mm 2
125 125
2b d 2 2 8 150 2
For steel alone, moment capacity, M s f s Wel f s 95 5.7kNm
6 6 10 6
For steel and timber composite, moment capacity, M comp M s M tl 5.8 5.7 11.5kNm
Therefore, the timber moment capacity is doubled by adding two steel plates. To force
composite action to occur the timber and steel plates must be bolted together to prevent
longitudinal slip.
centroid of Z x
V section
Y Y
A’ z X
Y
centroid of
area, A’ shear stress
complementary x
shear stress x x
x
direct bending stress
If is the average shear stress and comp is the associated complementary shear stress, then at an
element A’ there will be an associated direct bending stress x, and over a length of beam x
x
the bending stress will rise to x x
x
0 0
x
for equilibrium, .b.x x dA' x dx dA' 0
A' A
x
0
dM Vz
which simplifies to, .b x dA' and V so, .b dA'
A
x dx Iy
0
VA' z
Since, z.dA' is the first moment of area of A’ about Y-Y, then
A'
bI y
This may be specifically applied to rectangular and I-section beams as follows;
A doubly-symmetric steel I-section is subject to a vertical shear force of 100kN. The dimensions
of the I-section and a plot of the vertical shear flow are shown below.
150
1 2
65 65
30
Y Y 450
30
shear stress through an I-section is described by the equation of shear flow, in the case
of 1 the values are;
shear force, V 100kN 100 103 N
area of top flange, A 150 30 450mm2 (A is the area above the section being
breadth of flange, b 150mm considered).
h 30 450
from symmetry, z 15 210mm
2 2 2
VAz 100 103 450 210
1 0.13N / mm2
I yy b1 496.44 10 150
6
It is therefore evident that the shear stress is often numerically less significant than direct stress.
If the top hat stress distribution is approximated to rectangles the shear in the web and flanges
may be determined as
2 dtw 0.95 20 390 7.42kN
2 1bt f 2 0.13 150 30 1.17kN
7.42
so the proportion carried by the web is 86% which justifies the assumption that
7.42 1.17
shear is resisted by web elements only.
An example:
For a cantilever the support must be fixed and there
will be a torsion reaction at the support.
If we examine a simply supported beam subject to torsion we will see that the load intensity-
shear-moment relationship holds for load intensity-torsion also.
TA
2 kNm/m uniformly distributed The beam is subject to a point torsion at midspan (10
torsion kNm) and a uniformly distributed torsion (2 kNm/m).
All applied torques are anti-clockwise. Both reaction
torques are therefore clockwise.
From symmetry,
2kNm / m 4m 10kNm
TA TC 9kNm
2
TBA 9 2 2 5kNm
TBC 5 10 5kNm
TC 5 2 2 9kNm
Torsion is one of the forces which induces shear stress in structural elements. Just as shear forces
changes the shape of structural elements, torsion also attempts to change the shape of shafts.
A circular shaft which is subject to a pure torsion will rotate through an angle , along the
longitudinal axis, the shaft will rotate through an angle which is the shear strain.
The rotation of the shaft surface is equal on both axes, thus for small rotations,
R
for 0, tan (this means, as the small angle tends to zero, so too does Tan
L
tend to measured in radians)
R
we already know that .G so
G L
If we now cut a section through the shaft and examine the shear
stresses due to torsion, an annular element will show tangential
stresses.
Shear on an element r wide and s long will be .r. s
and its moment about the centre (torsion), T = .r. s. r
2r
If we sum all the torsion on this annulus, T r.rds 2r 2r
0
G
R R
The total torque in the bar is obtained by summing all annuli, T 2r 2dr 2r 3 dr
0 0
L
G 3
R
L 0
Taking out constants gives, T 2 r dr
R
The polar second moment of area (Ip) 2 r 3 dr
0
GI p T G
So, T or which is known as the equation of Simple Torsion.
L Ip L R
Note the similarity to the equation of simple bending. The angle of twist must be in radians for
calculations to work correctly.
Here are some worked examples for bars subject to torsional shear.
A tubular shaft is subject to torsion, t = 5mm and D = 150mm. At B the torsion is 30 kNm anti-
clockwise and at C is 25 kNm clockwise.
thickness = t
A
outside 30 kNm
diameter
=D
3.0 m B 25 kNm
Polar second moment of area,
Ip
32
D 4
d4
32
150 4
1404 11986158mm4
2.0 m C
20
Calculate the plane shear stress, assuming that it will be uniform across the section.
A
D d2
2
502 402 706.8mm2 Torsion Force Diagram (kNm)
4 4
0
V 20 10 3
s 28.3N / mm2
A 706.8 10
Calculate the torsional shear stress, using the equation of simple torsion.
T Ip G
R L
Ip
32
D 4
d4
32
50 4
404 362264mm4
50
10 106
t 2 690 N / mm2
362264
Calculate the maximum shear stress due to all forces. Combined shear stress
s t 28 690 718N / mm2
Calculate
L (the rate of twist) between points A and B,
E 210000
G 80769 N / mm2
2(1 ) 2(1 0.3)
T 10 106
0.179 radians 10.3 degrees
L G 80769 690
If we look at the stresses induced in a beam subject to bending and axial actions, the stresses
just below the neutral axis near midspan are,
z
x is the tensile stress due to bending and axial tension,
xz
z is the bearing stress (vertical compressive stress) which
may be zero in this case,
x x
xz is the shear stress acting in the xz plane in the z direction.
xz This situation is quite complex but what we are interested in
for design purposes is the maximum value. If we cut the
stress element at an angle and examine the resulting
z stresses, we have,
z
Where n is a normal direct stress and is a resultant shear stress.
2 xz
Tan 2
x z
There are two solutions to this equality, at and 90+ degrees, so there are two planes at 90
degrees to each other where maximum and minimum stresses occur, these planes correspond
to angles where = 0. The direct stresses on these planes are called principal stresses which
occur on principal planes.
We may depict the principal stresses and planes as follows,
z
Max shear
xz element
Stress element
The maximum Principal Stress
x z
2 1
1
x z 2 4 xz 2
1
max 2 2
The minimum Principal Stress
x z
x x 2
1
x z 2 4 xz 2
45 2 2
max 1 2 xz
Tan 2
2 x z
The maximum shear stress
xz 1 2
max
z Principal 2
element
If we calculate the principal stresses at many locations in a rectangular beam and plot them,
we obtain the Principal Stress Trajectories, as shown below. As expected the principal stresses
are horizontal at midspan where direct stresses are high and shear stresses are low. Conversely
at the supports, direct stresses are low and shear stresses are high, so the principal stresses are
vertical.
x x
xz
Shear stress
z
A x , xz)
2. Plot the values of coexistent
direct and shear stress at a
convenient scale using standard
Cartesian coordinates.
The centre of the circle is located at
Direct stress the average of the direct stresses.
C
2 1
max
2
5. Plot the Principal stress element
1 using the rotation angle, remember
max
xz 0 .
1
6. Plot the Shear stress element.
Maximum shear stress occurs at an
2 +45 angle of +45 degrees.
max
Pure tension
Pure compression
Pure shear
z = -120 1 = 198
O
x = 160
1. plot x and z on x axis
Radius, R = 145 N/mm 2 2. plot point O midway between
3. project vertical lines at x and z
4. plot 1 on x axis
5. draw circle centred at O, through 1
6. scale xz from circle
2 = -152 N/mm2
The term factor of safety (FoS) is in common use but in civil engineering it has specific meaning,
usually indicating an overall safety level of global stability. This is best demonstrated by
examples, using unfactored forces.
Consider three global failure mechanisms for a multi-storey building – sliding, overturning and
slip circle failure.
Sliding failure
F Disturbing force is wind
Restoring force is soil friction
C
FoS against sliding, 1.50
F
C
W Overturning failure
Disturbing force is wind moment
F Restoring force is self weight moment
h Wa
FoS against overturning, 1.50
Fh
a
Eurocode 7 requires partial safety factors to be applied to forces and strengths to ensure an
adequate safety margin.
L
Centroid of action within middle third of foundation. Small e P
eccentricity. B is the breadth of the section into the paper. 6
P M P Pe P 6e
f max 2 1
A Wel BL BL BL L
6
P M P 6e
f min 1
A Wel BL L
L
e P
6
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 20. Stress.ppt , 20a. Stress Tutorial.ppt on
Blackboard. The last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the stress Analysis Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on
Sunday evening.
3. Have a rest.
1. Using diagrams, explain what a neutral axis is and where it would be found on a
rectangular section beam.
2. What is simple bending theory. List the assumptions upon which it is based and
discuss the validity of each.
4. A test piece is machined from an unknown material and subjected a tensile test.
The test piece is 6mm diameter and 200mm long. At the limit of proportionality, the
applied load is 97kN. After the test is complete the test piece is 209.7mm long.
Identify the material giving reasons for your deduction.
5. A 400mm deep mild steel I-section is subject to a point and uniformly distributed
action and an axial action.
Calculate the second moment of area of the section.
Calculate the maximum shear stresses 1, 2 and 3.
Calculate the proportion of shear carried by the web.
Calculate the combined direct stress due to bending and axial actions.
150
1 2
103 kN 20 kN/m 67 68
20
300 kN
3
A B 400
1 3m 4m
8m 20
y y
7. At a point in a beam there are direct stresses of 160 N/mm2 tension and 120 N/mm2
compression on mutually perpendicular planes. The principal stress must be limited to
200 N/mm2 tension.
Using a scale plot of Mohr’s circle, calculate the allowable shear stress at that point.
10
0
9. The direct and shear stresses at a weld between two
tubes in a pin-jointed framework are shown below. 22
Draw the Mohr’s circle to scale,
Obtain the maximum shear stress, 57.9 57.9
N/mm2
Obtain the maximum and minimum principal stress,
Draw the principal stress element.
22
0
10. For the beam in question 5, calculate :
the maximum principal stress directly under the top flange at midspan,
the maximum shear stress directly above the bottom flange at a support.
6. Deformation
This section will deal with the deformations of simple elastic engineering structures such as
beams and trusses. Students will learn to calculate deflections of beams using material and
section properties (adressed in earlier sections). The acceptable limits of deformation will be
covered in later sections which deal with structural design.
You should read this section of the handbook in conjunction with the following Powerpoint
lectures on Blackboard: 6. Deflections of beams.ppt , 13. Truss deflection.ppt
Principal References: Hulse, R. & Cain, J. Structural Mechanics.
All structures must be serviceable (they must not deform more than is acceptable under
working actions). To ensure structures meet this requirement, we must be able to calculate the
expected deformation.
Deformation is a term which includes deflection (linear movement) and rotation (angular
movement). This text will concentrate upon deflection.
Structural elements which are good at resisting deformation are said to be stiff. Superficially we
would expect a larger section to have higher stiffness but this is only half the picture since some
materials are inherently better at resisting deformation – a 100mm square steel bar would
deform less than a balsa wood bar of the same size. We would also expect a short beam to be
stiffer than a long beam. So stiffness is a function of geometry, section and material properties.
Since there are four forces, there are also four stiffnesses (a wire may be axially stiff against
tension but very weak against bending). The relationships for stiffness are:
f 2 AL
Axial stress, U
2E
2 a 2b
Shear stress, U
2G
L
M2
Bending stress, U dx
0
2 EI
L
T2
Torsion stress, U dx
0
2GI p
Since our structures are in static equilibrium, the work done by applied actions (external strain
energy) must equal the internal strain energy. We may therefore obtain for simple structural
problems.
2GI p
U
1
400 1.0 0 400 3.5 400 1.0
2GI p
U
1
400 1400 400 1400
2GI p 2GI p
20
1400 1400
U 0.639 Nm 0.64 Joules
2 80769 1000 2 13560 2190
1000 4
calculate the twist at the cantilever tip
sum of all torsion = +20 - 40 = -20 Nm
T 2U 2 0.639 180
U 2.0, 0.063rads 0.063 3.67
2 T 20
HB
B take moments about B, M 0
L H C L W H C W
FAB
vertical equilibrium, V 0 , V W
B
horizontal equilibrium, H 0 , H H
VB
√2 B C W
1
W 2L
internal strain energy in each element, U
2 AE
2 AE
W
2W
2
2 L W 2 L 2W 2 2 L W 2 L
equating internal and external strain, 2 2 AE 2 AE 2 AE
2WL
AE
1 2
And in numerical example;
B
HB = 50kN
70.7
50
VB = 50 kN
3m
50
C A HC = 50kN
50
50 kN 50 kN
3m
If both elements have cross sectional area of 20 cm2 and E = 210 kN/mm2.
2WL
AE
1 2
2 50 3
420,000
1 2 1.72 10 3 m 1.72mm
The stored strain energy in pin-jointed frameworks is predominantly due to axial forces, so for
linear elastic material,
U FL F
where W is the applied action and F is the internal forces.
W AE W
The integration process is normally undertaken by direct summation of the truss element
FL F
extensions and the notional extension due to a unit action.
