STORY OF THE EARTH

O.N. Bhargava, B.P. Singh

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

BANGALORE
2014
STORY OF THE EARTH

O.N. Bhargava

B.P. Singh

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

BANGALORE
2014
STORY OF EARTH
by O.N. Bhargava and B.P. Singh

Published by Geological Scoiety of India

No. 63, 12th Cross, Basappa Layout, P.B.No.1922, Gavipuram P.O.
Bangalore-560 019, Karnataka, India.
Telephone: 080-2242 2943, Tele Fax: 080-2661 3352
Email: gsocind@gmail.com

Pages : vi + 34

© Geological Society of India

ISBN : 948-93-8099820-2

Printed : 2014

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 PREFACE
Late Dr K.R. Gupta, formerly Advisor, Ministry of Science and
Technology had asked one of us (ONB) to write popular “Story of
the Earth” for layman. Though promised, however, due to several
pressing preoccupations, I kept on procrastinating the assignment.
Then most unfortunately and unexpectedly, Dr Gupta and his wife
died in an automobile accident. There is a sense of remorse and
guilt. I hurry to redeem my promise. I propose to write a still
simpler version of this book, which may be understood even by
small school children. Both the versions in due course can be
translated in various Indian languages. This is my homage to Late
Dr K.R. Gupta.

O.N. Bhargava.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We have freely consulted Wikipedia, various publications of the
Readers Digest, and books on Historical Geology. The manuscript
is considerably improved due to critical review by Prof.
R. Vaidyanadhan, S.V. Srikantia and Prof. Ashok Sahni.
Prof. J.A. Talent and Nigel Hughes critically perused the manuscript.
 CONTENTS
1. THE EARTH AND THE UNIVERSE 1
1.1 Birth and age of the Earth 2
1.2 Continental Drift 2
1.3 Atmosphere and Internal structure of the Earth 3
1.4 Birth of Moon 4

2. HISTORY OF THE EARTH 4

2.1 Tools for estimating the age of rocks 4
2.1a. Fossils 4
2.1b. Radiometric dating 6

2.2 Hadean (4600 Ma-?3800 Ga = 800 My) 6

2.3 Archaean (3800 Ma-2500 Ma = 1300 My) 6

2.4 Proterozoic (2500 Ma-543 Ma = 1957 My) 6

2.5 Palaeozoic (543 Ma-248 Ma = 295 My) 7

2.5a. Cambrian (543 Ma-490 Ma = 53 My) 7
2.5b. Ordovician (490 Ma-443 Ma = 47 My) 7
2.5c. Silurian (443 Ma-417 Ma = 76 My) 8
2.5d. Devonian (417 Ma-354 Ma = 63 My) 9
2.5e. Carboniferous (354 Ma-290 Ma = 64 My) 9
2.5f. Permian (290 Ma-248 Ma = 42 My) 10

2.6. Mesozoic (248 Ma-65 Ma = 183 My) 11

2.6a. Triassic (248 Ma-206 Ma = 42 My) 12
2.6b. Jurassic (206 Ma-144 Ma = 62 My) 12
2.6c. Cretaceous 144 Ma-65 Ma = 79 My) 13

2.7. Cenozoic (65 Ma-1.8 Ma= 63.2 My) 16

2.7a. Palaeogene (65 Ma-23.7 Ma = 41.3 My) 16
2.7b. Neogene (23.7 Ma-1.8 Ma = 21.9 My) 18

2.8. Quaternary (1.8 Ma to Present) 19

2.8a. Pleistocene (1.8 Ma-0.01 Ma = 1.79 My) 19
2.8b. Holocene (10 Ka-Present) 21
3. EARTH—ASSETS AND HAZARD 21
3.1. Assets 22
3.1a. Atmosphere 22
3.1b. Hydrological Cycle 24
3.1c. Fertile Plain 24
3.1d. Forest Cover 24
3.1e. Minerals 25

3.2. Hazards 25
3.2a. Deserts 25
3.2b. Earthquakes 25
3.2c. Volcanoes 27
3.2d. Meteoric impacts 28
3.2e. Tornadoes and Floods 29
3.2f. Erosion 29
3.2g. Mining 30

4. PERIODICITY OF THE EVENTS 30

5. IMPACT OF HAZARD ON ENVIRONMENT 30

Glossary 32

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 STORY OF THE EARTH

Pleasant be thy hills, O Earth,

The snow-clad mountains and thy woods!
Oh Earth-brown, black, ruddy and
Multicoloured-the firm Earth protected by Indira,
On this Earth I stand, unvanquished, unslain, unhurt.
Set me, O Earth, amidst what is thy center and thy navel,
And vitalizing forces that emanated from thy body.
Purify us from all sides.
Earth is my mother, her son am I: and Parjanya,
my father: may he fill us with plenty.
Atharva Veda

The Earth is referred as Prithvi in Sanskrit and is

extolled as ‘Great Mother’ in the ancient text Rigveda
There is a very ancient prayer “Let not Mother Earth get
angry with us at any time. Earth is my mother; I am the
son of the Earth”. This kind of closeness and reverence
made the sages (Rishis) bow down to the Mother Earth
and pay homage to her. The Mother Earth is identified
with ‘Shri’ or ‘Lakshmi’ (the Goddess of harvest and
fortune) in the Aithareya Brahmana and also in the later
Upanishads. The Earth is also described as power or
Shakti associated with Vishnu. In fact Vishnu is associated
on either side with ‘Shridevi’ (the Goddess of wealth) or
Bhudevi (the Goddess of the Earth).

Fig.1. View of Earth from space (modified after rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/

THE EARTH AND THE UNIVERSE Sect16/Sect16_1.html)

The planet Earth (Fig. 1) is full of spectacular natural

features; there are lofty snowy peaks and deep ocean
basins, numerous rivers and huge islands, hot treeless
and rainless deserts, wet places with dense forests, polar
areas with freezing temperature and also areas so hot that
one can fry food, rivers that traverse the breadth of a
continent and several fresh water lakes almost simulating
a sea. Yet this marvellous Earth is but a minuscule part
of the astounding Universe.
The Universe was created, around 13-14 billion years
ago, in a vast explosion, known as the Big Bang. Both
time and space were born from this colossal detonation.
In less than a second the infant Universe had expanded
trillion of times. Within less than three minutes of the
initial explosion, as the fireball cooled, the first atoms of
hydrogen and helium were formed. However, it took
another half a billion years before these atoms combined
to form matter, which was followed by creation of stars
and then galaxies. The Universe is still expanding, at an
ever growing rate, becoming cooler and emptier. There
are billions of galaxies in the Universe. The galaxies
exist in groups and are attracted to each other to form
“superclusters’–vast strings of galaxy clusters that are
millions of light years across. About 90% of the galaxies
are invisible. The most distant galaxy that can be
perceived from the Earth is at a distance of 13 billion
light-years (a light year is distance light travels in a year-
about 94,60,800,000,000 km, to be more precise 299,792

1
km per second!). Our own galaxy cluster, known as the
Local Group or the Milky Way (Aakash Ganga), is part
of a super-cluster, in which the Virgo galaxy cluster, with
2000 members, is by far the biggest. The Milky Way
(Fig.2) and the nearby Andromeda Galaxy are the
biggest members of the galaxy cluster. Andromeda with
while the Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, retained
atmosphere as they were quite far away from the Sun.
About 4.6 Ga, the Earth started its life as a ball of hot
rock at a temperature of 50000 C with an atmosphere of
hydrogen. As the surface began to cool, material from the
hot interior of the planet was released in gaseous form to
create the atmosphere. This age of the Earth has been
arrived at by modern scientific method known as
radiometric dating. It is interesting to know that each
religion has its own estimate of the age of the Earth.
Archbishop Ussher in 1650 used the Bible to calculate
the age of Earth as 4004 BC. On the contrary, the Hindu
scripture Surya Sidhanta surprisingly estimates the age
of the Earth as 4.2 Ga, which is quite close to the
scientifically determined age. Since its formation the
Earth has evolved through various stages.

Continental Drift

Fig. 2. A view of the Milky Way (modified after apod.nasa.gov/ The location of continents and the oceans that we see
apod/ap050104.html) today was not same throughout the geological history of
the Mother Earth. The crust formed due to cooling could
resist reworking. It acquired a form akin to thin skin,
400,000 million stars is twice the size of the Milky Way,
which was composed of a few major rigid plates and
and at 2.9 million light years away, is the most distant
several smaller platelets. There are eight major plates all
object visible to the naked eye. Most of the other 30
moving relatively to one another (Fig.3).
Group members are small and faint.
The name Milky Way is due to misty appearance of
its 200 billion distant stars that form a distinct band
across our sky. The Milky Way is spiral in shape, with
young stars and interstellar gas marking out the arms.
The Sun and its associated planets sit in the Orion Arm
of the spiral, about halfway out from the centre, which is
also the site of a massive black hole.

Birth and Age of the Earth

Within the Milky Way, a rotating cloud of gases from
earlier supernovae (exploded stars) got contracted by
gravitational forces. This clump of denser material is
known as nebula. The nebula condensed to form the
Solar System. Around 4.6 Ga (=GIGA anum= one billion
years) small amount of nebula began to collapse inwards.
It became hotter and denser setting in nuclear reactions
and, thus a star — our Sun was formed. The Sun, like
any other star, is a natural nuclear reactor. Other planets
of the Solar System were formed from the remaining gas Fig.3. Major tectonic plates (modified after Williamson, 2010
www.topnews.in/usa/wh y-tectonic-plates-move-w).
and dust. The Sun dominates its family of planets,
moons, asteroids and comets. The small rocky planets
that are located close to the Sun i.e. Mercury, Venus, A look at the world map will reveal that the eastern
Earth and Mars were created in an environment that was coastline of South America is largely parallel to the
too hot, thus could not hold on to a dense atmosphere, western coastline of Africa and if these continents are

2
brought together these will fit almost like pieces of a Continents have changed their locations in remote
jigsaw puzzle. past. Their past locations have been determined by
paleomagnetic studies, that is the study of remnant
This observation gave rise to the idea of Continental
magnetism in rocks of different ages. Drifting of the
Drift which envisaged that initially all continents were
continents and variation in the atmosphere also caused
huddled together and later moved apart in different
Ice Ages at different times in different parts of the world.
episodes to acquire the present position and shape. Even
These changes also triggered evolutionary cycles.
now the Earth is not a static body. The tectonic forces
that shaped the continents and oceans still continue to
move and rework them, causing volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes. Forces deep within its interior cause the Atmosphere and Internal Structure of the Earth
movement of earth plates. As the hot, molten magma
The present composition of the atmosphere is: 21%
rises towards the surface it encounters cooler material,
oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 0.04% carbon dioxide and ~0.9%
forming convection currents that cause drifting of the
argon.
tectonic plates. The convection currents also lead to up-
welling of magma in the ocean bottoms resulting in the About 4.5 Ga ago incessant volcanic eruptions
formation of mid-oceanic ridges. Currents in the liquid produced an atmosphere consisting of carbon dioxide
outer core drive the Earth’s magnetic field. The addition and water vapour. When the Earth was first formed there
of magmatic material along these ridges pushes the was no differentiation as the continents and ocean. As the
portion on either side of the mid-oceanic ridge leading to surface cooled, pieces of crust were formed, which were
drift of the plates (Fig. 4). Almost the same amount of reworked into the mantle beneath. As the cooling
material that is added along the mid-oceanic ridges is continued the earth consolidated into several layers (Fig.
destroyed (subduction) along the trenches, known as the 6). The Inner core is 1200 km thick from its center to the
Benihoff Zone that exists along the other margin of the lower boundary of the Outer core; it is solid iron,
oceanic plates. The collision of two plates gives rise to
mountain chains. The Andes Mountain is result of
oceanic and continental plates and the Himalaya of
continental-continental plate collision (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4. Magma being added along the oceanic ridge

Fig. 5. Formation of the Himalaya due to collision of two Fig. 6. Internal structure of the layered Earth (modified after
continental plates. http://ontwikkel.thinkquest.nl/~ll125/en/struct.htm)

3
probably crystallized from the liquid outer core, where Paleogene and the Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene and
temperatures may reach 47000 C. The Outer core is 2300 Holocene for the Neogene. The Epochs are further
km thick and is in the form of liquid and is made up of subdivided in Systems which are not dealt here. The
iron-nickel alloy. scale of geological time has been determined by
radiometric dating (Table 1) and fossil contents found in
The Lower mantle is 2200 km thick; the rocks in this
the rocks.
part are under high pressure and temperature (upto
35000C) and flow plastically. The Upper mantle (700 km
thick) is relatively cool and rigid. The outermost layer is
Tools for Estimating the Age of Rocks
the crust; it consists of alumino-silicates and is 35-70 km
thick in continents and 5-10 km thick in the ocean Fossils: The fossils are remnants of animals that
basins. thrived at the time of deposition of rocks in which these
The Earth’s crust comprises three types of rocks viz. Table 1. Geologic Time Scale (modified after
igneous formed by consolidation of hot magma, which qowara.blogspot.com/2011/05/geological-time-s...)
can be formed on surface like basalt of the Deccan
plateau in India or at depth like granites; sedimentary
rocks which are due to consolidation of weathered
material from different rock types and deposited in
marine, fluvial, lacustrine, desertic or glacial environments,
the third type of rocks are called metamorphic rocks
which are modified version of igneous or sedimentary
rocks due to burial at depth during tectonic processes and
subjected to higher temperatures and pressures.

Birth of Moon

Around 4.4 Ga ago, the newly born Earth is believed

to have collided with a wandering planetary body of the
size of Mars. As a result of this impact huge amounts of
material were thrown into space which eventually
coalesced within the earth’s gravitational field to form
the Moon.

HISTORY OF THE EARTH

The history of the Earth, like human history, can be

divided into well defined periods. The entire history of
the Earth is divided in smaller periods as per Geological
Time Scale (Table 1). The entire period is divided into
two main subdivisions: the Precambrian and the
Phanerozoic and the latter is called an Eon. The
Precambrian is divided into the Archaean. and the
Proterozoic eons. Subdivisions of the Phanerozoic Eon
are the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. Further
subdivisions called Periods of the Palaeozoic Era are the
Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous
and Permian; the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous of the
Mesozoic and the Paleogene and Neogene of the
Cenozoic. The Periods are divided in Epochs, these are
important for the Paleogene and the Neogene Periods
viz., the Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene for the

4
are found. The fossils can be in the form of impressions
(Fig.7), moulds, casts, total cell by cell replacement and
rarely in toto.
The last example is furnished by mammoths found
preserved in Siberia (Fig. 8).
Fig.7. Impression of Jurassic bird in mudstone (modified after
http://maalie.blogspot.com/2008/05/vienna-natural-
history-museum.html)
Fig. 8. Fossil in toto of 130 cm high baby mammoths preserved
in ice (modified after www.cryptomundo.com/cryptozoo-
news/baby-mammoth/).
5
This mode of preservation happens when all of a
sudden the animal is entombed in snow and gets frozen,
allowing no time to bacteria to decay the organism. In
fact absence of bacteria is important for any fossil
preservation, except the impressions. The animal is
buried in the sediments and in course of time it decays
leaving its cast, which is filled by later solutions, mostly
containing calcium carbonate, forming its mould (Fig. 9),
also the solutions over a period of time, gradually replace
Fig. 9. Mould and cast of ammonoid.
cells of the animal part, thus preserving even its internal
structure (Fig. 10a). In addition impression of traces of
locomotion of animals is found preserved as fossils;
these are called Trace fossils (Fig. 10b). The animals and
plants both can be fossilized.
Figs. 10. a. Preserved internal structure, b. Foot prints of
dinosaurs (modified after Wikipedia).
As will be clear from the narration in sequel, the life
gradually evolved from a simple to more complicated
form. Thus the fossils present in the older rocks are of
primitive animals and fossils of more advanced animals
are found in the younger rocks. Since there was almost
a parallel evolution i.e. similar forms in a specific time
evolved simultaneously in different parts of the world,
thus based on kind of fossils, age of the particular rock
in which these are found can be determined. The rocks
having similar fossils represent same age and can be
correlated across the globe. The fossils that are most
useful are those which have limited time extension and
wide geographical distribution and are known as ‘index
or guide fossils’.
 Radiometric dating : Radiometric dating is based on
the natural decay of radioactive isotopes that are mostly
part of trace elements (rubidium, samarium, lutetium,
rhenium, uranium, thorium, potassium) in rock-forming
or accessory minerals, e. g. mica, garnet, or zircon. Since
the rate of decay of a specific isotope species (called the
radioactive parent isotope) is constant, the proportion of
the isotope produced by the decay (= the radiogenic
isotope, or daughter isotope) gives a direct measure of
time units that have elapsed since the formation, or
alternatively, the last pervasive alteration of the
investigated material (mineral, or parent rock). Several
different methods, depending upon the rock to be dated,
are available for radiometric dating. The most frequently
used decay systems involve the uranium-lead (U-Pb),
thorium-lead (Th-Pb), potassium-argon (K-Ar), rubidium
strontium (Rb-Sr), samarium-neodymium (Sm-Nd),
lutetium-hafnium (Lu-Hf), and the radiocarbon (C-14)
methods. This latter method is based on the cosmogenic
production of radiocarbon from nitrogen (N-14) in the
atmosphere by cosmic ray bombardement and is ideally
applicable to date C-bearing material, which should,
however, not be much older than c. 50,000 years.
Radiometric dating is the only means (i) for unravelling the
timing of unfossiliferous rocks, and, (ii) most importantly,
it is/was the only way for setting absolute time constraints
(in millions, or thousands of years) for the fossiliferous
rock series of the Phanerozoic time scale as well - since
fossils per se can give only relative time information.
Following are the subdivisions of the Time scale of
the mother Earth. Within the parentheses are given the
period of each subdivision in mega annum (Ma) followed
by corresponding duration in million years (My).
Hadean (4600 Ma-?3800 Ga = 800 My)
The initial period of the Earth called Hadean,
meaning hellish, was when the Earth was very hot and
surrounded by noxious gases. The Earth’s surface was
originally molten and as it cooled the volcanoes erupted
to release massive amounts of carbon dioxide, steam,
ammonia and methane. There was no oxygen. The steam
condensed to form water, which then produced shallow
seas. The first DNA was formed during the Hadean.
As only very few geological traces of this period are
preserved on the planet, hence, no official subdivisions
were suggested.
Archaean (3800 Ma-2500 Ma = 1300 My)
With fall in temperature water vapour condensed to
create the first ocean about 3.8 Ga ago. There is evidence
6
to suggest that bacteria flourished 3.8 billion years ago
i.e. the life got under way about 700 million years after
the Earth was created. Such early forms of life existed in
the shallow oceans close to thermal vents. These vents
were also sources of heat and minerals. Oxygen released
by the evaporation of water and by sea-dwelling micro-
organism built up the atmosphere. Around 3.65 Ga ago
oxygen got slowly built up in the oceans and atmosphere.
Original oceans were shallow. Presently the oceans cover
75% of the Earth’s surface and contain 97% of its surface
water. Permanent continental crust started to take shape.
The primitive life, mainly marine algae, by photosynthesis
(using sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water to
food energy and oxygen) used carbon dioxide to produce
oxygen. It was an important paradigm shift in the Earth
history. As soon as the oxygen was produced it was taken
out again by reacting with other elements (such as iron).
The relict paleomagnetism in the Archaean rocks due to
intense thermal and tectonic modification is not clearly
definable, thus paleogeographic reconstructions of this
period are either lacking or debatable. There are evidences
of glaciations during Archaean, its relicts are found even
in the Dharwar terrain, located in the southern part of
India. It reveals that possibly the Dharwar region was
either located in low latitudes or there was cosmic winter
at this time.
Proterozoic (2500 Ma-543 Ma = 1957 My)
The period from 2.5 Ga to 543 Ma is referred to as
the Proterozoic. The Proterozoic witnessed growth of
algae and other marine primitive plants. At about 2.1
billion years ago when the concentration of oxygen
increased markedly, the ozone layer was formed which
helped to filter out harmful ultraviolet rays, laying
foundation for evolution of new organisms in the shallow
seas. Colonial growth of algae known as stromatolites,
often forming reefs of huge dimensions, grew in shallow
seas. Such algal growth in India is seen in Rajasthan,
Vindhyan area, Cuddapah, and all over the Himalaya
(Fig.11). Towards the terminal part of the Proterozoic
there was volcanicity in many parts of the world. In the
Indian Plate, volcanic rocks of this age are found
prominently in Harayana (Malani), Salt Range (Pakistan)
and Bhutan.
Around 700 My (million years) there was another
extensive Ice Age, its remnants are found in the Himalaya.
The rocks younger than 700 My lack pronounced
stromatolitic buildups. General absence of algal growth
is attributed to lowering of the temperature and also
advent of animals that grazed the algal fields. Close to
the Proterozoic-Cambrian (part of the Palaeozoic)
boundary small bodied animals appeared. Collectively
Fig.11. Fossilised Stromatolites (after www.geology.sdsu.edu).
these are referred to as the Ediacara fauna (Figs.12a, b).
Some of these animals were of large dimensions,
suggesting absence of predators at that time.
Several changes in geographic location of continents
have been recorded during the Proterozoic (Figs.13 a-c).
Paleozoic (543 Ma-248 Ma = 295 My)
It comprises the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian,
Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian.
Fig. 12. Ediacara fauna, a. Charnia, b. Mawsonites.
7
Figs. 13. Paleogeographic reconstruction during Proterozoic,
a. Paleoproterozoic, b. Mesoproterozoic and c. late
Neoproterozoic (modified after www.myspace.com/
allearth).
Cambrian (543 Ma-490 Ma = 53 My): The
Proterozoic-Cambrian boundary is very significant in the
evolution of life. At this boundary, possibly due to high
oxygen level, what is known as Explosion of Life
occurred. There was diversification of life, the period
marked by abundance of trilobite animals (Fig.14 b),
which may be the ancestor of the present day cockroaches.
Brachiopods, sponges, primitive gastropods and
echinoderms appeared along with small shelly fauna in
the Cambrian (Figs. 14 a, c). The Cambrian was a time
of mild climate.
The sea levels were rather high and covered continental
margins. The land was broken up into smaller continents,
but they were drifting closer together, to make a new
supercontinent known as Pannotia. Towards the end of
the Cambrian Period (about 488 Ma), most of the
animals and plants on Earth died out, possibly due to
change in global climate or due to depletion in oxygen
level. In India the terminal part of the Cambrian
witnessed large scale deformation of rocks together with
igneous activity.
Ordovician (490 Ma-443 Ma = 47 My) : During the
Ordovician period, sea levels were high. There was a
marine transgression even in the Himalaya after a major
withdrawal of sea during the late Cambrian. The
supercontinent of Pannotia had broken up. The southern
continents were huddled together into a large continent
Figs. 14. Cambrian fossils. a. Small Shelly Fauna (SSF)
(afterwww.cnrs.fr/.../images/Chap2/vannier/FIG3.html),
b. trilobite, c. Visualised Cambrian marine life (modified
after www.astrobio.net/.../when-earth-turned-green)
Fig. 15. Marine fossils of Ordovician time, a. graptolite,
called the Gondwana. In the beginning the Gondwana b. Cystoid, c. crinoid.
landmass was close to the equator, later it drifted towards
the South Pole. North America and Siberia constituted
the continent of Laurentia. The present day Europe was
initially an independent continent but later moved close
to Laurentia. The mountain building activity of the late
Cambrian was followed by massive volcanic eruptions
causing high level of carbon dioxide and global warming.
In the latter part, the Gondwanaland had drifted close to
the South Pole and there was consequent glaciation
known as the Hirnantian Glaciation at the close of the
Ordovician period mainly in Africa and Europe. The
glaciation led to fall in sea level and resulted regression
in many parts. The first fish made appearance together
with growth of reefs in its later part. Some plants and
fungi grew on land. The late Ordovician was one of the
coldest times in the last 600 million years of Earth
history and it led to extinction of some groups of
trilobites. Now extinct marine animals, called graptolites
(Fig.15a), along with cystoids (Fig. 15b) and crinoids
(Fig. 15c) thrived in the oceans. Trilobites and brachiopods
abounded the Ordovician sea (Figs. 16 a, b).
Silurian (443 Ma-417 Ma = 76 My): During the
Silurian period, there were two main landmasses, with
the South Pole located in the present day Argentina. The
southern continent (Gondwanaland) comprising South
America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Australia and
Antarctica was mainly located south of the equator. The
northern macrocontinent (Laurasia) was constituted of
North America, Greenland, Europe and northern part of
most of what presently consists of Asia. The high sea
levels of the Silurian and the relatively flat land resulted Figs. 16. Ordovician trilobite and brachiopod fossils.
in a number of island chains having a variety of a. trilobite (From www.fossilmall.com/.../RUT226/
environments. The end of the Hirnantian glaciation RUT226.htm), b. brachiopod (members.wolfram.com/.../
heralded warm climate. Glaciers, like those of the present Brachiopoda.shtml)

8
day, became confined to higher latitudes. Melting of
glaciers raised the global sea level. End Ordovician
witnessed mass extinction when about 60% of the life
perished. At the beginning of the Silurian, the invertebrates
recovered rapidly and diversified swiftly. Reefs built by
coral, stromatoporoid, bryozoa and algae flourished in
warm seas (Fig. 17). The first land plants, as indicated by
as fresh water fish (Figs. 18a, b). Bryozoa, brachiopod,
trilobite continued to flourish in marine environment,
while the primitive nautiloid made its first appearance.
First amphibian and plants appeared on land. Though in
early part the plants were not rooted, by Middle
Devonian the rooted plants and in the Late Devonian the
seeded plants also evolved.
Proliferation of rooted plants helped in the formation
of soils which became abode of arthropods (insects).
Fossils of locomotion (trace fossils) of giant scorpion
have been recorded in Antarctica, Australia and the Spiti

Fig. 17. Marine life in the Silurian represented by corals, bivalves

(clam-like animals), trilobites, and nautilus (modified
after www.geology.wisc.edu/.../history_of_ life.htm).
the record of spores, appeared and diversified through
the Silurian. The Silurian also witnessed the invasion of
land by animals.
The proto-Europe collided with North America leading
to the Caledonian Orogeny that caused mountain-building
activity from New York State through conjoined Europe
and Greenland to Norway. Towards the end of the
Silurian, the sea levels were again lowered. It marked a
regression in the Himalaya also. The main ocean was
vast Panthalassa. Smaller oceans were represented by
Proto- and Palaeo-Tethys. The climate was characterised
by violent storms by warm sea surfaces. Later, the
climate cooled slightly, but towards the end of the
Silurian the climate became warmer.