AE W
The procedure is:
1. Analyse the framework for the external actions to obtain the real internal forces (F)
FL
2. Calculate the element extensions ( )
AE
3. Apply a unit (1.0 kN) action at the joint, and in the direction, where the deflection is required.
F
Obtain the imaginary internal forces (
)
W
FL F
4. Summate the deflection required,
AE W
125 kN
A statically determinate pin
jointed, triangulated framework is
subject to one point load. The B C D
elastic modulus is 210x106 kN/m2
for all elements. The area of the
top and bottom chords are each
3m
equal to 0.01m2, the remaining
elements have area equal to
0.005m2. A E
F
Using either the Method of Sections or
Resolution at the Joints, we can obtain the
internal element forces for the real action 4m 4m
and for an imaginary unit action, applied
at joint F and in the vertical direction T
required. 125 kN
+ive
B -83.3 C -83.3 D
T Sign Convention
+104.1 -125 REAL FORCES (F)
-62.5
-62.5 +104.1 3m
These are the forces due to the
actions shown in the original
A E
question.
F
F
4m 4m VIRTUAL FORCES
-0.67 -0.67 W
B C D
These are the forces for the
+0.83 original frame geometry but
-0.5
-0.5 with the original action removed
+0.83
and a unit force applied at the
point and in the direction that
A E the deflection is required.
F
1.0 kN
If we consider element BC which is part of the top chord so cross-sectional area = 0.01m2,
length = 4.00m, the real force is -83.3kN, the imaginary force is -0.67kN. 83.3 4.0
Applying Castigliano’s Theorem in a tabular form, 0.000162
6
0.01 210 10
FL FL F
Length Area F e f
Element L A F AE AE W
W
(m) (m )
2
(kN) (m) (m)
AB 3 0.005 -62.5 -0.50 -0.00018 0.00009
BC 4 0.01 -83.3 -0.67 -0.00016 0.00011
CD 4 0.01 -83.3 -0.67 -0.00016 0.00011
DE 3 0.005 -62.5 -0.50 -0.00018 0.00009
EF 4 0.01 0 0.00 0.00000 0.00000
AF 4 0.01 0 0.00 0.00000 0.00000
CF 3 0.005 -125 0.00 -0.00036 0.00000
BF 5 0.005 104.1 0.83 0.00050 0.00041
FD 5 0.005 104.1 0.83 0.00050 0.00041
0.001217045
Returning to a steel framework we analysed earlier. Let us obtain the horizontal deflection of joint C
- analyse the framework for a unit load applied horizontally at joint C.
B B
200 kN C 200 kN -200 C
3.000 m
+250
0 -150
150
200
All elements
A A=50cm2 D A D
E=210kN/mm2 200
REAL FORCES (F) 150
4.000 m 150
Calculate the vertical reactions.
Moments about A,
B C 1.0 kN 4VD 1.0 3 VD 0.75kN
0
V 0 V V 0.75kN
A D
H 0 H 1.0kN A
+1.25
0
0.75
-0.75 at joint D resolve vertically
FCD 0.75 (C)
1.0
Length Area FL FL F
F e C
Element L A F
W AE AE W
(m) (m )
2
(kN) (m) (m)
AB 3 0.005 0 0.00 0.00000 0
BC 4 0.005 -200 0.00 -0.00076 0
CD 3 0.005 -150 -0.75 -0.00043 0.0003214
AC 5 0.005 250 1.25 0.00119 0.0014881
0.001809524
horizontal deflection at joint C, C 1.8 mm
Calculate the horizontal deflection at joint C in the mild steel truss shown. T
AB and CD 152x152x23UC, BC 152x89x16UB, AC 60x60x6EA (RSA).
+ive
T Sign Convention
30 kN
B C B C
4.000 m
HA A D A D
VA VD
3.000 m
1.0 kN
B C B C
HA A D A D
VA VD
F F .L F (m)
Element F (kN) L (m) A (m2)
W A.E W
AB
BC
CD
AC
Calculate the vertical deflection at joint D in the mild steel truss shown. T
ABC 150x75x18PFC, BD 152x89x16UB, ADC 10mm diameter bar.
60 kN
+ive
A B C
HA Sign Convention
T
3.000 m
VA VC
D
4.000 m 4.000 m
A C
HA
B
VA VC
1.0 kN
F F .L F (m)
Element F (kN) L (m) A (m2)
W A.E W
AB
BC
CD
DA
BD
Moments about A, M 0
L wL
L.VB w.L. VB
max 2 2
z wL
Vertical equilibrium, V 0 , V A
2
Horizontal equilibrium, H 0 , H A 0
Bending moment at any point (by cutting a free body diagram),
x wLx wx 2
M V A x wx M
2 2 2
d 2z wLx wx 2
Substitute into the differential equation of flexure, EI
dx 2 2 2
dz w Lx 2
x3
Integrate once, EI A
dx 2 2 3
To find the value of A we must consider the boundary conditions (where we know what some
of the parameters in the equations will be).
L w L2 L3
At midspan x and the slope of the beam is zero, 0 A
2 2 8 24
wL3
A
24
w Lx 2 x 3 wL3
therefore,
dz
EI
dx
2 2
3 24
w
24
6 Lx 2 4 x 3 L3
Integrate again, EIz
w
24
2 Lx 3 x 4 L3 x B
At support A, x=0 and z=0 (the support does not deflect), B 0
25 kN/m 90 kN
2. Extend uniformly distributed actions through to
support B (the new u.d.l is also 25kN/m). This allows
Macaulay’s method to work but has now changed
the applied actions.
123 kN 25 kN/m 90 kN
At support A x = 10m, z = 0.
4 3
EI 0 20.5 103 1.04 10 6 1.04 104 15 10 - 8 A 10 0
all of Macaulay’s brackets are >0 so we have A = -1024.6
to obtain a plot of the deflected shape of the beam we need only substitute values of x and
EI=500,000 kNm2. into this equation and graph the results against distance along the beam.
1204.6x
4 3
20.5 x 3 1.04 x 6 1.04x 4 15 x 8
z
x (m) EIz (mm)
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 20.5 0.0 -1.0 0.0 -1024.6 -1005.1 -2.0
2 164.0 0.0 -16.6 0.0 -2049.2 -1901.8 -3.8
3 553.5 0.0 -84.2 0.0 -3073.8 -2604.5 -5.2
4 1312.0 0.0 -266.2 0.0 -4098.4 -3052.6 -6.1
5 2562.5 0.0 -650.0 0.0 -5123.0 -3210.5 -6.4
6 4428.0 0.0 -1347.8 0.0 -6147.6 -3067.4 -6.1
7 7031.5 1.0 -2497.0 0.0 -7172.2 -2636.7 -5.3
8 10496.0 16.6 -4259.8 0.0 -8196.8 -1944.0 -3.9
9 14944.5 84.2 -6823.4 -15.0 -9221.4 -1031.1 -2.1
10 20500.0 266.2 -10400.0 -120.0 -10246.0 0.2 0.0
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-5.0
-6.0
-7.0
We have now dealt with bending deflection but some sections are also susceptible to shear
deflection, for which we must again consider strain energy. We already know that shear strain
energy is given by,
2
U volume
2G
and that shear strain energy is the work done by the shear force deforming the beam, which
can be graphically represented as,
where the strain energy is the hatched area, so
V
V 2
volume
2 2G
V V
2
G 0 A
v .x
d
If we now consider a cantilever beam loaded by a
single point action at the free end. The shear force is L
constant over the whole span. For rectangular cross-
sections the form-factor 65 so,
W
L
6 Wx
L
6 W 6WL
V .dx 0 0
5G 0 b.d
5G b.d 0 5Gb.d
WL3 6WL WL3 3E d
2
125 kN 25 kN/m
A uniform isotropic beam is subject to a point
load and uniformly distributed load. The
elastic modulus is 210x106 kN/m2 and the
second moment of area is 0.002m4.
Use Macaulay’s method to determine the
deflection at mid-span.
4m 2m 4m
Calculate the reactions by taking moments
about B:
10 m
10VA = 6x125 + 25x4x2
VA = 95 kN 125 kN 25 kN/m
VB = 125+(25x4)-95 = 130kN
Distance x is measured from section (just
inside the right support) so re-dimensionthe
beam in terms of x.
An expression for the bending moment at x6
section is;
x 6 x4
M 95 x 125x 4 25x 6
2 x
differential equation of flexure is:
d 2z VA = 95 kN
EI 2 M and substituting for M
dx
d 2z
EI 2
95 x 125x 4 12.5x 62 .dx
dx
47.5 x 2 62.5x 42 4.17x 63 A
dz
integrating once, EI
dx
25 kN/m 90 kN
A uniform isotropic beam is subject to a point
load and uniformly distributed load. The
elastic modulus is 70x106 kN/m2 and the
second moment of area is 0.001m4.
Use Macaulay’s method to determine the
cantilever tip deflection.
Left hand support designated A, taking 2m 6m 3m
moments about B:
9VA = 3x90 + 25x8x(3+8/2) 11 m
VA = 185.5 kN
VB = 90+(25x8)-185.5 = 104.5kN
Dummy udl’s of 25kN/m required to close 90 kN
25 kN/m
loading up to right hand support,
Distance x is measured from section (just
inside the right support) so re-dimensionthe
beam in terms of x.
An expression for the bending moment at
section is; 185 kN x 8
x
M 185x 2 90x 8 25x 25x 8
x 8 x2
2 2 x
differential equation of flexure is:
d 2z
EI 2 M and substituting for M
dx
EI
d 2z
185x 2 90x 8 25x
x 25x 8 x 8 .dx
2 2 2
dx
integrating once,
93x 22 45x 82 4.17x3 4.17x 83 A
dz
EI
dx
integrating again,
EIz 30.92x 23 15x 83 1.04x4 1.04x 84 Ax B
applying boundary conditions at supports where (deflection) z = 0 :
at x = 0, z = 0. Hence B = 0
3
at x = 9m, z = 0. Hence, 0 30.92 7 15 9 8 1.04 9 3 4 1.049 84 9 A 0
and A = -418.7
the general deflection equation therefore being:
30.92x 23 15x 83 1.04x4 1.04x 84 418.7 x
z
EI
at cantilever tip x = 11m, eliminating Macaulay brackets of value ≤ 0 and substituting into the
general deflection equation gives:
30.9293 15[3]3 1.04114 1.04[3] 4 418.711 2387.5
z 0.0341m 34mm
70 10 6 0.001 70000
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 6. Deflections of beams.ppt , 13. Truss
deflection.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further
reading.
2. Attempt the Deformation Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.
15 kN/m 50 kN
3. For the beam shown, the modulus of
elasticity is 210x106 kN/m2 and the
second moment of area is 0.001m4.
x
Show that the moment equation at section is:
M 138x 4 50x 15x 4
x 4 15x 11 x 11 3m 7m 4m
2 2
and that the general deflection equation is: 14 m
23x 4 8.3x 0.63x 4 0.63x 11 414.9 x
3 3 4 4
z
EI
Plot the deflection of the beam at 2m intervals (as below) and find the locations of the
maximum upward and downward deflections.
2
E= 210000000 kN/m
4
I= 2.00 0.001 m
x y (mm)
0
Deflection (mm) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00
1 0.00 0 -8.3 0 0 414.9 -406.6 -1.94
2 0 -66.4 0 0 829.8 -763.4 -3.64
3 00 2 -224.1 4 0 6 0 8 1244.710 -1020.612 -4.86 14
4 -2.00 0 -531.2 0 0 1659.6 -1128.4 -5.37
5 23 -1037.5 -0.63 0 2074.5 -1059.37 -5.04
6 184 -1792.8 -10.08 0 2489.4 -870.52 -4.15
7 -4.00 621 -2846.9 -51.03 0 2904.3 -627.37 -2.99
8 1472 -4249.6 -161.28 0 3319.2 -380.32 -1.81
9 2875 -6050.7 -393.75 0 3734.1 -164.65 -0.78
10 -6.00 4968 -8300 -816.48 0 4149 -0.52 0.00
11 7889 -11047.3 -1512.63 0 4563.9 107.03 0.51
12 11776 -14342.4 -2580.48
Distance along0.63 4978.8
beam (m) 167.45 0.80
13 16767 -18235.1 -4133.43 10.08 5393.7 197.75 0.94
4. For the trusses in Self Assessment – Pin-jointed Frameworks already analysed for real
forces, calculate:
x x x
A B A B A B
2.5 3.5 m 1.5 2.0 1.0 2.5 3.5 m 1.5 2.0 1.0 2.5 3.5 m 1.5 2.0 1.0
d 2z
M 26.4 x 12.5 x 8 12.5 x 4.5 45 x 3 65 x 1
2 2
EI 2
dx
d 2z
EI 2 M 112.4 x 20 x 3 80 x 1 7.5 x 4.5
2
dx
d 2z
EI 2 M 66.7 x 30 x 3 50 x 1
dx
7. Unsymmetrical Bending
This section will introduce the theory and application of stress analysis to section profiles which
do not deflect along principal axes. For civil engineering structures, this is usually limited to angle
and zed sections. Students will learn to calculate stresses and deflections in unsymmetrical
sections, which require the calculation of unique elastic section properties.
You should read this section of the handbook in conjunction with the following Powerpoint
lectures on Blackboard: 21. Unsymmetrical bending.ppt
Principal References: Megson, T.H.G. Strength of Materials for Civil Engineers.
We have already established that the equation of simple bending only applies to sections
which are symmetrical about at least one axis. There are two commonly used steel sections
which are unsymmetrical about the Y-Y and Z-Z axes – the angle and zed section.
V Z Z
V
U U
Y Y Y Y
U U
Z V Z V
Simple bending theory is based upon a number of (debatable) assumptions:
the material remains elastic and is homogeneous and isotropic
plane sections remain plane, during and after bending
the section is symmetrical about an axis through its centroid, parallel to the plane of
bending.
We know that materials are never perfectly homogeneous and isotropic but for our purposes we
can sustain the inaccuracies this generates.
The second point cannot be true since we know that elements under compression and tension
will distort laterally according to the material Poisson’s ratio. The effect this has on the section
shape is called anticlastic bending but it is acceptable to ignore it as the effect on section
properties is usually not significant.
The third assumption is obviously contravened for unsymmetrical sections and requires the
derivation of section properties about some axes of symmetry. Although zed and angle
sections are not symmetrical about the usual principal axes (z-z and y-y) they do have an axis
of symmetry which is V-V, making this the unsymmetrical neutral axis. At right angles to this axis
is the U-U axis, along which the section will displace when loaded.
-h and -k -h and +k
-h
+h
k1 = 13
7.2 Principal Second Moment of Area, Unsymmetrical Sections, Ivv & Iuu
The unsymmetrical second moments of area about the principal axes are calculated from Iyy ,
Izz and the angle through which the U-U axis is rotated from the horizontal.
Y Y 5wL4
max
384 EI
L
U
25
L
w
2
69
Z V
w 0.9kN / m
L 6m
wL2 0.9 62
M yy 4.1kNm
8 8
M zz 0kNm wL2
8
Calculate the Product Second Moment of Area, Iyz
Muu
8
Myy
U
Mvv
V
Point k h x
(mm) (mm) (N/mm2)
1
1 -69 100 -63 4
2 -69 125 -39 +k
3 1 125 121
4 1 0 2
5 -1 -125 -121
6 69 -125 39 63
7 69 -100 63 121
8 -1 0 -2 121 39
Note, this stress profile is plotted to a convention of compression (-ive) above the profile
centreline and tension (+ive) below the centreline. It helps to imagine the zed profile flattened
to a horizontal line to plot the stress values.
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lecture 21. Unsymmetrical bending.ppt on Blackboard. The
last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Unsymmetrical Bending Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm
on Sunday evening.
3. Have a rest.
1. Explain why Simple Bending Theory may not be used to assess unsymmetrical
sections.
2. A 3m span angle section forms a simply supported floor beam. It is subject to single
midspan point load of 2.0kN, applied in the plane of the Z-Z axis (vertically).
Z
25
Y Y
125
10
100
Z
8. The Eurocodes
British Standards for structural design are due to be phased out before 2010, therefore students
of structural design must be conversant with the relevant design rules when they enter industry.
The philosophy and style of presentation of structural Eurocodes are different to British
Standards. The Eurocodes are a self contained collection of design advice, often not giving
complete rules for design. They are split by structural material, so generic rules for loading and
design philosophy are contained in separate codes. It is often therefore necessary to use many
codes to design a structure.
A Eurocode may contain several parts, usually a main text with formative and normative
annexes. Finally there will be a national annexe which details values of variables specific to a
particular country. Thus, if a UK engineer wishes to design a structure in another European
country, they need only obtain the relevant national annexe as the main design rules are the
same across Europe.
A selection of the relevant Eurocodes are listed below:
Eurocode 0 Basis of Design
Eurocode 1 Actions on Structures
EN1991-1.1 Densities, self weight and imposed loads
EN1991-1.2 Actions on structures exposed to fire
EN1991-1.3 Snow loads
EN1991-1.4 Wind loads
EN1991-1.5 Thermal actions
EN1991-1.6 Actions during excavation
EN1991-1.7 Accidental actions due to impact and explosions
EN1991-2 Traffic loads on bridges
EN1991-3 Actions induced by cranes and machinery
EN1991-4 Actions in silos and tanks
Eurocode 2 Design of Concrete Structures
EN1992-1.1 Common rules for buildings and civil engineering structures
EN1992-1.2 Structural fire design
EN1992-2 Bridges
EN1992-3 Liquid retaining and containment structures
Eurocode 3 Design of Steel Structures
EN1993-1.1 General rules and rules for buildings
EN1993-1.2 Structural fire design
EN1993-1.3 Cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting
EN1993-1.4 Structures in stainless steel
EN1993-1.5 Plated structural alelements
EN1993-1.6 Strength and stability of shell elemenets
EN1993-1.7 Strength and stability of planar structures transversely loaded
EN1993-1.8 Design of joints
EN1993-1.9 Fatigue strength of steel structures
EN1993-1.10 Selection of steel for fracture toughness and through thickness properties
EN1993-1.11 Design of structures with tension components made of steel
EN1993-1.12 Supplementary design rules for high strength steel (S460-S690)
EN1993-2 Bridges
EN1993-3 Towers masts and chimneys
EN1993-4 Silos tanks and pipelines
EN1993-5 Piling
EN1993-6 Crane supporting structures
Eurocode 4 Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures
EN1994-1.1 General - Common rules
EN1994-1.2 Structural fire design
EN1994-2 Bridges
EN1994-3 Buildings
Eurocode 5 Design of Timber Structures
EN1995-1.1 Common rules and rules for buildings
EN1995-1.2 Structural fire design
EN1992-2 Bridges
Eurocode 6 Design of Masonry Structures
EN1996-1.1 Rules for reinforced and unreinforced masonry
EN1996-1.2 Structural fire design
EN1996-1.3 Detailed rules on lateral loading
EN1996-2 Selection and execution of masonry
EN1996-3 Simplified calculation methods and simple rules for masonry structures
Eurocode 7 Geotechnical Design
EN1997-1 General rules
EN1997-2 Design assisted by laboratory testing
EN1997-3 Design assisted by field testing
Eurocode 8 Design Provision for Earthquake Resistant Structures
EN1998-1 Common rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings
EN1998-2 Bridges
EN1998-3 Strengthening and repair of buildings
EN1998-4 Silos, tanks and pipelines
EN1998-5 Foundations, retaining structures and geotechnical aspects
EN1998-6 Towers, masts and chimneys
Eurocode 9 Design of Aluminium Structures
EN1999-1.1 Common rules
EN1999-1.2 Structural fire design
EN1999-2 Structures susceptible to fatigue
This document will offer a simplified introduction to using Structural Eurocodes. Many of the
equations quoted herein do not appear in the code clauses (as the codes often offer only
theory) but provide a means of completing design checks.
8.2.1 Tie
A tension-only element, which means that the external force
always acts to stretch and straighten (hence avoid buckling
of any kind). Elements may therefore by very slender. The
material will usually reach yield stress (or its equivalent) and
maximum efficiency is obtained.
8.2.2 Strut
An element subject to compression which will suffer lateral
buckling, often sized to limit slenderness and hence will
rarely reach yield stress due to axial load alone. Struts make
less efficient use of material than ties.
Ties and struts resist axial forces only.
8.2.3 Beam
An element which transfers in-plane force by bending and
shear; this usually results in a tension face (which is laterally
stable) and a compression face which will buckle laterally,
like a strut, if unrestrained. Beams make less efficient use of
material than struts.
Beams must resist bending moments and shear forces but
may also resist axial forces and very occasionally torsion.
8.2.4 Plates
An element which transfers out-of-plane forces by bending
and shear, in a similar manner to beams but on two axes
rather than one. Plate thickness is small in comparison to the
other dimensions and large deflections occur, resulting in a
general need for more complex analysis (non-linear
geometry). Very thin plates are referred to as shells, and
their action is dominated by in-plane forces. Plates are a
topic which is not addressed at level 4.
Plates must resist bending moments and shear forces but
may also resist axial forces and often torsion. Continuous or
multi-bay plates will also develop internal axial forces
(tension and compression membrane action) which can
make them surprisingly strong.
These four elements can be assembled in 2D and 3D arrangements but the resulting structure
can always be reduced to simple elements for analysis and design purposes.
Structures must be designed, executed (constructed) and maintained such that, with
appropriate degrees of reliability they will:
Perform adequately under all expected actions
Have adequate durability in relation to maintenance costs
Not be damaged disproportionately by exceptional hazards such as fire, explosion and
impact.
Reliability is a complex subject in itself but is dealt with using limit state philosophy.
In Eurocode terminology a direct ACTION is a force applied directly to a structure such as
dead, imposed or wind loading, an indirect ACTION is a constrained deformation or imposed
acceleration, such as temperature change or earthquake motion.
Eurocode 0 specifies ways in which actions are combined to give design loads for ultimate and
serviceability limit states.
Independent or single actions are split into three groups:
Permanent actions (e.g. self weight and dead loads) G
Variable actions (imposed and wind loads) Q
Accidental actions (earthquake, blast and impact loads) A
All of these loadings are stochastic (time dependant), so when combining them together we
may take advantage of the reducing probability that all actions act together simultaneously.
This is done using action partial safety factors and probability sensitivity factors.
9.1.1 Reliability
Ultimate limit state design codes are based upon probabilistic models of actions and strengths.
These are derived from safety requirements and reliability theory. Reliability theory relies heavily
upon the Gaussian distribution, which mathematicians ‘normalise’ to produce the Normal
Distribution, which is tabulated and widely taught in statistics.
In order to ensure public safety, structural engineers take a cautious approach to design by:
using a 95th percentile action (a force which will rarely be exceeded),
using a 5th percentile strength (a resistance which will usually be exceeded).
These design points are called characteristics.
In order to produce a safe design, the engineer seeks to make the characteristic resistance (Rk)
exceed the characteristic action (Ek), this is shown as the safety margin. The spread of the
distribution (standard deviation) will depend upon how reliable the manufacture of the
material is, or how accurately predictable the action is. This is reflected by reducing the
resistance by an appropriate factor (m) and increasing the action by an appropriate factor
(f), these are known as design values (Rd and Ed). The factored design action has only a 0.5%
chance of being exceeded during the structures return period.
design action
Ed Rd
E Ek Safety Rk R
Margin
Figure 9.1 The safety margin.
Rk
The general design equality to satisfy is, f Ek
m
Rd
The safety margin is, 1.0
Ed
Some material manufacture is more predictable than others. Steel is manufactured in a
controlled environment (factory) and each ingot is tested before being sold, hence m = 1.00,
but concrete is subject to variability in site workmanship and is not tested until after it has set,
hence m = 1.50, or concrete is a less reliable material than steel.
A characteristic action has only a 5% chance of being exceeded during the structures design
return period, this is denoted using the suffix k e.g. Qk. When combining different variable loads,
three time dependant versions of each action are possible.
A combination action Qk
A frequent action Qk increasing probability of occurring
A quasi-permanent action Qk
30 < 5% t
25 Fk characteristic
15
10
2Fk quasi-permanent
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
time
When undertaking general structural design checks (STR) for strength and deformation, EC1
specifies action partial safety factors (see table D0.2). These combinations also cover
geotechnical design (GEO) of foundations and other soil structures.
When considering the overall equilibrium of structures it has been customary to make
conservative estimates of the restoring effect of self weight and dead loads. This is embodied
in EC1 in the equilibrium limit state (EQU). This constitutes a set of reduced partial safety factors
for permanent actions.
Table 9.2 UK values of action partial safety factors, STR and GEO limit states, .
Favourable Unfavourable
Action
Permanent (dead, earth) 1.00 1.35
Variable (imposed, wind) 0 1.50
Accidental (earthquake, blast, impact) 1.00 1.00
Table 9.3 UK values of action partial safety factors, EQU limit state, .
Favourable Unfavourable
Action
Permanent (dead, earth) 0.90 1.10
Variable (imposed, wind) 0 1.50
Accidental (earthquake, blast, impact) 1.00 1.00
f Gk = 1.0 x 10
= 10 kN/m
f Gk = 1.35 x 10
= 13.5 kN/m
An observation tower relies upon self weight for stability. It is required to calculate the maximum
overturning moment at the tower base. As well as self weight the tower is subject to wind, roof
snow and floor imposed actions.
g Gk
Wind, q Qk1
g Gk
Substituting values for action partial safety factors and probability sensitivity factors we have,
0.90 Qk2
Unfavourable load
factor for stabilising
self weight 1.05 Qk2
0.90 Gk
1.5 Qk1
1.10 Gk
In order to design any structure it is necessary to determine the values of the design actions.
10.1 Permanent actions are determined from knowledge of the construction to be
used - Section 4. Densities of Construction and Stored Materials indicates there are no changes
(from BS 648) in the densities of materials except that wet and reinforced concrete must now
be assessed as weighing 25 kN/m3, although unreinforced concrete remains at 24 kN/m3.