Devonian (417 Ma-354 Ma = 63 My): The

supercontinent Gondwanaland was located towards south,
Siberia to the north and Euramerica between these two.
The Euramerica was formed due to collision of Laurentia
and Baltica along of the Pangaea. Their collision gave
rise to Caledonian and Appalachian mountain ranges.
There are evidences of warm arid climate in the form of
the Old Devonian Sandstone in Great Britain. The oceans
of that time are named as Panthalassa, Paleo-Tethys,
Proto-Tethys and Ural. The sea levels were high; the land
was covered by shallow warm seas, which were sites of
luxuriant growth of algae-stromatoporoid-coral reefs. Figs. 18a, b. Fish in Devonian a- artist’s view of Devonian
The remnants of one such barrier reef are still preserved fish, b- Devonian fish fossil preserved in fine grained
in northwest Australia. The Devonian was also known as rocks (modified after www.geology.wisc.edu/.../
the “Age of Fish” due to proliferation of marine as well history_of_life.htm).

9
Valley (Himachal Pradesh, India). Appearance of so
many plants belonging to different groups has been
termed as Devonian Explosion (Figs. 19a,b).
In the Late Devonian there was an extinction event
which mainly affected the shallow, warm marine life that
included the reef-builders, brachiopods, trilobites,
ammonites, agnathan fish, conodont animal and acritarchs.
Carboniferous (354 Ma-290 Ma = 64 My): Since
the richest coal deposits on the Earth belong to the
Carboniferous period, it was so named after the Latin
word “carbo” meaning coal. During the Carboniferous,
the Gondwana Supercontinent collided with North
America–Europe Continental block causing orogeny
(mountain building activity) in Europe and North America.
The present eastern Eurasian plate welded itself to Europe
and formed the Ural Mountains. The lowering of the sea
level during the Devonian was followed by expansion of
epicontinental sea. Early part of the Carboniferous was
warm; it was followed by fall in temperature in the South
Pole region leading to glaciation throughout the
Gondwanaland. The cooling, however, had little effect in
Fig. 19. Devonian flora, a. beginning of extensive land
colonization by plants, large forests could grow and shape
the landscape (modified after www.geo2all.com/vb/
showthread.php?p=110), b. Early plant fossils (modified
after earthsciences.dal.ca/.../gibling/gibling_mr.html).
10
tropics which due to the highest oxygen level (35% as
compared to 21% of the present day atmosphere) in the
history of the Earth supported dense forests (Fig.20). The
plants were represented by giant-size ancestors of club
mosses, horse-tails, ferns and gymnosperms. In the
Middle Carboniferous possibly cooling and associated
aridity led to collapse of the Rain Forest.
Fig.20. An artist’s view of dense forests thrived during the
Carboniferous (modified after
www.search4carboniferous.com).
The animal life in sea was represented by foraminifera,
corals, bryozoa, mollusks and crinoids. Fish (shark and
bony) thrived in marine as well as lagoonal and fresh
water environments. Arthropods were well developed; a
dragon-fly like insect had wing-spread of 75 cm
(Fig. 21a). Fossil scorpion (Fig. 21b) measured up to one
meter. Another millipede-like invertebrate measured 2.6 m.
During the middle Carboniferous amphibians
diversified, but collapse of the Rain Forest slowed down
the amphibian evolution, though the reptiles prospered.
One of the greatest evolutionary steps of the Carboniferous
was appearance of amniote egg.
Permian (290 Ma-248 Ma = 42 My): The Permian
is the last period of the Palaeozoic Era. The sea levels in
the Permian remained largely low. Almost all the
prominent landmasses together formed a supercontinent
called the Pangaea and the oceans were represented by
Panthalassa and the Paleo-Tethys, the latter separated
Asia from the Gondwanaland (Figs.22a, b).
Figs. 21. Fossil arthropods, a. Fossil insect, b. Fossil scorpion.

Fig.22. a. Early Permian configuration of plates; b. Late Permian
configuration of plates (modified after Scotese, 1991).
The Cimmerian continent cleaved out of the
Gondwanaland and moved north to Laurasia, and as a
result the Paleo-Tethys shrank and on its southern end a
new Tethys Ocean appeared, which existed almost
throughout the Mesozoic Era. The Carboniferous Ice age
extended in the early history of the Permian. The glaciers
totally receded by the Middle Permian and the climate
warmed with increase in the aridity within the interior of
continents where vast deserts developed. The New Red
Sandstone belongs to this phase of aridity. There were
alternate cycles of warm and cool periods. Also there
were seasonal rains on the pattern of monsoon. In the
beginning, the Carboniferous flora continued to dominate.
These were gradually replaced by the first modern-type
trees of conifers, ginkgos and cycads.
Under animal kingdom, tetropod and arthropods lived
on land; relative of cockroach and other new group of
insects emerged. The other terrestrial animals were a
variety of amphibians and reptiles. Towards the very end
of the Permian Archeosaurs, that gave rise to dinosaurs,
emerged along with small reptiles and ancestors of the
mammals (Fig. 23). Molluscs, echinoderms, brachiopods,
foraminiferas and shelled cephalopods constituted the
11
Fig. 23. An artist’s restoration of the Permian Archeogosaurs
(modified after dinosaurs.about.com)
marine life. Towards the end of the Permian the trilobites
became extinct.
In the Early Permian and also in the late Permian
there was rather widespread volcanicity. The remnants of
the Early Permian Volcanics associated with rifting of the
Gondwana, known as the Panjal Volcanics, are found in
Kashmir and Zanskar. The rifting created Gondwana
basins—marine as well as fresh water in the continents
constituting the Gondwanaland. The late Permian
volcanics straddling the Permian/Triassic boundary are
found in Siberia and China. The end of Permian
witnessed the most pronounced extinction event when 90
to 95 % of marine life and about 70% of terrestrial life
vanished. Several causes are attributed to explain this
Extinction Event. The Siberian volcanicity involving
extrusion of flood basalts and raising of the carbon
dioxide level led to increase in the temperature of about
50 C. The raised temperature affected the ocean’s
temperature which melted the frozen methane reservoirs,
expelling enough methane to further raise the atmospheric
temperature. Another hypothesis explains the extinction
as due to venting of the hydrogen sulphide gas from the
ocean bottoms, which might have accumulated in anoxic
zone and finally rose into the atmosphere, destroyed
ozone in the upper atmosphere and permitted ultraviolet
radiation that led to mass mortality.
Of course, there are species that can metabolize
hydrogen sulphide. Still another hypothesis invokes
intensive radiation from a closeby Supernova. May be all
the factors combined to bring about the biggest disaster
to the life on the Earth (Fig. 24).
Mesozoic (248 Ma-65 Ma = 183 My)
The Mesozoic includes the Triassic, Jurassic and
Cretaceous periods.
Triassic (248 Ma-206 Ma = 42 My): The Triassic
marks the beginning of the Mesozoic Era. The Superconti-
nent Pangaea was centered at the equator and surrounded
by the ocean Panthalassa and Tethys (Fig. 25).
The deep sea sediments deposited during the Triassic
were destroyed due to subduction of the oceanic plates.
The supercontinent started rifting in the late Triassic,
 a

Fig. 24. The Permian–Triassic extinction event, labeled “End

P” (from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Fig. 26. Reconstructions of a. Pterosaurs (flying vertebrate)

(From wikipedia. org) and b. Reconstruction of
Proterosuchus, carnivorous reptile, classified under
Archosauromorpha, existed in the early Triassic period
(from http://en.wikipedia.org).

Fig. 25. Triassic continental configuration (modified after

www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/.../Triassic).

though these still clung together. The climate during the

Triassic was mostly warm and dry; in the beginning of
the late Triassic it became distinctly humid for a short
duration then again reverted to warm continental, highly
seasonal climate with possible cross-equatorial monsoon.
During the Triassic, marine and continental animals and
plants revived after the Permian Extinction, though the
diverse communities took 30 My to re-establish.
Pterosaurs (Fig. 26a), a flying vertebrate evolved during Fig. 27. Restoration of Ichthyosaurus
the Triassic. Carnivorous reptiles in the early Triassic and
first dinosaurs Coelophysis in the middle Triassic and
mammals appeared in the late Triassic (Fig.26b). Earliest
frog also evolved during the Triassic.
The marine fauna was represented by modern types of
corals that formed reefs, cephalopods (ammonoids),
reptiles and fish. Ichthyosaurus (Fig.27) – aquatic
dinosaurs had appeared in the early Triassic and grew in
large size during the late Triassic. The late Triassic was
a period of extensive reef building activity, including in
the Himalaya.
Amongst the plants Lycophytes, Cycads, Ginkgophyta,
Coniferales and seed plants dominated the terrestrial
flora. Glossopteris and Gangamopteris were common
plants in the Gondwanaland (Fig.28). Both these are Fig. 28. Fossilized fern (modified after bermag.home.pl)

12
prolifically found in India in the coal fields of Raniganj
and Jharia.
Jurassic (206 Ma-144 Ma = 62 My): The Jurassic
period has been made famous by the Hollywood movie
Jurassic Park. During this period the supercontinent
Pangaea fragmented into the Laurasia in the north and
the Gondwana in the south. The Gulf of Mexico appeared
between North America and present Yucatan Peninsula.
The Atlantic was relatively a narrow sea. The Tethys
Sea of the Triassic closed and the Neotethyian basin
appeared. The climate during the Jurassic was warm;
there was no landmass near the poles. Several large scale
granitic intrusions took place in northern Cordillera in
response to Nevadan orogeny. a
The primary vertebrates that inhabited the Jurassic
sea included fish, reptiles like Icthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus,
Pliosaurus (Fig. 29. a, b) and crocodiles. Amongst the
invertebrates reef forming robust bivalves and belemnites
along with planktonic organisms were prominent.
Large dinosaurs ruled the land life. The herbivorous
dinosaurs collectively called sauropods were conspicuous
in the later part of the Jurassic, prominent among them
being Apatosaurus (Fig.30a), Diplodocus (it reached a

b
Figs. 30. Imaginary restoration of a. Apatosaurus, b. Diplodocus

length of 30 m; Fig. 30b) and Brachiosaurus. These fed

a and Allosaurus.
b present position (Fig. 33), though it was still afloat
Figs. 29. Primary vertebrates of Jurassic, reconstructed
a. Plesiosaurus, b. Pliosaurus.
on ferns, cycads bennettitales and conifers, which grew
in abundance.
The sauropods were preyed upon by carnivorous
dinosaurs collectively known as theropods, which were
represented by Ceratosaurus, Megalosaurus, Torvosaurus
During the late Jurassic the first bird Archaeopteryx
(Fig. 31) evolved from small dinosaurs, besides,
Pterosaurs ruled the sky.
Medium-sized dinosaurs like Stegosaurus dotted the
land (Fig. 32). Early mammals, mammal-like reptiles and
animals akin to lizard lived within the under growth of
forests. Amphibians like salamanders also appeared in
the Jurassic.
Cretaceous (144 Ma-65 Ma = 79 My): The
Cretaceous marks the end of Mesozoic. It witnessed
breakup of the Gondwanaland and towards the late
Cretaceous the Indian Plate embarked on its spectacular
journey from the eastern coast of Africa towards its
during the Cretaceous. Madagascar separated from Africa
and Greenland from North America, but Australia was

13
Fig. 31. Fossil of Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx (first bird)
preserved in fine grained rocks (modified after
www.explorebiodiversity.com)
Fig.32. Artistic representation of the Stegosaurus (late Jurassic)
(modified after www.dinosaur-facts.com/on-the-ground/
stegosaurus/).
still attached to Antarctica. The Indian and South Atlantic
oceans took shape and the Tethys Sea shrank in size.
There are evidences to suggest that a “proto-Gulf
Stream” had originated by the middle Cretaceous. The
rift and associated drift was caused by upwelling of the
magma along the mid-oceanic ridges which grew in
dimension and resulted in rise of sea level across the
globe; almost one third of the present land area was
inundated by the advancing sea.
In general, sea levels are believed to have been about
100 to 200 m higher in the early Cretaceous and roughly
14
Fig. 33. Drifting of the Indian plate between late Cretaceous
and Miocene.
200 to 250 m higher in the late Cretaceous as compared
to the present sea level. Detailed study indicates 5 to 15
different episodes of rise and fall in sea level during the
Cretaceous. Towards the end of the Cretaceous huge
volcanic lavas erupted in India, commonly known as the
Deccan Traps (Figs. 34a, b).
The climate during the Cretaceous was in general
warmer and more humid as compared to the present day
climate. Even the Polar regions seem to be free from the
ice sheets and supported forests as revealed by the fossils
of dinosaurs found in Antarctica. Plant fossils indicate
that tropical to subtropical conditions existed as far as
45° N, and temperate conditions extended to the poles.
The paleotemperatures were of the order of 300 C at the
equator year-round and 140 C and 170 C during summers
and winters respectively at the poles. Glaciation, if at all,
was possibly confined to valley-type glaciers located in
mountains of high altitude, though snowfall might have
been experienced farther south. It might have caused
icebergs into marine basins, evidence of which are found
 a b
Figs. 34. Volcanism in India during the Cretaceous, a. Spread of Deccan Traps in India inset map shows paleogeographic position
of India during this period, b. outcrops of the Deccan volcanics.
in the Early Cretaceous rocks of southern Australia. The
warming occurred due to extensive volcanism which
released enormous amount of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
While the gymnosperms and the conifers continued
to flourish, the angiosperms (flowering plants) also
prevailed, particularly towards the end of the Cretaceous.
Many leafy plants like figs, planes and magnolias also
appeared in the Cretaceous. Cretaceous plant fossils are
found at Umia locality in Kutch, in Surendranagar
(Saurashtra) and in Jaisalmer (Rajasthan). The pollination
of angiosperms was greatly facilitated by bees that had
also evolved. The bees and angiosperm provide an
excellent example of co-evolution. Besides the bees,
other insects like ants, termites butterflies-like, moths
and grasshoppers also made their appearance.
Amongst the animals, mammals were small, early
marsupials existed in early Cretaceous and true placentals
appeared in the late Cretaceous. The terrestrial fauna was
otherwise dominated by reptiles, especially by a variety
of dinosaurs. Many birds also evolved. Hesperornis was
a flightless diving bird that possessed large feet, sharp
teeth and preyed mostly on fish.
The marine vertebrate fauna was represented by rays,
sharks, reptiles (ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs and mesasaurs).
The best known dinosaurs were carnivorous
Tyrannosaurus and herbivorous Iguanodon and three-
horned Triceratops (Figs. 35a-c). In India dinosaurs
fossils belonging to Sauropod (six variety), Theropoda
(14 variety) and Orinthopoda (2 variety) have been
found at many localities, mainly at Jabalpur, Pisdura,
Dongargaon, Lametta, Kheda, Ariyalur and Tiruchirapalli.
15
In addition to dinosaurs body fossils (Fig. 35f), nests of
dinosaurs have been discovered, the prominent localities
are Dhar, Jabalpur and Kheda (Fig. 35e). At one locality
fossil of snake has also been found in the egg nest (Fig.
35d. Dinosaurs in India: Fossil evidence, Geological
Survey of India Publicational). The representatives of
invertebrates in the seas were ammonites, reef-building
clams (rudists), foraminifera, echinoderms, starfish and
diatoms.
About 65 My ago the Cretaceous is supposed to have
ended with a bang! There was another mass extinction.
The dinosaurs that had ruled the world during the
Jurassic and Cretaceous (approximately 140 My) together
with half of marine life were wiped out. The larger
foraminifera orbitolids with rudists and reclining bivalves
totally disappeared and 20% of hermatypic corals died.
The age of reptiles came to an end, yielding place to
mammal domination. Though this extinction involved
80% of species, it was smaller as compared to the
Permian Extinction. High iridium anomalies have been
recorded in the rocks of the late Cretaceous. Iridium is
found deep in Earth’s mantle or in meteorites. Thus an
impact of a large asteroid is cited as the cause of this
extinction event. Change in climate due to continental
drift and extensive volcanicity are also invoked to
explain the mass extinction. In fact all the three factors
might have combined to bring about this disaster. The
blanket of dust raised by asteroid impact and volcanic
ash in atmosphere possibly blocked the sunlight for
months or even longer period, thereby, greatly reducing
the photosynthesis activity by plants leading to their
decline. The fireballs triggered by asteroid impact possibly
caused wildfires that destroyed forests and animals.
 d e
Fig. 35. Restored shapes of (a) Tyrannosaurus, (b) Iguanodon, (c) Triceratops, (d) Snake- sauropod hatchling and egg association
(Gujarat), (e) A nest of theropod eggs (Khera, Gujarat), (f) fossils remains of Kotasaurus (Birla Science Museum, Hyderabad)
Since the herbivorous animals depended on plants and
photosynthesizing planktons, consequent to destruction
of plants and photosynthesizing planktons, these too
suffered mass mortality. The carnivores and predators
also perished due to depletion of herbivorous animals.
The mammals and birds that lived on insects and worms,
which in turn lived on dead organic substances, escaped
extinction. The river communities and organisms at the
ocean bottom that mostly thrive on detritus washed from
land survived. Animals like crocodiles and champsosaurs,
which were semi-aquatic and scavengers and could live
for long duration without food and their youngs, which
grow slowly and feed on dead organisms and their parts,
also survived. Thus it can be seen that how all the species
are affected due to destruction of even one link in the
chain of organisms and should be an eye opener to us so
that we take care to protect the threatened species. Each
animal has an important role in the chain of sustainable
life.
The Cretaceous is also well known for the occurrence
of oil in the rocks of this age.
Cenozoic (65 Ma-1.8 Ma= 63.2 My)
Its subdivisions are the Paleogene and Neogene
epochs.
Paleogene (65 Ma-23.7 Ma = 41.3 My): The
continental drift that had commenced during the
Cretaceous culminated in early Paleogene. The Paleogene
is divided into the Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene
epochs.
16
f
Paleocene (65 Ma-54.8 Ma = 10.2 My): In the
Paleocene the continents continued to drift apart; the
constituents of the Supercontinent Laurasia had not
separated. Greenland and Europe were still connected
and intermittent land bridges existed between North
America and Asia. Greenland and North America began
to separate. An orogeny (Laramide) rejuvenated the
Rocky Mountains. Australia and Antarctica too got
separated. India approached the Asian plate with which it
ultimately collided to form the Himalaya.
As compared to that of the Cretaceous, the climate in
the early Paleocene was cooler and drier, but in the
terminal part the climate warmed and became humid
along the Paleocene-Eocene boundary. The temperature
rose between 50 and 80 C, the sea surface temperature
was around 230 C that led to extinction of several deep-
sea foraminifera and affected northern forests, the
mammals on land migrated to different areas and
diversified. Polar regions were cool and temperate, while
North America, South America and Australia were warm
and tropical. As the climate cooled and dried the forests
were replaced by grasslands and woodlands, which
formed ideal habitats for grazing mammals.
On land, ferns became dominant in the Early
Paleocene. The ferns are thought best to grow in the fire-
damaged forest; this leads credence to hypothesis of
wildfire triggered by fire-balls during the asteroid impact.
Cacti and palm evolved and the modern angiosperms
proliferated and co-evolved with insects. Warm and
humid climate favoured tropical and sub-tropical and
true rain forests. The polar regions supported conifers
and deciduous forests. The climate was warm in the
equatorial areas and it was hot and arid to the north and benthic foraminiferal species. Another warming spell
south of the equator. Small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, was during the middle Eocene when the deep sea
birds and insects had survived the Cretaceous extinction. temperature witnessed an increase of about 4oC, which
The mammals evolved rapidly, grew in size and occupied coincided with peak in carbon dioxide and formation of
a variety of environments vacated by dinosaurs and other the Himalaya. The global climate during the Eocene is
extinct animals. The mammals did not have specialised believed to be the most homogenous of the Cenozoic as
limbs or teeth and their brain to body mass was low. the temperature gradient from pole to equator was about
Reptiles in general were reduced in size but were half of that in the present day. Polar Regions were much
widespread across the globe. Champsosaurus gigas warmer where rainy tropical climate prevailed. The
(resembling gharials), however, measured three meters. Eocene also saw beginning of slow global cooling,
The birds diversified and lived in different habitats. possibly as a result of break-up of the Gondwanaland.
Perching birds, cranes, hawks, pelicans, herons, ducks,
Apart from the deserts, the Earth was possibly
pigeons, loons woodpeckers and owls had appeared.
covered with forests. Earth must have been entirely
Non-avian dinosaurs possibly survived the Cretaceous
covered by forests of swamp cypress, dawn redwood and
extinction event and continued to live in the earliest part
palm trees. The middle Eocene cooling led to thinning of
of the Paleocene, as evidenced by a fossil leg bone found
forests, which were replaced by newly evolved grasses
in New Mexico. Many paleontologists, however, believe
along the river and lake edges. Deciduous trees overtook
that it could be a fossil assemblage which was derived
evergreen tropical species.
from the older rocks due to erosion. Fish and sharks ruled
the aquatic life. Shelled cephalopods were replaced by The mammals (artiodactyls, perissodactyls and
squids and soft-bodied cephalopods. Snails and bivalves, primates), though small in size appeared in Early Eocene.
similar to modern counterparts abounded the sea along Modern insects, birds, hoofed animals (both herbivorous
with new types of foraminifera and sea urchins. and carnivorous), bats, early elephants and rodents also
evolved. Python and turtles were very common (Figs.
Eocene (54.8 Ma-33.7 Ma = 21.7My): During the
36a, b). A fossil of a giant snake of the size of a school
Eocene, the continents continued to travel to their present
bus has been recently found.
positions. Australia and Antarctica separated around 45
Ma. Laurasia also began to split into Europe, Greenland
and North America. Though the North Atlantic opened
due this splitting, some land bridges possibly existed
between Europe and North America as is suggested by
similar Eocene faunas of these two continents. In the
western North America vast lake basins were formed as
a consequence of an orogeny. In Europe, as a result of
rise of the Alps, the Tethys Sea was largely obliterated
yielding place to the Mediterranean Sea. India continued
to drift away and finally it collided with Asia to give rise
to the majestic Himalaya.
Initially in the Eocene warm equatorial currents were
mixed with colder Antarctic water and kept the global
a
temperatures high. After Australia separated from
Antarctica the warm equatorial currents were deflected
from Antarctica and isolated cold current developed
between the two continents, as a result the Antarctica
region began to freeze. Some scientists have suggested
that the warming during the Eocene was caused by
release of methane clathrates from the ocean bottoms,
which has ten to twenty times greenhouse impact as
compared to the effect of carbon dioxide. The climate
was greatly affected by brief (geologically speaking)
rapid global warming and massive carbon input in the
oceans and atmosphere, most prominent being along the
Paleocene-Eocene boundary, which triggered distinct b
mammalian proliferation on land and extinction of many Fig. 36. Reconstruction of python (a) and turtle (b).