Table 10.1 Unit weights of common building materials.
material (kN/m3) material (kN/m3)
clay masonry facing brickwork 22 roof slates 29
medium density conc. blockwork 18 clay roof tiles 20
insulation board 3 water 10
soil (sand) 16-18 glass 25
soil (clay) 20-22 chipboard / plywood 7
steel 77 asphalt 22
softwood timber 5 plaster 17
hardwood timber 7 stone (medium density granite) 29
reinforced concrete 25 plastic 21
10.2 Variable actions, there are four common types of variable action.
10.2.1 Floor imposed action depends upon the use of the floor;
Table 10.2 Floor imposed actions.
qk
category specific use Floor action example
(kN/m2)
domestic individual dwellings, dormitories 1.5
A and hotels and hospital bedrooms 2.0
residential balconies 4.0
general 2.5
B office
ground floor or below 3.0
restaurant 2.0
reading rooms with no storage 2.5
classrooms, churches, narrow walkways 3.0
areas for assembly with fixed seating, museums, art galleries,
C 4.0
congregation hotel and hospital corridors and stairs
wide walkways, dance halls, gymnasiums, assembly
5.0
with no fixed seating
stages for public assembly, plant rooms 7.5
D shopping general retail, department stores 4.0
E storage areas for long term storage 7.5
F traffic and gross vehicle weight < 3T (30kN) 2.5
G parking 3T (30kN) > gross vehicle weight < 16T (160kN) 5.0
Roof actions depend upon the accessibility. Roofs put to specific uses detailed for categories A
to G shall be designed as a floor.
The roof action shall be the greater of imposed loading and snow load.
10.2.2 Roof imposed action depends upon the slope of the roof;
Table 10.3 Roof imposed actions.
Roof slope
< 30 o 30 o≤ < 60o ≥ 60o
60
qk (kN/m2) 0.6 0.6 0
30
10.2.3 Roof snow action is somewhat more complex, requiring the evaluation of
characteristic snow load on the ground;
A 100
s k 0.15 0.1z 0.05 where A is the site altitude (AOD), z is a zone number
525
given on Figure D1.1 (in which much of central England is zone 3).
Snow load on the roof shall be evaluated by multiplying the characteristic snow load on the
ground by a snow load shape coefficient.
s i sk (kN/m2)
60
0.8 0.8 0
30
uniform snow, monopitch
15 60
0.8 0.8 0.4 1.2 0
15 30
uniform snow, duopitch
The least value of:
h 1 2 h
sk
2 2b3
b
b
b
b1 b2
drifted snow, multispan 3 5
Coefficients for local drifting effects and exceptional snow drifts are given in Section 6 and
Annex B of EC1. Snow drift is an accidental load case.
The bulk density of snow is defined in Annex E, it should be noted that old or wet snow can
weigh up to 4 kN/m2.
10.2.4 Wind action is based upon characteristic values which have an annual probability of
exceedance of 0.02 (1 in 50 year return period) but this does not mean that the wind load will
only be exceeded every 50 years.
Wind pressure is the force due to the mass of moving air. Structures which project into the wind
must absorb the kinetic energy of moving air in the form of potential energy due to wind
pressure. Generally wind pressure increases with height and can be significantly affected by
ground roughness and interaction with surrounding structures.
Where air is forced around structures, vortices and eddies are formed at sharp corners. Air
which leaves contact with the structure surface will cause suction. This leads to the counter-
intuitive situation where the windward face of a structure experiences positive pressure and all
other surfaces experience suction.
If the structure is temporary and has a life span less than one year a reduction to the basic wind
speed may be made by applying the seasonal factor, cseason. For use with the six months of the
winter period, no reduction may be made but for the six months of the summer period, cseason =
0.84.
The altitude factor, calt may conservatively be taken as calt 1 0.001A for a building of any
height, where A is the site altitude (above Ordnance Datum). Where a building exceeds 10m
height, the altitude factor may be reduced to,
1
10 5
c alt 1 0.001A
z
The correction factors cdir and cseason may conservatively be taken as 1.0. Thus, Vb caltVb,0
Vb,0 may be taken from a wind-therm chart (see chart D1.2).
The site must be idealised in a Terrain Category which represents the surface roughness of the
ground leading up to the site. The terrain category may vary with wind direction.
Table 10.5 Values of Zmin.
Terrain Zmin
Description
Category (m)
0 Windward shoreline of the sea SEA 1
I Lakes and flat terrain 1
COUNTRY
II Rural areas with low vegetation 2
III Suburban areas with regular obstacles 5
TOWN
IV City centres and large towns 10
z is the height at which the wind speed is to be calculated, and is the air density (1.226
kg/m3).
qb Vb 0.613Vb
2 2
The basic wind velocity pressure,
2
The peak velocity pressure, q p cece,T qb
ce is the Exposure factor taken from Chart D1.3, ce,T is the Exposure correction factor for Town
terrain taken from Chart D1.4. It is necessary to know the distance the wind blows from the
shoreline to the site, and if the site is in Town terrain – the distance the site is inside town terrain.
In Country terrain, hdis = 0 and ce,T = 1.0
In Town terrain,
If x 2zmin then hdis 0.8zmin 0.6h
or if 2 zmin x 6 zmin then hdis 1.2 zmin 0.2 x 0.6h
or if x 6zmin then hdis is zero. See figure D1.1 for parameter definitions.
z
2zmin
Figure 10.6 Calculation of hdis. x
6zmin
The reference height, ze indicates that the wind pressure profile increases with height, but this is
simplified into zones. The peak velocity pressure should be calculated in zones when the
building is taller than the wind face width (b). b
b q p h
b
h q p z e
b q p h
h
q p b
ze
h q p h b q p b b
The wind pressure on a surface is, w q p c p where cp is the pressure coefficient (external or
internal).
Simplified assessment of Internal Pressure Coefficients may be made in the same way as BS
6399; cpi may be taken as the most onerous of +0.2 or -0.3 if the surface permeability is unknown.
The wind force on a surface is, Fw w A Cs Cd COA where A is the area of the surface, the
structural factor CsCd may be taken as 1.0 in most cases and COA accounts for the time lag
between wind blowing on the front and sucking off the back of a building.
h
where 5 , COA 1.0 (short in direction of wind)
d
h
where 1 , COA 0.85 (long in direction of wind)
d
thus, Fw w A COA
Frictional Drag, Ffr
Where the wind blows along a building and the cladding is sufficiently rough, frictional drag will
be generated. This may be significant in long buildings but need only be applied to the
cladding surface beyond the smaller of 2b or 4h.
© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 119 of 217
Structures 1
BSc / BEng / MEng Civil Engineering and Civil & Architectural Engineering
Afr
F fr c fr q p A fr
h Ffr
Cladding surface cfr
Flat (steel, concrete, glass) 0.01 d
Rough 0.02 b
Corrugated (profiled sheeting) 0.04
2b 4h
10.2.5 Reduction of Variable Actions
6.2.2 (2) permits columns and walls loaded by several storeys of structure to be designed for a
reduced variable (imposed) action. Variable actions may be reduced in ONE of two ways:
n
storey reduction factor, n 1.1 for 5 storeys or less
10
n = 0.6 for 5 n 10 (n is the number of storeys)
n = 0.5 for more than 10 storeys
OR
A
area reduction factor, A 1 0.75 where A is the area of floor supported by a
1000
structural element.
Whatever the structural form chosen, it is important to ensure that the structure is not unduly
sensitive to damage. This does not mean that structures must be able to withstand an
unexpected loading event (such as aircraft impact) without damage, merely that the level of
damage should not be disproportionate to the event.
It is common practice to design for survival following an extreme event. So the designer should
consider the effects of an extreme event and provide a structure which survives in a possibly
irreparably damaged condition. This often requires consideration of ductility (strain energy) to
ensure that connections and plastic regions can rotate sufficiently (absorbing energy) before
collapse.
For most common structures, compliance with the Building Regulations will be deemed to
satisfy this requirement (up to CC2a).
There are simple procedures available to help steelwork structures survive explosion events.
These include the provision of additional seating cleats at simple connection positions, as
shown below.
Figure 10.12 Additions to reinforced concrete and steel connections to improve blast resistance.
Figure 10.13 - Snow loading zone No Figure 10.14 - Characteristic 10 minute mean
wind velocity, Vb,0 (m/s)
Z – hdis (m)
Figure 10.15- Exposure factor, ce Figure 10.16- Exposure correction factor, ce,T
Domestic floor
18mm chipboard = 0.14
175mm joists = 0.16
Plasterboard and skim = 0.22
Insulation = 0.01
Total permanent action Gk = 0.53 kN/m2
Variable action Qk = 1.50 kN/m2 category A1, table 10.2
A rectangular industrial building 100m x 40m x 8m high to eaves, located in a flat city
centre. The duo-pitch roof angle is 5 degrees, located at an altitude of 80m AoD in
zone 3. The site is 60km from the sea and 10km inside town terrain. The building is
approximately 15m from surrounding buildings of similar height.
Vb,0 is 22.5 m/s, terrain category IV- in TOWN terrain, from table 10.5, Zmin = 10 m.
calt 1 0.001A 1 (0.001 80) 1.08
Vb caltVb,0 1.08 22.5 24.3m / s
The basic wind velocity pressure, qb 0.613Vb 0.613 24.3 0.362kN / m
2 2 2
x 15m 2 z min 2 10 20m then hdis 0.8z min 0.8 10 8m 0.6h 0.6 8 4.8m
z hdis 8 4.8 3.2m
Exposure factor taken from Figure 10.15, ce = 1.68
Exposure correction factor taken from Figure 10.16, ce,T = 0.67
The peak velocity pressure, q p ce ce,T qb 1.68 0.67 0.362 0.41kN / m
2
The most onerous wall wind pressure is, w q p z c p 1.00 0.41 0.41kN / m
2
Force on (width) wall is, Fw w A Cs Cd COA 0.41 40 8 1.0 0.85 112kN
Force on (length) wall is, Fw w A Cs Cd COA 0.41 100 8 1.00 0.85 279kN
cpe = -0.30
cpe = -0.80
0.00
-0.50
cpe = -0.80
cpi = -0.3
cpe = -0.80
-0.50
cpe = +0.70
-0.50
cpi = -0.3
cpe = -0.30
+1.00
0.00
= 900
+1.00
-0.50
cpe = +0.70
cpe = -0.80
= 00
-0.50 -1.00
cpi = +0.2
cpe = +0.70
cpi = +0.2
cpe = -0.80
cpe = -0.80
cpe = -0.30
-1.00
+0.50
-1.00
-0.50
= 900
+0.50 -1.00
= 00
Cpe =-0.60
Cpe =-0.60
Cpe = -1.20
-0.80
-0.80
-1.40
= 00
Cpi = +0.2
e
10 e b 2h 100m 2 8 16m
e 16 1.6m
10 10
B2
B1 B3
Roof level :
Reaction from beams B1 and B3; Gk = 0kN, Gk = 0kN
Reaction from beam B2;
Gk = 1.0 x 5.0 x 7.0 / 2 = 17.5kN, Qk = 0.6 x 5.0 x 7.0 / 2 = 10.5kN
Floor level :
Reaction from beams B1 and B3;
Gk = 6.5 x 5.0 / 2 = 16.3kN, Qk = 0kN
Reaction from beam B2;
Gk = 2.5 x 5.0 x 7.0 / 2 = 43.8kN, Qk = 5.0 x 5.0 x 7.0 / 2 = 87.5kN
Allow self weight of column, say 0.5kN/m x 4.0 = 2.0kN per storey
Floor Imposed Action Reduction
n 2
storey reduction factor for 5 storeys or less, n 1.1 1.1 0.9
10 10
A 5 7
OR area reduction factor, A 1 1 0.965 0.75 where A is the area of floor
1000 1000
supported by a structural element.
Therefore apply 10% reduction to imposed action supported by the column.
Cummulative
Beam Reactions
Column Load Run-down Reactions
Gk Qk Gk Qk
Roof Level Beam B1 0 0
Beam B2 17.5 10.5
Beam B3 0 0
Self weight 2.0 0 19.5 10.5
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lecture 8. Actions.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the
lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Actions Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.
Steel is a versatile and adaptable material which can be used to form almost all the parts of a
modern building because it can be supplied in many different forms (thin gauge rolls, plate,
rolled sections and castings). Steel has relatively high strength and stiffness but is dense so
competitive sections are made using thin material, steelwork sections are often therefore prone
to buckling.
In the UK, steel frames account for around 55% of all multi-storey buildings and over 90% of low-
rise buildings (portal frame structures).
Flange
Web
Root radius
UB UC PFC EA CHS
Figure 11.1 Common structural steel sections.
Although steel is manufactured to high quality standards, it will always include some defects, in
most situations this is of little consequence but some structural forms rely on homogeneity of
material (same properties in all directions). To cater for this steel is tested and certified to
grades and sub-grades. The principal reasons for this are:
Rolled sections have different thickness flanges and webs, which cool at different rates,
locking in stresses,
Steel parts are joined together cold by welding (which involves locally melting the
contacting steel parts) which cool at different rates, locking in stresses and may lead to
reheat cracking,
When a steel element is to be subject to tensile loads close to an impurity inclusion, the
result may be a lamella tear or local failure of the material.
Steelwork building structures are invariably prefabricated in an off-site workshop where quality
and environmental conditions can be controlled. Fabrication is now highly automated, using
sawing, flame cutting, drilling and welding. Site erection of steel frames should use bolting to
join elements together (avoid site welding where possible). Specification of steelwork
standards in the UK is based upon The National Steelwork Specification (the Black Book) which
is based upon EN 1090, it sets out the permissible tolerances for such things as how bent a
beam may be or how vertical columns must be when erected, etc.
Steel sections may be bent (longitudinally) by rolling between offset rollers or induction heating
(heat a small section then bend).
Steel has two significant drawbacks – fire and corrosion.
© Jonathan Haynes
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B8 60+ N/A None None None None 0
very low risk buildings
HB ZP 80m
Manual
B9 50 10 None None + Alkyd Finish 7.50
Unheated clean
60m
buildings with
C2 possible Blast clean HB ZP Alkyd Finish
B10 55 15 None 6.30
low risk condensatio Sa 2½ 80m 60m
n, sports halls,
depots Water based
Blast clean WE ZP
B11 None Epoxy Finish 7.60
Sa 2½ 60m
version 3.3
60m
Hot Dip
B12 60+ 20+ None Galvanise None None 8.25
85m
High humidity Hot Dip
Mordant Vinyl prim 40m
production B13 60+ 20+ None Galvanise 10.8
Wash Vinyl Finish 60m
BSc / BEng / MEng Civil Engineering and Civil & Architectural Engineering
risk processing,
breweries, Blast clean HB EMIO Polyurethane
B14 45 25 None 9.75
laundries Sa 2½ 100m Finish 60m
Blast clean HS AP
B15 40 20 None None 7.50
Sa 2½ 100m
HB ZP = High Build Zinc Phosphate Epoxy Primer WE ZP = Water Based Epoxy Zinc Phosphate Primer
HB EMIO = High Build Epoxy Miicacious Iron Oxide HS AP = high Solid Aliphatic Polyurethane Finish
b
tf Z
Eurocode 3 uses different axes to British Standards, the major
axis is Y-Y, the minor axis is Z-Z, leaving X-X to run along the
Y Y longitudinal axis of the element.
h
d
r
Z
tw
Figure 11.2 Steel section dimensions. Mp
Class 1 - Plastic
Member strength checks are based upon plastic Me
stress distributions. However, steel sections are Class 2 M = pyWpl
formed from thin elements, which may be quite Class 3 M = pyWel
slender. If local buckling sets in before yield stress is
reached the section will not achieve plastic Class 4 - Slender
capacities, it is therefore necessary to check
section classification.
Figure 11.3 Section classification.
c b tw 2 r
For a flange element,
t 2tf
c d
For a web element,
t tw
c h
For a hollow section,
t t
Eurocode 3 member capacities are based upon grade S235 steel, but since most UK structural
235
steel is S275 it is necessary to adjust the section classification using the factor, where fy
fy
is the design strength of the steel (eg. 275 N/mm2).
16 275 410
40 265 410
S 275
63 255 410
80 245 410
16 355 470
40 345 470
S 355
63 335 470
80 325 470
Higher strength is achieved at the expense of ductility so steel subgrades are specified by
consideration of toughness (strength, ductility and weldability) which is tested using the Charpy
Impact test (an assessment of material quality). Three subgrades are available, they relate to
minimum operating temperature:
An example of a full specification for structural steel open sections would be:
EN10 025 – 2 : S 275 JR
Alternatively, open sections produced by TATA in the UK may be specified using their trade
mark sections, which are CE mark (European Union, 2006 Construction Product Directive)
compliant:
ADVANCE : S 275 JR
Specific rules apply to hollow sections. Tubes are manufactured by bending plates and
welding the longitudinal seam. Specification is much more important for tubes as they may be
hot or cold formed, which has a significant effect upon their properties. Hot formed tubes are
annealed after forming, which relieves stresses and permits a tight root radius to be used, thus
hot formed sections display more ductility and better compression characteristics but are more
expensive. Cold formed sections must have larger radius corners to prevent cracking inside the
root, and can brittle fracture if welded. All tubes are manufactured in S355 material.
An example of a full specification for structural steel hollow sections would be:
EN10 210 : S 355 JR for hot formed sections
EN10 219 : S 355 JR for cold formed sections
Thick elements subject to through thickness tension may need a special HiZed grade specified
to BS EN 10164 (see also PD 6695-1-10). Ultrasonic lamination checks are used to check for
sulphide inclusions (cause lamina tears) Z15 Z25 and Z35 grades. (the number is the average %
reduction in area under standard tensile test).
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lecture 9. Grades, protection and properties.ppt on
Blackboard. The last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Grades Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.
11.1 Beams
This section deals with structural elements which resist bending.
You should read this section of the handbook in conjunction with the following Powerpoint
lectures on Blackboard: 10. Restrained beams.ppt , 11. LT Buckling.ppt
Principal References: Draycott, T & Bullman, P. Structural Elements Design Manual. Working with
Eurocodes. Arya, C. Design of Structural Elements. Cobb, F. Structural Engineers Pocket Book.
Although most beams are used to form horizontal floors, the term will also be used to cover roof
rafters and other elements which predominantly resist bending. Beams which also resist axial
forces should be checked for bending and compression interaction (see columns).
choose
serial
size
check shear
VEd ≤ Vc,Rd
full lateral restraint to partial lateral restraint
compression flange
check buckling
and bearing effective length, LLTB
NEd ≤ Fw,Rd
slenderness, LT
f
Av y
Vc , Rd 3
where Av is the shear area.
M0
Av A 2bt f t f t w 2r ht w may be conservatively be taken as 1.0
The shear area comprises the web, the root fillet area and part of the flange.
It will be conservative and simplistic to take Av ht w
Shear areas of other section types may be calculated from:
Tee sections Av A bt f 0.5t f t w 2r
RHS Av Ah (b h)
CHS Av 2 A
destabilising and a larger effective length applies. As the compression flange attempts to
displace sideways, there is a lateral force in the flange which must be transferred into the floor
diaphragm at points of intermediate lateral restraint. In BS 5950 this force was quantified as:
2.5 M Ed
FLTB and may be split equally between points of restraint.
100 h t f
grouted precast planks bolted timber concrete cast onto grouted precast
concrete
on unpainted flange floor diaphragm unpainted flange planks
encased
compression
flange (strut) wall
FLTB
line of action now
eccentric to beam
h-tf centreline, causing
destabilising effect
tension
flange (tie)
Figure 11.5 Lateral Torsional Buckling effects.
M Ed
For pure bending without full lateral restraint the design equality to satisfy is, 1.0
M b , Rd
Mb,Rd is the design lateral torsional buckling (LTB) resistance of the section.
LT W y f y
M b, Rd where LT is the LTB capacity reduction factor, which may be obtained from
M1
LT buckling curves or from equations.
For class 1 and 2 sections Wy is Wpl,y the Y-Y axis plastic section modulus.
For class 3 sections Wy is Wel,y the Y-Y axis elastic section modulus.
1 1
LT 1.0 and 2
where LT ,0 0.4 and = 0.75
LT 2
2
LT LT
LT
and
LT 0.5 1 LT LT LT ,0 LT 2
where LT is an imperfection factor
Wy f y
LT however, there is no code guidance on the calculation of Mcr
M cr
Various methods may be employed to obtain LT , some being more precise than others. This
text will use the simplified IStructE Manual method but those interested in the topic may wish to
review the the procedure used in BS5950 or the recommendations of SN0003a.
IStructE Manual method :
z z
LT for S275 material or LT for S355 material
96 85
LTB curves of LT against LT may be plotted (see Figure 11.6)
h
Beam sat on wall, only self
weight restrains bodily
LE movement. 1.2 LLR+2h 1.4 LLR+2h
LLR
*
the length between points
of lateral restraint * is LLR.
LLR * * *
© Jonathan Haynes version 3.3 Page 140 of 217
Structures 1
BSc / BEng / MEng Civil Engineering and Civil & Architectural Engineering
This adjustment depends upon the shape (or gradient) of the bending moment diagram.
Method 1
Where the bending moment varies between two points of lateral restraint, the lateral torsional
strength reduction factor (LT) may be modified;
LT modW y f y LT
M b, Rd where LT mod 1.0
M1 f
f 1
2
1 kc 1 2
LT 0.8 1.0
2
where kc is dependant upon the shape of the bending
moment diagram.
Table 11.11 Factor kc.
1.0 0.91
M1 M2 1
1.33 0.33 0.86
0.94 0.77
0.90 0.82
M1
Note that generally, 1 1
M2
Method 2
Where the bending moment varies between two points of lateral restraint, the design bending
moment may be reduced (equivalent uniform moment factor) by a factor Cm, which is taken
from Annex B.3
C m M Ed
The general design equality becomes, 1.0
M b, Rd
0.9 a
0.8
b
0.7
0.6 c
c LT
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
l LT
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 10. Restrained beams.ppt , 11. LT Buckling.ppt on
Blackboard. The last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Beams Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.
5wL4 5 24 84
max 0.024m 24mm
384 EI 384 210 10002 25500
1004
for dead+imposed limit deflection to, L 8000 40mm 24mm OK
200 200
also check imposed load only,
5wL4 5 7.5 84
max 0.0074m 7mm
384 EI 384 210 10002 25500
1004
for imposed only limit deflection to, L 8000 22.2mm 7mm OK
360 360
..457x152x60UB S275 JR OK all checks..
z 137
For S275 material, LT 1.43
96 96
h 528
2.53 2 use buckling curve c for rolled sections
b 209
Figure 11.6 – lateral torsional buckling capacity reduction factor, LT 0.40 M 1 1.0
LTWy f y 0.4 2059 10 2753
M b, Rd 226kNm
M1 1.0 106
M Ed 402
1.78 1.0 FAILS bending
M b, Rd 226
Further economy may be obtained by applying moment gradient (method 1);
BMD shape is a triangle between points of lateral restraint
M1 0
0
M 2 402
kc 1 0.752
1.33 0.33
f 1
(1 kc )
1 2 LT 0.8 1
2 1 0.752 1 20.40 0.82 0.6 1.0
2
2
LT 0.40
LT mod 0.67 1.0
f 0.6
LT modWy f y 0.67 2059 103 275
M b, Rd 377kNm
M1 1.0 106
This still does not exceed the applied moment so try applying equivalent uniform moment factor (method 2);
Cm 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.4 0 0.6 0.4
Cm M Ed 0.6 402
1.07 1.0 just FAILS in bending (should try next serial size up)
M b, Rd 226
SERVICABILITY LIMIT STATE
Design for deflection
For a simply supported beam carrying a uniformly distributed load, the formula for deflection is;
where Es = 210 kN/mm2, Iyy = 47500 cm4, L = 12 m
PL3
max serviceability limit state udl, P 1.00 66 1.00 30 96kN
48EI
PL3 96 123
max 0.035m 35mm
48EI 48 210 106 47500
1004
for dead+imposed limit deflection to, L 12000 60mm 35mm OK
200 200
also check imposed load only,
PL3 30 123
max 0.0108m 11mm
48EI 48 210 10002 47500
1004
for imposed only limit deflection to, L 12000 33.3mm 11mm OK
360 360
..533x210x92UB S275 JR OK all checks..
11.2 Columns
This section deals with structural elements which resist axial compression.
You should read this section of the handbook in conjunction with the following Powerpoint
lectures on Blackboard: 19. Columns.ppt
Principal References: SCI 376. Steel building design : Worked examples for students in
accordance with Eurocodes. Draycott, T & Bullman, P. Structural Elements Design Manual.
Working with Eurocodes. Arya, C. Design of Structural Elements.
Calculate eccentricities
ecy and ecz
and eccentricity moments
Mey and Mez
LLR3
Multi-storey building columns are generally
unrestrained between floor levels and so LLR is the
storey height. Lcr (like LLTB) is a function of the
0.7LLR2
The maximum slenderness about either y-y or z-z must be used in design. The bottom storey of a
building will usually have the largest storey height (and highest axial load), in which case it may
be possible to check only one section (storey) of a column.
2 EI
Alternatively N cr 2
may be used (Euler buckling load).
Lcr
0.5 1 0.2 2
where is an imperfection factor from table D3.12
1
and 1.0
2
2
may be obtained using the process listed for beams subject to LTB, and Chart D3.3 shows
buckling curves which relate this to .
For rolled sections the following may be used to select buckling curves and axial buckling
imperfection factors,
Table 11.13 Imperfection factor, hollow sections.
Buckling curve a0 a b c d
Imperfection factor, 0.13 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
Table 11.14 Flexural buckling curve selection, rolled sections.