17
 The marine fauna was dominated by fish and other
sea organisms. This period saw the advent of first whale,
the fossils of which have been found in India also.
Oligocene (33.7 Ma-23.7 Ma = 10 My): During the
Oligocene, the continents continued to move toward their
present positions. Antarctica was more or less isolated
and was covered by ice cap. The orogenic phase
(mountain building) continued in western North America,
the African plate continued to impinge into the Eurasian
plate resulting in rise of the Alps, similarly the Indian
Plate kept on pushing into the Asian Plate with further
rise in the height of the Himalaya. The land bridges
between Europe and North America still persisted as
indicated by similar fauna preserved in these two
continents.
There was a global change of the climate in the
Oligocene. The ice volume increased with consequent
fall in the sea level by about 55 m around 35.7-33.5 Ma.
The cooling ended possibly due to La Garita volcanism
around 28-26 Ma. A glaciation event is recorded at the
McMurdo Sound and King George Island along the
Oligocene-Miocene boundary.
Amongst plants the angiosperms continued to flourish
throughout the world; tropical and sub-tropical forests
were replaced by temperate deciduous woodlands. Vast
plains and deserts became more common. The grasslands
were no longer confined to the river banks and had
encroached the open tracts, though modern types of
savannas were still not common. In North America,
species of subtropical trees (e.g. cashew, lychee)
developed together with temperate trees. Leguminous
plants also became common. Globally, broad-leaved
perennial vegetation became restricted to 350 latitude
around the equator, and megathermal and multistratal
vegetation grew within 150 degree latitude around the
equator.
The Oligocene land faunas were larger in size as
compared to their Eocene counterparts (Fig.37). Marine
faunas were closely comparable with the modern faunas.
Fig. 37. Visualisation of Oligocene land fauna and flora.
18
Ancestors of horse, entelodont, rhinoceros, elephant,
camel, dog, cat and primate etc. appeared, adapted to the
plains and spread rapidly. Falcons, eagles, and hawks,
along with seven to ten families of rodents also first
appeared during the Oligocene.
The prevailing cooling trend during the Oligocene
period transformed the ecology of several animals.
Marine biotic provinces became more fragmented. The
cooling reduced diversity in the marine plankton, which
is an important link in the food chain.
There was a global marine regression, which caused
decline in number of marine species due to destruction of
niches.
Neogene (23.7 Ma-1.8 Ma = 21.9 My): The Neogene
is divisible in the Miocene and Pliocene epochs.
Miocene (23.7 Ma-5.3 Ma = 18.4 My): In the
Miocene the continents either continued their journeys or
had almost acquired their present positions. South America
was approaching the subduction zone towards west in the
Pacific Ocean that was to result in elevation of the Andes
and creation of southwest extension of Meso-American
peninsula. Mountain building was also witnessed in
western North America, Europe and east Asia. India
continued to impinge into Asia resulting in increase in
the height of the Himalaya. As Asia collided with Eurasia
in the Turkey-Arab region, the Tethys Sea got obliterated
between 19-12 Ma. The Mediterranean Sea was
temporarily dried near the end of the Miocene. Globally,
due to cooling there was onset of aridity. By the middle
Miocene (around 15 Ma) ice spread had increased in
Antarctica.
Tropical rain forests shrank in East Africa; Australia
also got drier. The marine and continental faunas were
more or less similar to the modern forms, although there
was a reduction in the number of marine mammals. In
the early Miocene, dogs, raccoons, camels, deers, hornless
rhinos roamed the Earth (Figs.38a, b). Dabbling ducks,
plovers, cockatoos and crows evolved in the Miocene.
 Marine as well as continental faunas were akin to the
modern fauna, although continental faunas were a bit
more primitive than those of today. Sea cows, sea lion
and seals appeared during the Pliocene. Australopithecines
first hominines appeared in the Pliocene (Figs. 39a, b).

b
Figs. 38. a. Reconstruction of Miocene mammals community,
b. Rhinoceros.

About 100 species of apes are believed to have lived

during the Miocene. The sperm whale appeared, while
the cetaceans diversified. In the oceans, modern sharks
made appearance at this time. Marine crocodiles and
birds (e.g. plotopterids) thrived along with marine
mammals. Brown algae, new species of sea life, otter and
fish spread.
Pliocene (5.3 Ma-1.8 Ma = 3.4 My): During the
Pliocene the continents were within 250 to 70 km from
their present positions. North America was joined with
South America through the Isthmus of Panama, as a
result warm oceanic equatorial currents cut off setting in
cooling of the Atlantic and Arctic and Antarctic waters.
The climate was similar to the present day climate—
cooler, drier and seasonal. The global average temperature
in the Middle Pliocene was about 2-30 C higher than
today and sea level higher by 25 m. The onset of
glaciation over the Greenland occurred in late Pliocene.
The global cooling, possibly caused depletion of
forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas.
Deciduous forests were common; coniferous and tundra
covered the north, while the grasslands, except in
Antarctica, spread over all other continents.
b
Figs. 39a, b: Restoration of Australopithecines the first
hominines appeared in the Pliocene.
Giant tortoise also appeared in the Pliocene. The
continental collisions facilitated migration and mixing of
the fauna. In North America, rodents, mastodons,
gomphotheres, opossums, dogs and fast-running bears
flourished, while population of hoofed animals declined.
In Eurasia rodents thrived, while primate’s population
suffered set back. Crocodiles and alligators died in
Europe. Elephants, Stegodon, cows and antelopes were
prominent in Asia, while horse’s diversity declined.
Sabre-tooth tiger made its appearance.
African fauna was dominated by hoofed animals.
Early giraffe (Sivatherium, also found in India) appeared,
and camels migrated to Asia from North America. The
South America became site of invasion by North American

19
species resulting in mixing with southern forms. Australia Table 3b. Historical names of the “four major” glacials in four
was dominated by the marsupials. regions.

Region Glacial 1 Glacial 2 Glacial 3 Glacial 4

Quaternary (1.8 Ma to Present) Alps Gühz Mindel Riss Würm

North Europe Eburomian Elasterian Saalian Weichselian
The Quaternary is divided into the Pleistocene and
British Isles Bestomian Anglian Wolstonian Devensian
the Holocene.
Pleistocene (1.8 Ma-0.01 Ma = 1.79 My): According Midwest U.S. Nebraskan Kamsan Illinoian Wisconsinan
to the International Union of Geological Sciences the The climate cycles depend on regional solar radiation
Pleistocene spans from 1.8 to 2.588 My before the that is caused by the sum of many repeating changes in
Present. The recent period of repeated glaciation forms the Earth’s motion. The Milankovitch Cycle, based on
part of the Pleistocene. The glaciation in some parts the Earth’s orbital variation envisages glaciation once
advanced to 400 latitude; when at its peak, ice covered every 100,000, 40,000 and 10,000 years (Tables 3 a,b).
about 30% of the Earth surface. The permafrost zone Such a pattern seems to fit the information on climate
extended southward, the mean annual temperature at the change found in oxygen isotope cores. Though these
edge of the ice was -60 C and at the edge of permafrost pattern cannot be the only reason to control the ice ages.
was 00 C. Each glacial episode locked up huge quantity
of water in continental ice sheets measuring 1500-3000 The timing of our present interglacial interval (the
m in thickness, which led to fall of sea level by 100 m Holocene) to that of the previous interglacial beginning
or even more over the entire surface of the Earth. The about 130,000 years ago (Sangamon), suggests that the
interglacial (pluvial) periods resulted in melting of the next glacial will begin in about 3,000 years.
ice sheets and consequent rise in sea level. Southern part Both marine and continental faunas were quite
of the Andes had ice cap, glaciers abounded in New similar to the modern fauna (Fig. 40)
Zealand, Tasmania, Mt Kenya, Mt Kilimanjaro, Ruwenzori
Range, central Africa, in mountains of Ethiopia and Atlas
mountains. In the northern hemisphere, northwest North
America, Scandinavian part in north Europe, Great
Britain, Siberia and Arctic shelf were covered by ice
sheets. The Himalaya became abode of valley glaciers
which in many areas descended up to an altitude of about
1000 m. South of the ice sheets due to choked outlets
and cooler air retarded the evaporation though large
lakes still existed. Deserts were drier and more extensive
as the rainfall decreased due to diminished oceanic and
other evaporation.
Over 11 major and as many minor glacial events,
interspersed with warmer pluvial (inter-glacial) periods
have been identified. The glacial range and period for
each continent varied as per its latitudes. The glacial
periods in the Himalaya and elsewhere are presented in
Tables 3 a, b.

Table 3a. Names of interglacial in Europe and Midwest U.S.

Region Interglacial 1 Interglacial 2 Interglacial 3

Alps Gühz-Mindel Mindel-Riss Riss-Würm

North Europe Waalian Holsteinian Eemian

British Isles Cromerian Hoxnian Ipswichian

Midwest U.S. Aftonian Yarmouthian Sangamonian

Fig. 40. Early Pleistocene animals (modified after
weckipedia.mobi/thumb/).

20
 The advent of ice age caused total depopulation of
plants and animals in the affected area; these retreated to
lower and warmer latitudes. The ice age also reduced
habitable space and food supply. Annihilation of large
mammals like mammoths, mastodons, saber-toothed tigers,
glyptodonts, ground sloths, Irish elk and cave bears etc
began in late Pleistocene and continued into the Holocene.
Neanderthal man also became extinct during this period.
Towards the termination of the last ice age, cold-blooded
animals, smaller mammals, migratory birds and swifter
animals appeared. Horses and camels suffered extinctions
in North America.
The humans too evolved during the Pleistocene. Two
types of humans existed during the middle and late
Paleolithic periods together with development of more
elaborate tools. According to mitochondrial timing
techniques, the modern humans radiated from Africa in
the Middle Paleolithic period in response to Riss
Glaciation. The human evolution is depicted in Fig 41.
Fig. 41. Human Evolution series shown from a-g.
Holocene (10 Ka-Present): The Holocene commenced
approximately 10,000 years BP (Before Present) after the
Wisconsin glaciation. Based on climatic fluctuation the
Holocene is subdivided into five intervals viz., i) Preboreal
(10 Ka – 9 Ka), ii) Boreal (9 Ka-8 Ka), iii) Atlantic (8
Ka-5ka), iv) Subboreal (5Ka-2.5 Ka) and v) Subatlantic
(2.5 Ka to present). These periods are also referred to as
the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic Chalcolithic and
Bronze ages. However, these are not absolute ages valid
for the entire globe as technologies emerged at different
times in various parts of the world. Climatically, the
Holocene may be divided evenly into the Hypsithermal
and Neoglacial periods, the boundary coincides with the
advent of the Bronze Age in Europe. The hypsithermal
was a period of warming, which however, did not affect
the globe uniformly. This period ended at about 5.5 Ka
BP, when civilizations in Asia and Africa were flourishing.
The hypsithermal period of warmth ended with the
beginning of the Neoglacial Age. At that time, the
climate was similar to that of present day, though there
was a slightly warmer period from the 10th–14th
centuries. This was followed by the Little Ice Age
between 13th and 14th centuries to the middle of 19th
21
Fig. 42. Temperature variations during the Holocene.
century. The Holocene warming is an interglacial period
(Fig. 42).
Plate motions have been less than a kilometre over a
span of only 10,000 years. However, melting of the ice
has resulted in rise of sea level by about 35 m in the early
part of Holocene. In addition, weight of ice/glaciers had
depressed many areas above about 400 North, which rose
as much as 180 m after the melting/recesses of the
glaciers. The process is still continuing. The post-glacial
effect in Scandinavia resulted in the formation of the
Baltic Sea and the region continues to rise and is
associated with mild earthquakes.
Animals and plants have not evolved much relatively
during the Holocene. However, there has been a major
shift in the distribution of fauna and flora.
The 8.2 Ka event of sudden cold spell coincides with
a negative excursion in the ‘18O record lasting 400 years.
Several meteorite impacts in the Holocene have been
recorded in Europe, Siberia and Indian Ocean. These
could have caused giant tsunamis.
The above narration makes it clear that the life first
originated in the sea, then it evolved into amphibians,
followed by mammals, link between the animals and
man, Neanderthal man, savage and finally the modern
human. A parallel to this pattern is available in the Hindu
mythology according to which first incarnation of god
was Matsya (fish), followed by Kachhapa (tortoise),
Varah (boar), Narsimha (half animal-half human), Vamana
(dwarf), Parushrama (axe-wielding man, resembling
savage), Rama (man, mainly hunter), and Krishna
(philosopher).
EARTH—ASSETS AND HAZARDS
The Earth abounds in resources which are essential to
sustain life and also those that aid in ameliorating the
quality of life. Availability of correct mixture of
atmospheric gases, water, fertile soil and plants are
essential for life to exist. Plants need only soil, water,
carbon dioxide and oxygen to assimilate food, which
becomes nutrition to herbivores and shelter to birds and
insects. Mineral deposits are another commodity that
have been exploited to manufacture articles that go a
long way in making life more comfortable.