Buckling curve
Aspect Buckling
Material thickness
ratio axis S235, S275,
S460
S355, S420
h t f 40mm y-y a a0
z-z b a0
1.2
b 40mm t f 100mm y-y b a
z-z c a
h t f 100mm y-y b a
z-z c a
1.2
b t f 100mm y-y d c
z-z d c
Table 11.15 Flexural buckling curve selection, other sections.
Buckling curve
Buckling
Section type Description
axis S235, S275,
S460
S355, S420
Hot finished any a a0
Hollow Section
Cold finished any c c
assumed
Y reactions of floor
beams
ez
Z Z
Y ey
h t
The major and minor axis eccentricities are ey 100 and ez w 100 .
2 2
Where the beam reaction applied to the column is VEd, then the nominal moments are
M ey , VEd , y e y and M ez VEd , z e z
Most symmetrically arranged simple multi-storey buildings there will be two columns to check :
Eccentricity moments are assumed to have dissipated at the floor levels above and below.
The moment is apportioned to each storey in proportion to bending stiffness, and since the
material is constant, stiffness may be taken as I (the value of I will only change at splice
L
levels),
I1
L1
where, 0.6 1.5 the moment may be divided equally between storeys,
I1 I
2
L1 L2
3 otherwise,
Me
I1
h1 L1 For the bottom storey,
1
M1 M e M Ed M 1
I I
1L 2L
0
1 2
Remember, at the top storey the eccentricity moment cannot be divided into two storeys.
For elements subject to bending and compression it is necessary to check the interaction of the
two effects, this is done by ensuring the sum of axial flexural buckling, lateral torsional buckling
and moment capacity effects are less than unity. By using proportions of capacity it is possible
to ensure the interaction point is inside a plane failure surface.
N Ed
1.0
N b, Rd Interaction check point
N E,d M y , Ed M z , Ed
The simplified design equality to satisfy is, 1.5 1.0
Nb, z , Rd M b, y , Rd M z , cb , Rd
The simplified design equality is to be used ONLY for elements in simple construction (where
beam-column joints are nominally pinned), so columns subject to large moments (such as
portal frames) must be designed in accordance with the full interaction formula. However, the
calculation of k factors is tedious and is considered separately at the end of this section.
The outstand elements of these sections will be subject to bending compression and axial
compression so more onerous classification limits apply;
Although there are no limitations applied to slenderness in columns it is worth noting that BS
5950 gave limitations of:
0.9
a
0.8
0.7
b
0.6 c
c
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
l
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 19. Columns.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the
lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Columns Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.
classify section
For a flange element,
c b t w 2 r 206 9.4 (2 10.2) 235
6.2 9 9 8.3 Class I plastic
t 2t f 2 14.2 275
1 N Ed 1 670 103
For a web element, 1
1 1.3 0.5
2 f ytwd 2 275 9.4 160.8
c d 160.8 396 396 0.924
17.1 23.0 Class I plastic
t tw 9.4 13 1 13 1.3 1
Section is CLASS I PLASTIC
LTB effective length, LLTB 0.85 4m 3.4m , assuming endplates give plan torsional restraint
LLTB 340
z 65.4
i zz 5.2
z 65
For S275 material, LT 0.68
96 96
h 209.6
1.02 2 use buckling curve b for rolled sections
b 205.8
Figure 11.6 – lateral torsional buckling capacity reduction factor, LT 0.87
LTWpl, y f y 0.87 656 103 275
M b, Rd 157kNm
M1 1.0 106
Design for minor axis bending
The section will reach full moment capacity on the y-y axis,
W pl, z f y 305 10 3 275
M c , Rd M pl, z , Rd 84kNm
M0 1.0 10 6
11.4 Bracing
This section deals with structural elements which resist axial compression.
You should read this section of the handbook in conjunction with the following Powerpoint
lectures on Blackboard: 15a. Tension only bracing design tutorial.ppt , 16. Tension-compression
bracing design tutorial.ppt
Principal References: SCI 376. Steel building design : Worked examples for students in
accordance with Eurocodes. Draycott, T & Bullman, P. Structural Elements Design Manual.
Working with Eurocodes. Arya, C. Design of Structural Elements.
Low-rise and multi-storey steel framed buildings are often stabilised by vertical pin-jointed
frameworks, often known as bracing. Bracing resists wind and notional loadings and any other
lateral loads such as seismic. There are two popular configurations of bracing but many are
possible.
b) c)
a)
a) Tension & Compression bracing, utilises a single member at each storey which may be in
tension or compression depending upon the wind direction. Compression in the bottom storey
element will govern design.
b) Tension Only, utilises two members at each storey but only the tension element is assumed to
resist wind load, the compression element is assumed to buckle and offer no resistance to
lateral movement. Tension in the bottom storey element will govern design.
c) Structural Engineers are often required to work bracing around doorways and other
architectural obstructions. Many arrangements are possible but should comply with the
following :
Split the structure into triangles,
Element centre lines should join at nodes to avoid eccentricity moments,
Provide a complete load path to ground,
Keep bracing angles close to 45o for maximum efficiency.
If we consider a two storey building subject to wind loading on its cladding, the load path is :
framework, transferring
reacts at vertical strong
3. Horizontal reaction
loaded horizontally at
very deep beam, and
vertically onto floor
acts as a pin-jointed
foundations
beams
points
LE → →
0.9 Anet f u
N u , Rd where Anet is the net cross sectional area (deduct for holes) and m2=1.10
M2
for net section fracture.
It may be necessary to check several failure paths to obtain the smallest net area,
load direction p2
do e2
p1
p2
2
The net area of staggered holes in angles, Anet A t nd 0 where n is the number
4 p1
of holes.
2.0e 2 0.5d 0 tf u
For single bolt connection, N u , Rd where t is the material thickness,
M2
2 Anet f u
For two bolt connection, N u , Rd Bolt pitch, p1
M2 2.5d0 ≥5d0
A f 2 0.4 0.7
For three bolt connection, N u , Rd 3 net u 3 0.5 0.7
M2
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 15a. Tension only bracing design tutorial.ppt , 16.
Tension-compression bracing design tutorial.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of the
lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Bracing Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.
4.000 m
bay width is 5m. The unfactored wind forces are 30kN at first and second
floor, and 15kN at roof level.
4.000 m
75 W W 96.0kN
6.403
SERVICABILITY LIMIT STATE 30 kN
Design for slenderness
For wind reversal, ensure
4.000 m
LE 1.0 L 6403
350 i 18.3mm 1.83cm W
350 350 350
Try 100x100x8 EA, S275 steel, ivv = 1.93cm, A = 15.5 cm2 f y 275N / mm2 75kN
as the section is not compressed there can be no local buckling so no
section classification is required 108 kN 5.000 m 108 kN
ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
Design for tension
Ultimate limit state load, Wk 1.5 96.0 144kN
MO 1.0, M 2 1.25 Nt,Rd may be calculated as the smaller value of:
Af y 15.5 10 2 275
N pl, Rd 426kN (capacity remote from connection)
M0 1.0 10 3
assuming connection has two M20 bolts in line across section (in 22mm dia. holes)
0.9 Anet f u 0.9 15.5 2.2 0.8 2 410
N u , Rd 402kN (capacity at connection)
M2 1.10 10
N Ed 144
0.36 1.0 OK in tension
N t ,Rd 402
To carry 144kN at the end connection three bolts would be required using the standard bearing capacity
calculations, however special rules apply to angles and channels;
e1=30mm p1=50mm
The net area of staggered holes in angles,
p
2
602
Anet A t nd0 2 15.5 102 8 2 22 1342mm2
4 p1 4 50
For two bolt connection,
2 Anet fu 0.4 1342 410 Bolt pitch, p1
Nu , Rd 200kN 2.5d0 ≥5d0
M2 1.10 2 0.4 0.7
4.000 m
framework. The storey height is 4m and the bay width is 5m.
The unfactored wind forces are 30kN at first and second floor,
and 15kN at roof level.
30 kN
4.000 m
Variable horizontal wind reaction, H w 30 30 15 75kN
4.000 m
W
75kN
The truss is a common and versatile structural form often used to span large distances with
economy and efficiency. In spite of this, the trussed roof has been usurped by the portal frame
because triangulated frameworks attract high fabrication costs (a portal frame has only four
elements, whereas a truss has many).
Some common truss forms are :
Warren girder
Pratt truss
portalised truss
industrial building
Figure 11.14 Common truss arrangements.
The design of truss elements should comply with the rules for either tension elements or
compression elements.
Roof trusses can be subject to reversal of stress due to wind uplift, so two analyses may be
needed. To simplify the analysis and subsequent fabrication it is common to rationalise the
serial sizes used to three or four (top / bottom chords and internal strut / tie).
The detailing rules quoted for bracing also apply to trusses :
Split the structure into triangles,
Element centre lines should join at nodes to avoid eccentricity moments,
Provide a complete load path to ground,
Keep bracing angles close to 45o for maximum efficiency,
All joints are nominally pinned,
All loads are applied at joints.
It is acceptable to undertake analysis assuming the framework to be pin-jointed, if the
subsequent design uses effective lengths based upon the same assumptions.
2
I NA I yy ,top Atop z I zz,btm Abtm h z
2
bottom chord
Leff
The pin jointed framework is a adaptable structural form, not only in new build but also to
convert existing failing structures since a structure is usually most efficient when bending is
replaced by axial transfer. Below are some common truss forms;
Howe Fink
Pratt or N Warren
Northlight Scissor
Bowstring Thrust
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 17. Roof truss design tutorial.ppt on Blackboard. The
last slide of the lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Truss Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.
16.7
-20
-20
83.3 83.3
-50 16.7
106.7 106.7
M 106.7
L 106.7
K J H
6 panels @ 4 m = 24m
5
Force in first diagonal (tie), FAM 50 83.3kN
3
5
Force in second diagonal (strut), FMC 30 50kN
3
Force in first vertical (strut), FBM 20kN
B.M 12 50 8 20 4 20
Force in chord, FDE FKJ 120kN
3.0m 3.0
For uplift loading.
-2 kN -5 kN -5 kN -5 kN -5 kN -5 kN -2 kN
-20.8 -20.8
5
-5
12.5 -4.2
M -26.7
L -26.7 K -26.7
J -26.7
H
6 panels @ 4 m = 24m
5
Force in first diagonal (strut), FAM 12.5 20.8kN
3
5
Force in second diagonal (tie), FMC 7.5 12.5kN
3
Force in first vertical (tie), FBM 5kN
B.M 12 12.5 8 5 4 5
Force in chord, FDE FKJ 30kN
3.0m 3.0
N E ,d M y , Ed M z , Ed 27 2.4
1.5 0.06 0.02 0.08 1.0 OK for bending and
N b, z , Rd M b, Rd M cz , Rd 441 142
compression. 203x203x60 UC S275 JR OK all checks
Check deformation
Check the vertical deflection at joint K under gravity loading, using Castigliano’s Theorem.
Length Area FL FL U
Element L A F U e C
AE AE W
(m) (m2) (kN) W (m) (m)
AB 4 0.00764 -66.7 -0.67 -0.00017 0.00011142
BC 4 0.00764 -66.7 -0.67 -0.00017 0.00011142
CD 4 0.00764 -120 -1.33 -0.00030 0.00039791
DE 4 0.00764 -120 -1.33 -0.00030 0.00039791
EF 4 0.00764 -66.7 -0.67 -0.00017 0.00011142
FG 4 0.00764 -66.7 -0.67 -0.00017 0.00011142
ML 4 0.00764 106.7 1.33 0.00027 0.00035380
LK 4 0.00764 106.7 1.33 0.00027 0.00035380
KJ 4 0.00764 106.7 1.33 0.00027 0.00035380
JH 4 0.00764 106.7 1.33 0.00027 0.00035380
AM 5 0.00214 83.3 0.83 0.00093 0.00076924
MC 5 0.00214 -50 -0.83 -0.00056 0.00046173
CK 5 0.00214 16.7 0.83 0.00019 0.00015422
KE 5 0.00214 16.7 0.83 0.00019 0.00015422
EH 5 0.00214 -50 -0.83 -0.00056 0.00046173
HG 5 0.00214 83.3 0.83 0.00093 0.00076924
BM 3 0.00214 -20 0.00 -0.00013 0.00000000
CL 3 0.00214 0 0.00 0.00000 0.00000000
DK 3 0.00214 -20 1.00 -0.00013 -0.00013351
EJ 3 0.00214 0 0.00 0.00000 0.00000000
FH 3 0.00214 -20 0.00 -0.00013 0.00000000
0.005293543
vertical deflection at joint K, K 5.3 mm
Once the structural elements of a frame have been designed the next step is to decide how to
join them together, such that site erection is as simple as possible and the form of construction
reflects the design assumptions.
Although portal frames require moment connections for stability, the majority of steelwork
connections are nominally pinned. This text will only address rules for the design of the most
common simple connections - plain baseplates and flexible endplates. Eurocode 3 refers to
joints as the area where two or more members meet and connections as the individual
interface between two parts.
column
loading is termed the tensile stress area. M24 class 4.6 bolts (in 30mm diameter holes) should be
used for holding down bolts as the larger size is more robust (impact from swinging column) and
the more ductile grade permits bending (in the event of inadequate setting out).