Assets

It includes atmosphere, glaciers, rivers, ground water,

lakes, fertile plains, forest cover and mineral resources.
Atmosphere: Initially the Earth’s atmosphere had Fig. 43. Diagrammatic representation of the hydrological cycle
(after USGS).
noxious gases, but through the ages it developed an
atmosphere with ideal proportion of gases. Equally
water takes up energy from the surroundings and cools
important was development of the ozone layer which
the environment. Conversely, in the process of
cuts off the harmful ultraviolet radiation and not only
condensation, water releases energy to its surroundings,
keeps the temperature of the Earth within the limit of
thus warming the environment. Water is purified when it
tolerance but also protects life. Gases emitted during
changes from one reservoir to another. The rains mainly
large scale volcanism have affected the life, but soon the
due to evaporation of saline oceanic water replenish
Nature restored the balance.
fresh water in rivers, lakes and its surface runoff
Though the life originated in sea, it is the fresh water recharges the groundwater on land. The underground
that is essential for life on land. Fresh water is available aquifers can store water for long durations. Average
in the ground water, ice sheets and glaciers, rivers, lakes residential time of water in each reservoir is given in
and springs. Table 4.
Hydrological Cycle: Only when water became
Table 4. Average reservoir residence times
available could the life originate on the Planet Earth. It
is still an important ingredient for sustaining the life. One Reservoir Average residence time
could live without food for quite some time but not Antarctica 20,000 years
without water and certainly without water there could be Oceans 3,200 years
no vegetation, which purifies the atmosphere by producing
Glaciers 20 to 100 years
life sustaining oxygen. The water cycle is important for
maintaining the life and ecosystems on the Earth. Water Seasonal snow cover 2 to 6 years
occurs in various forms; as vapour, liquid (fresh water, Soil moisture 1 to 2 months
saline water), as solid in the form of ice/snow. It can Gourndwater : shallow 100 to 200 years
occur on surface, in atmosphere and also underground.
Groundwater : deep 10,000 years
There is a continuous movement from one state to
another, though the balance of water on the Earth Lakes (see lake retention time) 50 to 100 years
remains constant over time. The melting of snow gives Rivers 2 to 6 months
rise to rivers; the rivers ultimately join the oceans.
Atmosphere 9 days
During their long winding journey a part of water is lost
to atmosphere due to evaporation and a part seeps down The Residence Time can be defined as the average
to recharge the ground water. A part of water gets trapped time a water molecule will spend in that reservoir. For
in the form of lakes. Evaporation of water in the oceanic example groundwater can survive over 10,000 years
part leads to formation of clouds that precipitate water in beneath Earth’s surface before leaving. Old groundwater
the form of rains in warmer areas and as snow in colder is called “fossil water”. It is estimated that of the
terrains. Ice and snow too can sublimate directly into 332,500,000 mi3 (1,386,000,000 km3) of the world’s water
water vapour, water is also transpired from plants into supply, about 321,000,000 mi3 (1,338,000,000 km3) is
the atmosphere (Fig 43). stored in oceans, i.e. about 95%.
This cycle is due to the exchange of heat energy, The main reservoirs of water are described below.
which leads to temperature changes. For evaporation, Glaciers: Enormous amount of fresh water is locked

22

Fig. 44. Binary glaciers, lateral moraines of these two valley
glaciers merge to form a resultant medial moraine of the
combined glacier. Note wide U-shaped glacial valley,
Baralacha Ban, 2 km downstream of the Baralacha pass,
District Lahaul & Spiti (India).
snow family is an avalanche. It is a mass of snow,
gushing down from the high reaches of a mountain with
frightening velocity, producing very high air pressure.
Whatever comes in the path of an avalanche is totally
destroyed.
As the glacier retreats it leaves behind a trail of
moraines, which often act as dams that impound the
glacial streams to form lakes. Where glaciers terminate
rivers appear.
Rivers and ground water: The rivers erode, transport
and also deposit enormous amount of sediments. A river
has three stages, viz. youthful, mature and old. Steep
gradient, high speed and torrents along V-shaped valleys
are found in youthful stage of a river (Figs. 45a, b; Fig.
46) and a moderate gradient of the valley with a well
developed tributary system in mature stage and sluggish
and meandering nature in old stage.

in polar ice and the glaciers. Glaciers are of two types

viz. the continental and valley or mountain types (Fig.44).

The continental glaciers are found in the Polar

Regions. The valley glaciers are mainly found in high
altitude terrains regardless of the latitude e.g. glaciers in
the Himalaya and close to equator in the Kilimanjaro in
Central Africa. The valley glaciers are formed due to
accumulation of snow above the snowline during winter
months. Over the years the layers of snow get buried and
transformed to white coloured névé, due to entrapped air
bubbles. With further compaction of layers the air
trapped in the snow is expelled to a large extent. Due to
cumulative weight of the subsequent snow the névé turns
into hard opaque white ice. Though the glaciers are a
formed in the zone of freezing temperature, these do
descend to much lower levels due to gravity. Initially,
when the snowfield is small and cannot move down, it
deepens the depressions in the mountain and cuts back
into the mountain as a result of frost action causing
formation of cirques. Finally the ice mass gets big
enough and moves down as glacier due to its weight.
A glacier has three main zones—viz. zone of
accumulation, zone of ablation and zone of active
melting in the snout part. The erosion below the ice field
is by glacier. The ice plucks big and small blocks from
the bottom of the valley, incorporating it in the glacier to
form the ground moraine. Many moraines support
luxuriant vegetation.
After a glacier descends below the perpetual snowline,
streams and lakes appear on its surface. The thickness of b
ice determines the erosive power of a glacier. The glacial
valleys are ‘U’-shaped in cross section, wide and mostly Fig. 45. a. Dynamic structure of young river system, b. A
run in a straight course. The most destructive agent of the narrow v-shaped valley

23
Fig. 46. Interlocking spurs, near Morang, District Kinnaur,
Himachal Pradesh.

The terrain that is uplifted as a consequence of

diastrophism initially has no streams. The rainwater
follows the natural slopes and gets accumulated in
depressions making them deeper. Initially the water in
depressions is seasonal, gradually minor valleys are
formed; water seeps down and develops into ground
water. As the valleys get deepened their level reaches the
groundwater table level; then the ground water sustains
the river even during the dry season. The rivers use Fig. 47. a. A river cutting down its flood plain, b. terrace
eroded material as cutting tools to deepen the valley. formed due to down-cutting.
Flash floods that suddenly increase the water volume
have tremendous destructive power. The river terraces
are formed due to down cutting by the river of its own
original bed. It can also happen either during the ice ages
when the sea level falls and to adjust its base level the
river cut its own flood plain and leaves a terrace on either
side (Figs. 47a, b).
The other cause of formation of terrace is due to
tectonic rise, which induces accelerated cutting by the
river to maintain its base level. The rivers in northern
part of India are mostly glacier-fed. Many rivers in the
past have been disorganized and disappeared; the mighty
Saraswati in India is one such example. This river valley
was site of advanced civilization and finds copious Fig. 48. Suraj Tal— a glacial lake, Lahul Valley, Himachal
references in the Rig Veda. Pradesh.
Lakes: The Lakes are other places where water is
stored. These are formed due to accumulation of water water on surface emerges as springs, though it is mostly
owing to natural damming of a river or collection of exploited by the Man by digging or drilling.
water in natural depressions, where recharge is more than Fertile Plain: Vast fertile plains are result of floods.
the discharge (Fig. 48). The rivers during floods have increased carrying capacity
The lakes are fresh/brackish water basins. The and thus transport huge amount of sediment; as the flood
damming of river courses by landslides or by ice in a recedes the carrying capacity is reduced and the river
glaciated terrain leads to formation of ephemeral lakes. unburdens its load to form flood plains. The floods
which are so dreaded, in fact are not curse but Nature’s
The ground water is due to seepage of rain/river aid to agriculture by constituting fertile plains. These
water that has escaped evaporation. At places ground plains also are repository of ground water.

24
 Forest Cover: Forest cover is an important asset of
the Planet Earth. The vegetation purifies the air by
absorbing carbon dioxide and by releasing oxygen
through photosynthesis. The vegetation also controls the
erosion, provides shelter to variety of animals and even
controls climate. The forests are rightly termed as lungs
of the Mother Earth.
Minerals: Mineral deposits are very important gifts
of the Nature to us. Minerals were probably one of the
earliest objects to attract the attention of man by their
brilliant hues, lustre and their remarkable physical
properties. Most of the mineral deposits are due to
inorganic activities or events like magmatism or
metamorphism, but a few like petroleum, coal and
phosphate are due to biogenic interplay.
Early man introduced the first use of rock as a stone
implement to hunt animals during the Paleolithic or Old
Stone Age (300,000 to about 30, 000 years B.P. i.e.
Before Present). During the Mesolithic or Medieval
Stone Age (about 20,000 years B.P.) flint was used as a
tool material. The Neolithic or New Stone Age (8,000 to
6,500 B.C.), witnessed more sophisticated stone
implements, polished stones, axes with handles for
cutting trees, knives, arrow heads, battle axes for
protection and hunting (Fig. 49).
Fig. 49. Stone Implements of Neolithic Age (modified after
www.any.biz/wp-content)
The Neolithic Age passed imperceptibly to the
Chalcolithic Age, also known as the Copper Age, as early
as 6000 BC. Later copper was used to make the alloy
bronze, ushering in the Bronze Age and then the Iron
Age as distinct periods in the history of man. There are
evidences that minerals and their finished products were
in use even in the pre-historic (c. 4000-1800 B.C.) and
Vedic (c. 3000-600 B.C.) periods. The minerals are non-
renewable resources, that is once mined these cannot be
replenished. Although the mineral deposits occupy about
only one percent of the earth’s surface, yet these have
25
played a significant role in the evolution of human
civilization since its beginning. Every industry depends
upon minerals in one form or the other. Most of the
economic mineral deposits are found in either igneous or
metamorphic rocks, though there are sedimentary mineral
deposits also e.g. limestone, dolostone, gypsum,
phosphorite, rock salt, potassium salt, bauxite, oil, gas
and coal etc. Some minerals reworked from older rocks
can also be concentrated in the sedimentary rocks known
as placer deposit; the examples are gold, uraninite,
monazite etc.
Minerals provide basic ingredient to a wide range of
industries, agriculture, even medicines and warfare.
Controlling the mining of salt, gold and others used in
strategic industries have been causes of many wars
amongst nations. The conflict in West Asia for over half
a century is mainly to gain control over oil resources.
Volcanic eruptions: Volcanic eruption provide some
important minerals e.g. sulphur.
Hazards
Deserts, earthquakes and associated tsunamis, volcanic
eruptions, meteoric impacts and tornados are the major
hazards, while floods and erosion are minor natural
hazards that we face on the Earth.
Deserts: Besides the mountains, rivers, lakes, sea and
vast fertile plains, deserts also form a conspicuous and
distinct environment, which are vastly hostile to human
habitation. The areas, which for some reason do not
receive rains, are converted into seas of sands, though
once in a way the deserts do receive unusual rainfall.
There are cold deserts e.g. Gobi Desert and also in hot
tropical regions like the Sahara and Thar deserts. The
desert landscape is characterized by sand sheets and
dunes, the sand dunes are longitudinal, transverse,
barchans and coppice types (Figs. 50a-c). Within the
desert there are, but a few water bodies known as oasis.
Earthquakes: The earthquakes originate along the
plate boundaries or along some fractured blocks along
which relative movement is taking place (Fig. 51).
Motion builds up stress as the plates or the ruptured
rocks get locked due to irregularities or obstructions
along the plane of movement. Once the stress built
exceeds a certain limit, it is released causing seismic
waves. The earthquakes are designated as shallow or
deep-seated depending upon the depth of its origin with
respect to the surface vertically above it. The earthquakes
can also be caused by volcanic activity, nuclear blast and
sedimentary loading and unloading (e.g. glaciation or
 a b
Fig. 50. View of desert landscapes, a. sand dunes, sand sheet, sand mega ripples, b. landscape formed by wind erosion (aeolian),
c. Sand dunes in Jaisalmer desert.
deglaciation). The point of rupture is called focus and the
point vertically above the focus is known as epicenter of
the earthquake (Fig. 52).
Fig. 51. San Andreas Fault system and the origin of earthquake.
Fig. 52. Diagram depicting the focus and epicentre of an
earthquake which can cause formation of fault scarp
(modified after www.googleearth.com/earthquake/html)
Based on the energy released, the magnitude of an
earthquake is measured on Richter Scale. The intensity
of an earthquake decreases away from the epicenter,
which is measured on Modified Mercalli’s scale (MM
scale). The earthquakes having focus at shallow depth
are more devastating. The earthquakes can be submarine
and also on land. High magnitude earthquakes in a sea-
bed can cause tsunamis which have great devastating
power in the coastal area. Destructive tsunamis have
been recorded even in remote past. The destruction of
original Dwarka as narrated in the epic Mahabharata may
26
c
be one such example. The historical city of Dwarka of
Lord Krishna was different from the modern Dwarka.
Remnants of the original city have been located at a
depth of about five to 20 metres in the seabed. These
remnants include a 500 m long wall securing the city and
a 2 m × 0.75m × 0.5 m stone anchor weighing about 865
kg. Carbon dating determined an age of 1400-1500 years
B.C., for these remnants i.e. about 3500 years before
present. The Bhagwat Maha Purana (Sargam 11, Adhaya
30, Shloka 20) and summarized version of the Mahabharat
(Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan, 1995, pp. 587-589) state that
the sea suddenly swallowed Dwarka after the departure
of Hari (Krishna). In another version, the destruction of
this city was narrated by Arjun to Yudhishter after he
returned from Dwarka, as, “a placid sea that was lapping
the shores suddenly broke open the natural wall and
entered the city and flooded the streets. Everything was
within the reach of the sea. I witnessed all beautiful
mansions, one by one, being drowned in the pervading
sea. In no time there was total destruction and then the
sea once again became placid like a lake. There was no
trace of Dwarka; only the name and memory survived”
(Website: Geovisit; Gopalakrishnan, The Week 2004).
The archaeologists and geoscientists have listed five
probable causes for this destruction, namely, i) progressive
erosion by sea, ii) lowering of Dwarka and submergence
of Bet Dwarka (or Bet Shankodhar) due to tectonic
movement along a fault during Holocene period (from
10,000 years before present to the present), iii) rise in sea
level, iv) an earthquake along the coast causing differential
elevation and depression of ground and v) volcanic
eruption in the Arabian Sea.
The description by Arjun makes two aspects clear;
sudden invasion by the sea and complete drowning of the
city. The reasons put forth so far do not explain the
above two observations. During last 4000 years the
marine erosion has been at the rate of 1.25 cm per year,
at this rate during last 4000 years the sea level would
have risen by 10 m. With such a slow rate of erosion
there is no chance of sudden rise of sea level and
submergence of Dwarka. There is no volcano in the
Arabian Sea. Thus we are left with an earthquake as a
major cause of destruction of Dwarka. Though an
earthquake could flatten buildings and possibly with
protracted tectonic activity slowly drown the city, yet it
would not cause sudden rise in sea level to invade and
submerge the city. Only a tsunami associated with an
earthquake could swiftly raise the sea level and drown
and destruct the entire city within a short span of time
and on ebbing revert the sea to its placid state. Protracted
tectonic activity that caused the earthquake and resultant
tsunami could gradually submerge the city under the sea.
a
Close to Dwarka two areas of frequent earthquakes
are located: 1. Allah Bund in the Rann of Kachchh,
where earthquakes struck in 1919 and 2001. These
earthquakes generated tsunamis having maximum height
of two to three metres. 2. Makran fault (Balochistan),
located along the Indian and Asian Plate boundary, it has
been epicenter of several earthquakes. In 1945 an
earthquake, along this fault, generated 11-11.5 m high
tsunami waves. By the time, these waves reached
Mumbai their height was lowered to 60 cm. The Indus
delta, located along the Makran Fault witnessed several
devastating earthquakes. The earthquake that struck in
328 years B.C., generated tsunami waves that annihilated
the powerful fleet of Alexandra. b