Table 11.19 Structural bolt information.
Tensile Nut Nut
Bolt Hole Nut Washer
stress across across
diameter diameter thickness thickness
area, A flats corners
d (mm) do (mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm2) (mm) (mm)
M16 18 157 13 24 28 3.0
M20 22 245 16 30 35 3.0
M24 26 353 19 36 42 3.0
M30 33 561 24 46 53 4.0
Bolted joints may fail in several modes : shear, bearing, tension, block tearing and plain shear.
v fub A
shear capacity of a bolt, Fv , Rd
M2
where, v is 0.6 for class 4.6 and 8.8 bolts but 0.5
for class 10.9, fub is the bolt material ultimate
strength and A is the bolt tensile stress area.
k1 b f u dt
bearing capacity of a bolt, Fb, Rd
M2
where, d is the nominal bolt diameter, fu is the beam or
plate material ultimate strength, t is the plate thickness
e1 f
for the end row of bolts, b ub 1.0
3d 0 fu
e2
and k1 2.8 1.7 2.5
d0
p1 f
for the inner rows of bolts, b 0.25 ub 1.0
3d 0 fu
p2
and k1 1.4 1.7 2.5
d0
Generally the material partial safety factor M2 = 1.25, however when the imensional reduction
factor a reaches 1.0 the value of M2 is increased to 1.50 to account for the increased
probability of plate buckling.
p2 e2
p1 is the bolt spacing distance in the direction of load
transfer, p2 is the bolt spacing distance perpendicular to
e1 direction of load transfer, e1 is the end distance in direction
of load transfer, do is the nominal bolt hole diameter, e2 is the
p1 end distance perpendicular to direction of load transfer.
l Minimum Maximum
End, e1 1.2d0 4t+40
Edge, e2 1.2d0 4t+40
do Pitch, p1 2.2d0 14t 200
Gauge, p2 2.4d0 14t 200
k2 f ub A
tension capacity of a bolt, Ft , Rd
M2
where, k2 is taken as 0.9
Bolts subject to shear and tension should comply with the design equality:
VEd TEd
1.0
Fv , Rd 1.4 Ft , Rd Internal
zone of
block tearing capacity of a bolt group, plate
k b f u Ant f y Anv tears
Veff ,1, Rd where, fy is the beam or plate material between
M2 3 M 0 bolts
d
yield strength, the net area in tension is Ant 2t e2 0 and net
2
shear area Anv 2t l e1 2.5d 0
where, l is the length of the end plate, kb = 1.0 for symmetrical
concentrically loaded arrangements, otherwise 0.50.
web fails in
f y Av shear
plain shear, V pl, Rd where Av 0.9t wl is the area of adjacent to
3 M 0 weld
beam web in shear.
Weld strength must be reduced in lap joint fillet welds longer than 150a,
0.2 L j
1.0 Lw 1.2 1.0
150a
Where the centres of end bolts in a long grip, Lj > 15d the joint capacity must be reduced by
L j 15d
the factor, 1.0 Lf 1 0.75
200d
9d
If bolts pass through packing thicker than 0.33d a reduction applies, b 1.0
8d 3t p
butt weld
fillet weld corner ground off
2
mm
throat thickness sacrificial
gives weld size backing strip 450
Figure 11.19 Fillet and butt welds.
Fillet welds are specified by the leg length, s (6, 8 or 10mm – larger fillet welds may be formed
by using multiple runs but anything larger than 20mm warrants a full penetration butt weld) but
designed using throat thickness, a. The standard fillet weld size is 6mm,
s 6
a so for example, a 6mm fillet weld has a 4.2mm
2 2
The intersection angle of the two plys being joined should lie in the range, 60 120
otherwise it may be impossible to make a satisfactory weld.
It is important to arrange fillet welding details so that only shear is transmitted through the weld
run. Longitudinal bending moments which produce ‘torsion’ in a fillet weld run will propagate
premature failure and must be avoided.
Welds subject to shear and tension should be designed for the most onerous of shear, tension or
the resultant force,
VEd
NEd
weld on both
sides of plate
e1
p1 bolt pitch
≥0.6h
h l
column web or
flange / primary
beam web
A plain baseplate is formed by welding an oversize flat plate to the bottom of the column
section. The full profile weld transfers all of the loading so the column need not be specially
prepared for contact with the baseplate.
The baseplate is bolted to the foundation, which provides shear resistance and temporary
erection stability. Holding-down bolts are normally cast into the foundation, complete with
washer plates to resist uplift. To ensure that all columns start at the same level, they are erected
on shims, and once the bare frame is erected the gap between the underside of the
baseplate and foundation is filled with high strength grout.
Axial only base plates should be analysed for bending beyond the stiff bearing of the plate.
Contact stress at the underside of the baseplate should be limited to fcdj where fck is the 28 day
cylinder strength of the foundation concrete. In the UK concrete is normally specified and
tested in terms of the 28 day cube strength fcu where fck = 0.8 fcu therefore care should be taken
to ensure the correct value is being used.
Table 11.22 Concrete strength data for baseplate design.
Foundation concrete
C25/30 C28/35 C32/40 C35/45 C40/50
grade
fck (N/mm2) 25 28 32 35 40
2
fcu (N/mm ) 30 35 40 45 50
Minimum fc,grout (N/mm ) 2
5 5.6 6.4 7 8
cc j f ck
Limiting contact stress, f cd j 0.67 f ck for cc=1.00, j=1.00 and mc=1.5
mc
N E ,d
Minimum contact area required (hatched), A
f cdj
If c is the required outstand from the column face to limit the contact stress, then the minimum
contact area may be obtained by solving:
b 2c
baseplate
thickness
b tw
25 tp h 2c d 2c
mm 2
grout
100x100x10
washer plates
Figure 11.23 A plain baseplate.
critical
section
ss
ss d
leff
NEd
l y 3 l e t f m1 m2
where tf is the flange thickness and ss is the horizontal stiff bearing length of web over which the
transverse action is applied, other terms may be calculated from:
f yf b
m1 where fyf is the flange yield strength and b is the breadth of the flange
f yw t w
k F Et w2
le s s c where E is the modulus of elasticity and d is the depth of the web between
2 f yw d
root fillets.
NEd NEd
c ss d hw
A A
a Ls Ls
Figure 11.25 Unstiffened and stiffened web factors. tw
s c
2
d
For unstiffened webs, k F 2 6 s 6 For stiffened webs, k F 6 2
d a
Where c is the length of web beyond the stiff bearing, a is the distance between stiffeners.
2
d
If F 0.5 then m2 0.02 otherwise, if F 0.5 then m2 0 .
t
f
When a beam web is not adequate to resist an applied transverse action then a web stiffener
must be added.
To calculate the axial capacity of the stiffened web, a cruciform section should be assessed.
This is formed from part of the beam web and the effective area of the stiffeners (since long
outstands of stiffening plates will tend to buckle locally).
Things to do now :
1. Review the Powerpoint lectures 22. Connections.ppt on Blackboard. The last slide of
the lecture will suggest books for further reading.
2. Attempt the Connections Self Assessment Test on Blackboard before 4pm on Sunday
evening.
3. Have a rest.
A beam 457x152x60 UB (S275 steel) applies a shear reaction of VE,d = 134 kN at its connection with a
203x203x60 UC (S275 steel) column. The connection is to the column flange.
Try 4 No M20 grade 8.8 bolts in 22mm diameter holes; 275x150x8mm thick S275 plate; 6mm fillet
welds to both sides of the beam web.
90 30
50
175 275 75 kN
22 134 kN
FE ,d 154
0.31 1.0 full profile 6 mm fillet weld OK
Fw, Rd 498
FRd 376kN
Veff ,1, Rd 587kN
Capacity of the connection will be the minimum from
V pl, Rd 369kN VE ,d 134kN
Fw, Rd 498kN
Arrangement of endplate, weld and bolts OK for all checks
Axially loaded plain baseplate in S275 steel, welded to column which is subject to 670 kN.
Column is 203x203x60 UC S275 steel, fy = 275 N/mm2, MO 1.0, M 2 1.25 .
Foundation is constructed in RC 25/30 concrete, fck = 25 N/mm2.
cc j f ck
Limiting contact stress, f cd j 0.67 25 16.7 N / mm 2
mc
N E ,d 670 10 3
Minimum contact area required, A 40120mm 2
f cdj 16.7
If c is the required outstand from the column face to limit the contact stress, then the contact area is,
b 2ch 2c d 2cb tw and for our column this simplifies to:
206 2c210 2c 161 2c206 9 4c 2 1226c 25679 .
The minimum required outstand will occur when, 40120 4c 2 1226c 25679 , solving using the
306 306 2 4 1 16450 306 400
quadratic formula: c 47 or 353mm
2 1 2
3 f cdj m 0 3 16.7 1.0
The base plate thickness, t p c 47 20.4mm provide 20mm thick plate.
fy 265
Note that baseplate thickness should not be less than the column flange thickness (14.2mm).
Holding-down bolts should be M24 grade 4.6 bolts, set in 6 mm oversize holes. Four should be
provided in each baseplate to facilitate site erection without temporary bracing.
The weld between baseplate and column must carry the full axial load of 670 kN, try full profile 6 mm
fillet weld:
6
weld leg length, s = 6 mm and throat thickness, a 4.2mm
2
fu 410
weld shear strength, f vw,d 223N / mm 2
3 w m 2 3 0.85 1.25
design weld resistance, Fw, Rd f vw,d a 223 4.2 946 N / mm run of weld
length of profile weld, 2b 4h 2 206 4 210 1252mm
deduction for four start or stops, 4s s 46 6 48mm (assuming the work must be turned)
net length of weld, l w 1252 48 1204mm
N E ,d 670 10 3
applied action, FEd 556 N / mm run of weld
lw 1204
FE ,d 556
0.58 1.0 full profile 6 mm fillet weld OK.
Fw, Rd 946
400mm sqr. x 20mm thick baseplate with full profile 6mm fillet weld to column.
4 No M24 class 4.6 x 400mm long cast-in holding down bolts.
A 406x140x39 UB in S355 steel is subject to a concentrated load of 250kN, spread over 50mm of the
top flange and 1500mm from the support. Determine whether the web will fail in buckling or bearing.