The vivid description recorded by Arjun in scriptures
clearly indicates destruction of Dwarka by tsunami,
which is amply supported by the scientific data.
The fact that besides the fault at Allah Bund, the
Makran fault can also generate major earthquakes and
trigger devastating tsunami calls for careful urban planning
and installing Early Warning System in this part of the
country. Besides direct destruction to the habitation by
the seismic waves, the secondary processes like landslides,
breaching of the dams, twisting/disruption of railway
lines, collapse of bridges while the traffic is on and fires
due to short circuiting of electric lines can also cause
extensive damage. Many earthquakes of magnitude ML
>6 were studied using data from IGS GPS stations in
Japan and a few of IGS GPS stations outside Japan. The
GPS data recorded pre-signals before every earthquake.
Thus it is possible to some extent to predict the
occurrence of earthquake and location of its epicenter but
predicting the exact time of its occurrence remains
uncertain. Also there is no way to avoid earthquakes;
however, the extent of damage caused by them can be
restricted by carefully planned aseismic designs of the
buildings.
Volcanoes: Volcanic eruptions can be submarine and
also subaerial (Fig. 53a, b). The underlying cause of
volcanic eruptions is also plate movement. Recently
submarine volcanic activity has been studied west of
Fig. 53. a. Volcanic eruption in Andaman Nicobar island (India),
b. Submarine volcanic eruption.
Malta, sited about 200 km south-west of Samoa. It is one
of the most active underwater volcanoes and scientists
believe it produces some of the hottest lava erupting on
Earth. The volcano is roughly 6 km wide and more than
3 km underwater. It is located very close to the 10 km
deep Tonga-Kermadec Trench, where the Pacific Oceanic
Plate, subducts under the Australian Plate. It is a key
location for the recycling of rock back into the interior of
the Earth and it is where molten material can also then
force its way back up to the surface. Thus it was hoped
that study of the volcanicity will shed new light on how
the Earth’s crust was formed and how tectonic plates
collide.
Since the water pressure at that depth suppresses the
violence of the volcano’s explosions, it was possible to
get the underwater robot within a feet of the active
eruption. High-definition camera captured large molten
lava bubbles about a metre across bursting into cold
seawater, and it photographed glowing red vents
explosively ejecting lava into the sea. Researchers say
the volcano is spewing boninite lavas, believed to be
among the hottest erupting on Earth in modern times,
and a type only seen before on extinct volcanoes older
than a million years. The molten lavas at 1,4000 C
producing acidic fluids - the sulphur dioxide make these