f yf b f 355 142
Firstly assume, F 0.5, m2 0 and therefore m1 22.2
f ywtw 355 6.4
s c 50 209 k Et 2 6 210000 6.42
k F 2 6 s 2 6 6.1 6 , and le F w 190.9mm
d 380.8 2 f ywd 2 355 380.8
ly is the minimum of :
l y1 s s 2t f 1 m1 m2 50 2 8.6 1 22.2 0 148mm
2
m1 l e
2
22.2 191
l y 2 le t f m2 191 8.6 0 384mm
2 t f 2 8.6
l y 3 l e t f m1 m2 191 8.6 22.2 0 231mm
t w3 6.4 3
Fcr 0.9k F E 0.9 6 210 10 3 780649 N
hw 380.8
l ytw f y 148 6.4 355
now check F 0.66 0.5 m2 0 try again
Fcr 780649
2
d 381
2
Y Y
(page 2 of 2)
Z
Universal Columns
(page 1 of 2) Y Y
Z
Thick
Depth Width ness Thick Depth Local Buckling Second Moment of
of of of ness of Root between Ratios Area
Section Section Web Flange Radius fillets
Serial size type h b tw tf r d I yy I zz I xx
Flange Web
mm mm mm mm mm mm (c/t) (c/t) cm4 cm4 cm4
152x152x23 UC 152.4 152.2 5.8 6.8 7.6 123.6 11.2 21.3 1260 403 4.87
152x152x30 UC 157.6 152.9 6.5 9.4 7.6 123.6 8.13 19 1740 558 10.5
152x152x37 UC 161.8 154.4 8 11.5 7.6 123.6 6.71 15.5 2220 709 19.5
203x203x46 UC 203.2 203.6 7.2 11 10.2 160.8 9.25 22.3 4560 1540 22.2
203x203x52 UC 206.2 204.3 7.9 12.5 10.2 160.8 8.17 20.4 5260 1770 32
203x203x60 UC 209.6 205.8 9.4 14.2 10.2 160.8 7.25 17.1 6090 2040 46.6
203x203x71 UC 215.8 206.4 10 17.3 10.2 160.8 5.97 16.1 7650 2540 81.5
203x203x86 UC 222.2 209.1 12.7 20.5 10.2 160.8 5.1 12.7 9460 3120 138
254x254x73 UC 254.1 254.6 8.6 14.2 12.7 200.3 8.96 23.3 11400 3870 57.3
254x254x89 UC 260.3 256.3 10.3 17.3 12.7 200.3 7.41 19.4 14300 4850 104
254x254x107 UC 266.7 258.8 12.8 20.5 12.7 200.3 6.31 15.6 17500 5900 173
254x254x132 UC 276.3 261.3 15.3 25.3 12.7 200.3 5.16 13.1 22600 7520 322
254x254x167 UC 289.1 265.2 19.2 31.7 12.7 200.3 4.18 10.4 29900 9800 625
305x305x97 UC 307.9 305.3 9.9 15.4 15.2 246.7 9.91 24.9 22200 7270 91.1
305x305x118 UC 314.5 307.4 12 18.7 15.2 246.7 8.22 20.6 27600 9010 160
305x305x137 UC 320.5 309.2 13.8 21.7 15.2 246.7 7.12 17.9 32800 10700 250
305x305x158 UC 327.1 311.2 15.8 25 15.2 246.7 6.22 15.6 38700 12500 379
305x305x198 UC 339.9 314.5 19.1 31.4 15.2 246.7 5.01 12.9 50800 16200 734
305x305x240 UC 352.5 318.4 23 37.7 15.2 246.7 4.22 10.7 64200 20200 1270
305x305x283 UC 365.3 322.2 26.8 44.1 15.2 246.7 3.65 9.21 78800 24500 2030
356x368x129 UC 355.6 368.6 10.4 17.5 15.2 290.2 10.5 27.9 40200 14600 153
356x368x153 UC 362 370.5 12.3 20.7 15.2 290.2 8.95 23.6 48500 17500 251
356x368x177 UC 368.2 372.6 14.4 23.8 15.2 290.2 7.83 20.2 57200 20500 383
356x368x202 UC 374.6 374.7 16.5 27 15.2 290.2 6.94 17.6 66300 23600 560
356x406x235 UC 381 394.8 18.4 30.2 15.2 290.2 6.54 15.8 79100 31000 812
356x406x287 UC 393.6 399 22.6 36.5 15.2 290.2 5.47 12.8 100000 38700 1440
356x406x340 UC 406.4 403 26.6 42.9 15.2 290.2 4.7 10.9 122000 46800 2340
356x406x393 UC 419 407 30.6 49.2 15.2 290.2 4.14 9.48 147000 55400 3550
356x406x467 UC 436.6 412.2 35.8 58 15.2 290.2 3.55 8.11 183000 67900 5820
356x406x551 UC 455.6 418.5 42.1 6.75 15.2 290.2 3.1 6.89 227000 81700 9240
356x406x634 UC 474.6 424 47.6 7.7 15.2 290.2 2.75 6.1 275000 98200 13700
Y Y
(page 2 of 2)
Z
V
Angles U
Y Y
V Z
U
Equal Angle Unequal Angle
Cz
Parallel Flange Channels
Cs
Root radius
Parameter
Depth
Width
Centroid
Torsional
Buckling
Depth Second
Flange
Index
Radius of Elastic Plastic
Area
Web
b/n Moment of
Gyration Modulus Modulus
fillets Area
PFC
380x100x54 380 100 9.5 17.5 15 315 15000 643 14.8 3.06 791 89.2 933 161 3.48 0.933 21.2 68.7
300x100x46 300 100 9 16.5 15 237 8230 568 11.9 3.13 549 81.7 641 148 3.68 0.944 17 58
300x90x41 300 90 9 15.5 12 245 7220 404 11.7 2.77 481 63.1 568 114 3.18 0.934 18.4 52.7
260x90x35 260 90 8 14 12 208 4730 353 10.3 2.82 364 56.3 425 102 3.32 0.943 17.2 44.4
260x75x28 260 75 7 12 12 212 3620 185 10.1 2.3 278 34.4 328 62 2.62 0.932 20.5 35.1
230x90x32 230 90 7.5 14 12 178 3520 334 9.27 2.86 306 55 355 98.9 3.46 0.949 15.1 41
230x75x26 230 75 6.5 12.5 12 181 2750 181 9.17 2.35 239 34.8 278 63.2 2.78 0.945 17.3 32.7
200x90x30 200 90 7 14 12 148 2520 314 8.16 2.88 252 53.4 291 94.5 3.6 0.952 12.9 37.9
200x75x23 200 75 6 12.5 12 151 1960 170 8.11 2.39 196 33.8 227 60.6 2.91 0.956 14.7 29.9
180x90x26 180 90 6.5 12.5 12 131 1820 277 7.4 2.89 202 47.4 232 83.5 3.64 0.95 12.8 33.2
180x75x20 180 75 6 10.5 12 135 1370 146 7.27 2.38 152 28.8 176 51.8 2.87 0.945 15.3 25.9
150x90x24 150 90 6.5 12 12 102 1160 253 6.18 2.89 155 44.4 179 76.9 3.71 0.937 10.8 30.4
150x75x18 150 75 5.5 10 12 106 861 131 6.15 2.4 115 26.6 132 47.2 2.99 0.945 13.1 22.8
125x65x15 125 65 5.5 9.5 12 82 483 80 5.07 2.06 77.3 18.8 89.9 33.2 2.56 0.942 11.1 18.8
100x50x10 100 50 5 8.5 9 65 208 32.3 4 1.58 41.5 9.89 48.9 17.5 1.94 0.942 10 13
It is standard practice to specify the top flange level rather than centreline of a floor
beam because sections are rolled to a tolerance, so therefore are not likely to be
exactly the depth specified in tables.
Frame elements are usually shown as sticks on general arrangements for simplicity.
Brickwork blockwork
The element reference (each element has a reference which is shown on the
marking plan, used by the erector to get all the pieces in the correct place),
The grade and subgrade of steel and the element serial size,
The cut length of the element,
Details of the end connections including welding specification,
A scrap detail of every plate or fitting to be attached to the element (such as
endplates or purlin cleats),
The weight of the finished element.
Fabrication drawings also use peculiar abbreviations, such as those for fillet welding :
A national standard for the specification of structural steel (NSSS) is produced by the
British Constructional Steelwork Association. It is often referred to as the Black Book
and contains:
Materials
Grade and sub-grade of steel, fasteners and welding.
Workmanship
Traceability of steel material, cutting and machining practices, welding procedures
and welder proficiency, recording of testing. Acceptable framework erection
techniques to achieve stability and safety. Accuracy of fabrication (acceptable
tolerances for fabricated steel). Some examples of the tolerances are:
Coefficient thermal
Property
Poisson’s ratio,
Shear Modulus,
Ultimate Stress,
Unit weight,
G (kN/mm2)
E (kN/mm2)
Yield Stress,
u (N/mm2)
y (N/mm2)
(kN/m3)
Material
Bibliography
Structural Mechanics Text Books
Bhatt, P & Nelson, H.M. Structures. Harlow: Longman Scientific & Technical. 1999.
Brohn, D. Understanding Structural Analysis. 3rd Edition. Oxford: BSP. 2007. [624.04/BRO]
Buckle, I.G. The elements of structure. An introduction to the principles of building and
structural engineering. 2nd Edition. Pitman. 1984. [624.17/MOR]
Ching, F, Onouye, B & Zuberbuhler, D. Building Structures Illustrated: Patterns, systems and
design. John Wiley: Hoboken, 2009. [ISBN 978-0-470-18785-2]
Ghali, A & Neville, A.M. Structural Analysis. 5th Edition. Spon, 2003. [ISBN 0-419-21200-0]
Hanaor, A. Principles of Structures. Blackwell Science. 1998. [624.1/HAN]
Hearn, E.J, Mechanics of Materials Volumes I & II. Pergammon Press, 1956. [620.1123/HEA]
Hulse, R & Cain, J, Structural Mechanics. MacMillan, 1991. [624.17/HUL]
Kaufman, H.F. A Structures Primer. Prentice Hall. 2010. [624.1/KAU]
Megson, T.H.G. Strength of Materials for Civil Engineers. 2nd Edition. Edward Arnold. 1987.
[624.171/MEG]
Montague, P & Taylor, R. Structural Engineering for First Year Students. McGraw-Hill. 1989. [ISBN
0-07-084195-0]
Philpot, T.A. Mechanics of Materials. An integrated learning system. Wiley. 2008. [ISBN 978-0-
470-04438-4]
Riley, W, Sturges, L. & Morris, D. Mechanics of Materials. 5th Edition. John Wiley & Sons. 1999.
[620.112/RIL]
Seward, D. Understanding Structures. 3rd Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. 2003. [624.17/SEW]
Timoshenko, S, Mechanics of Materials Volumes I & II. Van Nostrand, 1956. [620.11/TIM]
Tyne, J.R, Simple Bending. Chatto & Windus, 1974. [624.072.2/TYN]
Ugural, A.C, Mechanics of Materials. Wiley. 2008. [ISBN 978-0-471-72115-7]
Urry, S.A & Turner, P.J. Solving Problems in Solid Mechanics, Volume 1. Longman. 1986.
[620.1/URR]
Vable, M, Mechanics of Materials. Oxford Univ. Press, 2002. [620.11292/VAB]
Whitlow, R. Materials & Structures. 2nd Edition. Longman. 1991. [620.11/WHI]
Millais, M. Building Structures – a Conceptual Approach. 2nd Edition. Spon: London, 2005.
[690/MIL]
Narayanan and Beeby, Introduction to Design for Civil Engineers. Spon 2001. [624/NAR]
SCI Publication 093. Lateral stability of steel beams and columns – common cases of restraint.
The Steel Construction Institute: Ascot, 1992. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 102. Connections between steel and other materials. The Steel Construction
Institute: Ascot, 1996. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 166. Design of steel framed buildings for service integration. The Steel
Construction Institute: Ascot, 1997. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 167. Architectural teaching resource – Studio Guide. 2nd Edition. The Steel
Construction Institute: Ascot, 2003. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 182. A comparative environmental life cycle assessment of modern office
buildings. The Steel Construction Institute: Ascot, 1998. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 186. The design of steel framed buildings without applied fire protection. The
Steel Construction Institute: Ascot, 1999. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 193. Steel supported glazing systems. The Steel Construction Institute: Ascot,
1997. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 341. Guidance on meeting the robustness requirements in Approved
Document A (2004 Edition). The Steel Construction Institute: Ascot, 2005. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 351. Precast concrete floors in steel framed buildings. The Steel Construction
Institute: Ascot, 2007. [Blackboard]
SCI Publication 376. Steel building design : Worked examples for students in accordance with
Eurocodes. The Steel Construction Institute: Ascot, 2008. [Blackboard]
Steel Construction Institute. Steel Designers Manual, 5th Edition. Blackwell. 1998.
[624.18210941/STE]
The Institution of Structural Engineers & Timber Research and Development Association. Manual
for the design of timber building structures to Eurocode 5. London: IStructE, 2007. [Blackboard]
The Institution of Structural Engineers. Guide to the advanced fire safety engineering of
structures. London: IStructE, 2007. [Blackboard]
The Institution of Structural Engineers. Manual for the design of building structures to Eurocode 1
and Basis of Structural Design. IStructE, 2010.
The Institution of Structural Engineers. Manual for the design of steelwork building structures to
Eurocode 3. London: IStructE, 2009.
http://acg.media.mit.edu/people/simong/statics/data
a fantastic web resource called Active Statics which visually demonstrates analysis of
statically determinate structures.
d 2z
Differential equation of flexure : EI 2 M
dx
Az
Theorem of the Parallel Axis : I NA yy I Ah 2 where z
A
yy
2 EI
Euler Buckling: PE 2
LE
fy A
Rankine Capacity: PR where a 0.0001
1 a2
Perry-Robertson Capacity: f c
1
2
f y f cr 1
1
4
2
f y f cr 1 f y f cr
2E
where f cr and 0.003
2
2 I yz
Tan 2
I yy I zz
I uu I yy cos 2 I yz Sin 2 I zz sin 2
Unsymmetrical bending:
I vv I zz cos 2 I yz Sin 2 I yy sin 2
M zz I yy M yy I yz M yy I zz M zz I yz
z x y
I yy I zz I yz I yy I zz I yz
2 2
2 xz 2
Principal Stress : Tan 2 , max 1
x z 2
x z x z
1
1
x z 2 4 xz 2 and 2
1
x z 2 4 xz 2
2 2 2 2
Rectangle
2
3
b.d 3 d .b
b.d
d 12 12
2
b
3
Triangle
b.d b.d 3
d
2 36
3
.D 2 .D 4
Circle
D
R 4 64
Semi-circle
.D 2
R 4R 0.1098R 4 0.3927 R 4
3 8
D
b
2
Parabola
2d 4b.d
5
0.0914b.d 3 0.2667d .b 3
3
Half Parabola
3b
8
2d 2b.d
5 0.0457b.d 3 0.0396d .b 3
3
Complement
Parabola
of Half
b.d
3d 0.0176b.d 3 0.0125d .b 3
10 b
3
4
L L a b
L
2 2
P L Pa
w
SFD
2 2 L
P Pb
2 L
BMD
Pab
PL 2
wL L
Deflection
4
8
PL3 5wL4 PL3 4a a 2
max max max 3
48EI 384 EI 48EI L L
w (per metre) P
L L
SFD
wL P
BMD
wL2
2 PL
Deflection
wL4 PL3
max max
8EI 3EI