27
fluids as acidic as pH#.4 - and yet microbes were found
thriving. The magmatic gases sustain and provide energy
for microbial life, and then in turn the microbes provide
energy for the shrimp. “The animal life down there has
evolved over millions of years to take advantage of the
situation. Virtually every species down on the sea floor at
vents has some sort of novel adaptation. Tim Shank, a
microbiologist studying these phenomena said, “Shrimps
have modified eye forms, and modified claws to enable
them to scrape certain types of bacteria. This is where
fundamental planetary processes like eruption meet life,
so it has profound implications for me as a biologist
looking at the evolution of life on this planet. Having a
very fresh occurrence – it hasn’t been altered by ravages
of time – and having a known date of eruption gives us
the ability to study many different aspects of the rock,
including radioactive tracers which will give us the rates
of these processes – i.e. how long it takes for this
recycling (at subduction zones) to occur.”
The effect of volcanic eruption on environment
depends on the type of gas emitted. Release of carbon
dioxide leads to green house effect and increases the
average global temperature, whereas the release of sulfur
dioxide as discussed above, leads to lowering of the
temperature. In either case, the environment and life on
the planet are severely affected.
The volcanic activity, however, also generates mineral
deposits.
Meteoric impacts: Small objects frequently collide
with the Earth. Objects with diameters smaller than 10 m
(33 ft) are called meteorites. An estimated 500 meteorites
reach the surface each year, but only 5 or 6 of these are
recovered and available for studies. If a heavenly body
hits the sea it can lead to tsunami. Asteroids with
diameters of 5 m to 10 m enter the Earth’s atmosphere
approximately once per year, with an energy equivalent
to the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, i.e.
approximately 15 kiloton’s of TNT. Luckily most of
these bodies explode and are vaporised in upper
atmosphere thus causing little or no damage to the life on
the Earth. Objects with diameters over 50 m strike the
Earth approximately once every thousand years. Asteroids
with a diameter of one kilometer on an average are
known to strike the Earth every 500,000 years. Asteroids
of five kilometers hit the Earth once every 10 My. The
last known impact of this size or possibly bigger
happened at the Cretaceous-Paleocene boundary, about
65 My ago. The Moon is widely believed to have been
formed due to an impact of a planetoid of the size of the
Mars. Impact events have been considered to be creative
as well as destructive. A view proposes that comets
delivered water to the Earth. Another view suggests that
28
the origin of life might be due to impacting objects that
introduced organic chemicals or lifeforms to the Earth’s
surface - a view called exogenesis. An impact event in an
ocean or sea may create a tsunami (a giant wave), which
can cause destruction both at sea and on land along the
coast.
The impacts have created crater not only on the Earth
but also on the surface of the Moon and other planets.
The Vredefort, Sudbury, Chicxulib, Barringer (~50,000
years old), Rio Cuarto (~10,000 years old), Lonar Lake
(~52,000 years or even older), Henbury (~5,000 years
old), Kaali (~2700 years old) and Manicouagan craters
are examples of important craters. It has been estimated
that during the last 600 My about 60 objects of 5 km or
more have bombarded the Earth. Even the smallest of
these would release energy equivalent of 10 million tons
of TNT and make a crater of 95 km across. The Chevron
sediment deposits at the southern end of Madagascar
contain deep marine fossils fused with metals; these are
believed to have been formed by cosmic impact, which
also created a 29 km-diameter crater, 3800 m below the
surface about 2800-3000 BC. It might have produced a
giant-tsunami at least 180 m high-enough to severely
affect the habitation of that time. The most significant
impact in recent times occurred in Siberia in 1908, which
caused an explosion possibly due to airburst of the
cosmic body 5-10 km above the Earth’s surface. This
event destroyed about 80 million trees spread over an
area of 2,150 sq km. On September 15, 2007, a meteor
fell near the village of Carancas near the Lake Titicaca in
southeastern Peru, which created a water-filled depression
spewing gases that made many residents sick. About
cosmic impact in Jupiter, the Wickipedia states, “The
1994 impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter
served as a “wake-up call”, and astronomers responded
by starting programs such as Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid
Research (LINEAR), Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking
(NEAT), Lowell Observatory Near-Earth Object Search
(LONEOS) and several others which have drastically
increased the rate of asteroid discovery.”
The asteroid impacts besides modifying the topography
also affect global climate and life due to the cosmic dust.
It can cause vacuum resulting in severe storms and can
also ablaze the area of impact. Several consecutive
impacts can have effect on the dynamo mechanism at a
planet’s core responsible for maintaining the magnetic
field and can even shut down the Earth’s magnetic field.
Most meteoroids burn up when they enter the
atmosphere. The left-over meteoric dust can circulate in
the atmosphere for up to several months and can affect
climate, both by scattering electromagnetic radiation and
by catalysing chemical reactions in the upper atmosphere.
 Tornadoes and Floods: A tornado is a rotating
column of air that is in contact with both the surface of
the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud and at times with
the base of a cumulous cloud. These are of different
dimensions and have an appearance of condensation
funnel, whose pointed end touches the ground and is
mostly surrounded by cloud of dust and debris. Most
tornadoes have wind speeds less than 180 km per hour,
are approximately 80 m across and travel over a distance
of several kilometers before dying out. In extreme cases
the wind speed exceeds 480 km per hour and tornadoes
stretch for more than 3 km and can ravage more than 100
km. These can be extremely devastating.
Floods though are considered curse to human
civilization in fact have contributed to the evolution of
agriculture. It is because of the floods that we have vast
agriculture plains. The entire Indo-Ganga and other
alluvial plains are due to flooding in the past. The
damage due to floods is largely due to unscientific
construction along the banks and unstable protective
measures. With increasing population and shortage of
land people ignore the limit of flood level and construct
buildings in flooding zone (Fig.54).
The siltation due to erosion increases the level of the
river bed and as a result during succeeding years even
with lesser rain the river is flooded. If care is taken to
construct the houses above the high flood level and also
construction of bunds along the banks in vulnerable area,
the damage by floods can be minimised. In certain rivers
of the Himalaya e.g. the Kosi, the heavy rains in the
catchment almost every year bring misery to the people
living downstream. In such cases there is need to build
reservoir dams at suitable places to cut down the fury of
the flood. Flash floods can also occur due to bursting of
glacial lakes in the mountainous terrain like the Himalaya.
Such lakes need regular monitoring and if necessary
Fig. 54. Construction within flood zone is repeatedly destroyed during seasonal floods.
29
should be partly drained along with construction of dikes
etc at vulnerable points.
Erosion: Ever since the mother Earth acquired
atmosphere, the erosion commenced. The main natural
eroding agencies are: (a) glacier, (b) river, (c) sea, (d)
wind and (e) rain. Enormous erosion had taken place
before the advent of Homo sapiens. Nature even in her
fury has a method, which follows a blue print for the
benefit of the future inhabitants of this planet. The
natural erosion, especially since the Quaternary, provided
vast Indo-Gangetic and other alluvial tracts that form the
agricultural fields and reservoir of ground water. The
erosion also exposed to the surface mineral deposits that
were formed at depth.
Soil loss in India is around 710 ton/km2/year, which
is the highest in the world. Total cultivable area in India
is 306 million hectares; out of this 145 million hectare
i.e. 45% of the total cultivable area is threatened. The
figure is highest in the world.
The assessment of National Commission of
Environmental Planning is alarming. There is an annual
loss of 6000 million tons of topsoil. In nutrient value it
is twice the value of annual production of fertilizers; in
terms of money: Rs. 1000 crore/year. The erosion
reduces 7% of cultivable soil to barrenness. Every year
forests of the size of Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi
combined are devastated. A total of 12.962 million
hectares is under wind erosion and 73.6 million hectares
under water erosion.
The erosion leads to loss of topsoil, increase in
siltation in river valleys causing repeated floods, difficult
navigation, destruction of embankments, shifting channels
(braiding), water logging, degradation of soil; filling up
of dams’ reservoirs and increased sedimentation in sea
leading to advancing of coastline.
 We cannot totally stop erosion, but following measures
can minimize the rate of erosion:
1. Extensive afforestation,
2. Scientific mining,
3. Avoiding forested area for expansion of agriculture,
in hilly terrains fields for cultivation should be
terraced and properly drained with construction of
wattles,
4. Town planning after proper geological evaluation,
5. Landslide management,
6. Fighting fluvial fury by diversion channels,
fortification of embankments and construction of
small dams/weirs,
7. Combating coastal carnage by constructing seawall,
revetment etc, break water, jetties and groynes.
Mining: The natural mineral resources remained
untouched for millions of years, but with the evolution of
Man, these are being increasingly exploited. Initially
only stones were used for making implements, these
were followed by metals. Since the Industrial Revolution
during the 19th century, within two centuries the
exploitation of natural resources has increased by many
folds, almost exhausting some ores. The waste products
resulting from the usage of these resources by Man has
added to the pollution of atmosphere, air, water and land.
The more advanced a nation the more pollution it
contributes. Out of 400 million metric tons, the U.S.A.
having less than 5% of world’s population, generates 250
million tons of hazardous waste and contributes 25% of
the world’s carbon dioxide. In 2007 China overtook the
U.S.A. as world’s biggest producer of carbon dioxide.
PERIODICITY OF THE EVENTS
Periodicity and cyclicity of glaciation, volcanicity and
mass extinctions, as narrated above, have given rise to a
fanciful view that these events are related to meteoric/
asteroid impact and/or influence of heavenly bodies.
Three main speculative views are propounded:
i) Sun is part of a binary star system. This star
(Nemesis) follows highly eccentric orbit with a
periodicity of ~30 My. It enters the Inner Comet
Cloud, which causes shower of comets hurtling
towards earth, causing cosmic winter and also
bolides’ impacts,
ii) There is yet another planet, beyond Pluto, which
could produce periodic comet showers, if its orbit
was on a track to disturb the comet cloud at the
necessary interval,
30
iii) The Solar System oscillates through the galactic
plane with semi-period of ~30 My and disturbs
the Inner Comet Cloud.
These hypotheses, however, are challenged by many
as cyclic data, both in terms of accuracy of stratigraphic
record and exact date of extinction, are not precise, yet
meteoric impacts in the past have been responsible for
drastically changing the physical and chemical balance
of the Earth’s atmosphere. Presence of iridium anomaly
along the Cretaceous/Paleocene boundary is regarded as
one of the causes cited for the extinction of dinosaurs.
IMPACT OF HAZARD ON ENVIRONMENT
The hazards due to human interference have more
serious consequences than the Natural hazards. The
Nature was always pregnant with a blue print that
succeeded the calamities; after each extinction or natural
disaster a more robust and a better environment emerged
that was conducive for promoting more advanced and
evolved life. The hazards introduced by the Man may
cause irreversible damage to the environment and on the
contrary the Man has no blue print for the future.
The most severe and serious threat to environment
and even to the existence of life on the Earth is
introduction of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and
chlorofluorocarbons sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides
due to burning of fossil fuels, extensive use of air
conditioners and refrigerators and emissions from various
industries. These deleterious effects are further aggravated
by extensive deforestation for industrialization and
building housing colonies that reduces the production of
oxygen in the atmosphere. This anthropogenic interference
has damaged the ozone layer and thus enhanced the
natural global warming in the present interglacial period.
Widespread use of chemicals in agriculture/horticulture
in the form of fertilizer, pesticides and insecticides has
resulted in polluting the soil, as many harmful elements
get fixed in the soil that get assimilated in the plants
beyond the safe/tolerance limits. Untreated pollutants
generated by industries, particularly chemical industries,
mining etc, that are discharged into the streams not only
pollute the rivers but even the ground water. The most
soil pollutants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, fertilizers,
herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Ordinary municipal refuge dumps are the source of many
chemical substances entering the soil environment and
even the groundwater. Solid particles in colloidal or
suspension state, produced by human activities (aerosols)
constitute approximately 10 % of the total amount of
aerosols in our atmosphere. Smog was originally used for
smoke originated by burning of coal. Modern smog in
big cities, however, is a result of vehicular combustion
and industrial emissions.
The polluted air, water and food stuff when consumed
by man and also animals lead to several diseases.
Increased incidence of cancer may be attributable to
prolific use of chemicals in the food-chain. The level of
noise introduced by industries and vehicular traffic leads
to neurological disorders. If we do not take timely action
to check various kinds of pollution, no longer may we
see a beautiful sky, and global warming will lead to
submergence of many coastal cities- a prelude to human
extinction (Fig 55).
Fig. 55. Envisoned view of London by 2100 due to global
warming (from www.venkatasarli.com).
Erosion has also been accelerated by anthropogenic
activities. These include i) deforesting for timber
procurement; acquiring additional areas for cultivation,
habitation and industrialization and mining, ii) expansion
of area under agriculture, unterraced agriculture fields
and indiscriminate and over collection of herbs in hilly
terrain, flattening of dunes in deserts for the purpose of
cultivation and over-grazing, iii) excavations for
construction of dams, tunneling, heavy blasting, mining,
and poorly planned roads. The Hoover Dam on the
Colorado River has eroded 3 m materials over a distance
of several kilometers. In the Glen Canyon Dam erosion
is estimated to be around 6 m. The Hoover Dam,
Marathon Dam (Greece) and Xinfengjian reservoir areas
experienced earthquakes, leading to landslides,
iv) urbanization with poorly/badly planned houses/
31
villages lead to increased siltation in rivers/water bodies
causing floods even with lesser rain fall and coastal
erosion. In south California coast, the erosion is estimated
at 15.30 cm/year. In North Sea off Germany in 800 A.D.
the sea cliff had a perimeter of 200 km; it was reduced
to three kilometers in 1900. As compared to prehistoric
times the erosion rate is 30-40% higher, v) mining leads
to removal of top soil and unstable slopes amenable to
landslides and vi) underground nuclear explosion can
also trigger landslides.
In the U.S.A. acid rains are common. These are due
to presence of sulphur and nitrogen compounds in
atmosphere, generated by electricity generation, factories
and vehicles. Coal-power plants contribute most to
pollution. The gases generated by burning can be
transported to hundreds of kilometers in the atmosphere
before getting converted into acids and deposited.
The Earth has undergone tremendous change since
its birth. Some of the changes like gradual cooling after
its birth are a function of passage of time, while all other
major changes are mainly due to plate movements. The
plate movement led to volcanicity, mountain building,
change in distribution of land and sea, change in climate
and extinction and evolution of life. Besides the plate
tectonics, asteroid bodies too have played a role in
modifying the environment of the Earth. The plates are
still moving and based on the rate of movement future
global geography has been predicted (Fig. 56).
Fig. 56. Visualised disposition of continents 50 Ma hence.
Our planet Earth is not even a speck in this vast
universe, where there are billions of Solar Systems and
possibly millions of planets akin to the Earth. It will be
extremely egoistic to claim that the intelligent life exists
only on the Earth.
 Glossary
Ablation: Ablation is removal of material from the surface of
an object by vaporization, chipping, or other erosive
processes.
Aerosols: An aerosol is a colloid suspension of fine solid
particles or liquid droplets in a gas (e.g. cloud).
Andromeda: It is name of a galaxy which is spiral in shape
and is approximately 2.5 million light-years from the Earth.
It is also known as Messier 31, M31, or NGC 224, and is
often referred to as the Great Andromeda Nebula in older
texts.
Artiodactyls: The even-toed ungulates (hoofed animals) whose
weight is borne about equally by the third and fourth toes,
rather than mostly or entirely by the third as in odd-toed
ungulates (perissodactyls) such as horses.
Asteroids: Asteroids are a class of small Solar System bodies
in orbit around the Sun.
Basalt: A common extrusive volcanic rock. It is usually grey to
black and fine-grained due to rapid cooling of lava at the
surface of a planet. It may be porphyritic containing larger
crystals in a fine matrix, or vesicular, or frothy scoria.
Benioff Zone: A Wadati–Benioff zone (also Benioff–Wadati
zone or Benioff zone or Benioff seismic zone) is a deep
active seismic trench in which the colliding plate subducts.
Differential motion along the zone produces deep-seated
earthquakes, the foci of which may be as deep as about 700
kilometres (430 mi).
Biogenic: A biogenic substance is a substance produced by life
processes. It may be either constituents, or secretions, of
plants or animals. A more specific name for these substances
is biomolecules.
Bryozoa: The Bryozoa, also known as Ectoprocta or commonly
known as moss animals, are a phylum of aquatic invertebrate
animals.
Cetaceans: The order includes the marine mammals commonly
known as whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Cetus is Latin
and is used in biological names to mean “whale”; its
original meaning, “large sea animal”, was more general.
Chalcolithic: The Chalcolithic period or Copper Age, also
known as the Eneolithic/neolithic (from Latin aeneus “of
bronze”), it is a phase of the Bronze Age in which the
addition of tin to copper to form bronze during smelting
was not known. The Copper Age was originally defined as
a transition between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age.
Cimmerian: According to the Greek historian Herodotus, of
the 5th century BC, the Cimmerians inhabited the region
north of the Caucasus and the Black Sea during the 8th and
7th centuries BC, in what is now Ukraine and Russia. In
geology the area between north of Caucasus and the Black
Sea is called Cimmerian.
Coloured névé: Névé is a young, granular type of snow which
has been partially melted, refrozen and compacted, it
precedes the formation of ice. This type of snow is associated
with glacier formation through the process of nivation.
Coniferales: The largest and most widely distributed order of
gymnosperms, containing about 49 genera with about 570
species most of which are evergreen trees. Pine Deodar is
it’s an examples.
32
Continental Drift: Continental drift is the movement of the
Earth’s continents relative to each other. The hypothesis
that continents ‘drift’ was first put forward by Abraham
Ortelius in 1596 and was fully developed by Alfred
Wegener in 1912.
Cordillera: A cordillera is an extensive chain of mountains or
mountain ranges that runs along a coastline (e.g. the
Andes).
Cycads: Cycads are seed plants typically characterized by a
stout and woody (ligneous) trunk with a crown of large,
hard and stiff, evergreen leaves. They usually have pinnate
leaves
Dabbling ducks: The dabbling ducks feed mainly at the
surface rather than by diving.
Deciduous trees: Deciduous means “falling off at maturity” or
“tending to fall off”, and is typically used in reference to
trees or shrubs that lose their leaves, seasonally, shed other
plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when
ripe once in two years .
Diastrophism: Diastrophism refers to deformation of the
Earth’s crust, and more especially to folding and faulting.
Diastrophism comes from the Greek word meaning a
twisting.
Dinosaurs: Dinosaurs are a diverse group of animals. They
appeared during the Triassic period, approximately
230 million years ago, and were the dominant terrestrial
vertebrates for 135 million years, from the beginning of the
Jurassic (about 200 million years ago) until the end of the
Cretaceous (about 65 million years ago).
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid containing the
genetic instructions used in the development and functioning
of all known living organisms (with the exception of RNA
viruses).
Dunes: In physical geography, a dune is a hill of sand built by
wind. Dunes occur in different forms and sizes, formed by
interaction with the wind. Large dune fields are known as
ergs.
Ediacara: The Ediacara fauna consisted of soft bodied enigmatic
tubular and frond-shaped, mostly sessile organisms which
lived during the Period ca. 635-542 Ma.
Electromagnetic: Electromagnetism is the force that causes the
interaction between electrically charged particles; the areas
in which this happens are called electromagnetic fields. It is
one of the four fundamental interactions in nature. The
other three are the strong interaction, the weak interaction
and gravitation.
Entelodont: Entelodonts, sometimes nicknamed hell pigs or
terminator pigs, is an extinct family of pig-like omnivores
endemic to forests and plains of North America, Europe,
and Asia from the middle Eocene to early Miocene epochs
(37.2—16.3 mya), existing for approximately 20.9 million
years
Epicenter: The epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface that
is directly above the hypocenter or focus, the point where
an earthquake or underground explosion originates.
Exogenesis: Processes includes the hypothesis that life originated
elsewhere in the universe and was spread to Earth.
Fireballs: A fireball is a somewhat spherical mass of fire, such
that is caused by an explosion or a firestorm.
Focus of earthquake: The focus (more correctly termed the
hypocenter) of an earthquake is the point in the earth where
the earthquake rupture or fault movement actually occurred.
The point on the surface directly above the hypocenter is
known as the epicenter.
Foraminifera: The Foraminifera (“whole bearers”) are a large
group of amoeboid protists. They are among the commonest
marine plankton species.
Galaxies: A galaxy is a massive, gravitationally bound system
that consists of stars and stellar remnants, an interstellar
medium of gas and dust, and an important but poorly
understood component tentatively dubbed dark matter.
Ginkgos: The Ginkgo is a living fossil, with fossils recognisably
related to modern Ginkgo from the Permian, dating back
270 million years. The most plausible ancestral group for
the order Ginkgoales is the Pteridospermatophyta, also
known as the “seed ferns,” specifically the order
Peltaspermales.
Ginkgophyta: A genus of highly unusual non-flowering plants
with one extant species G. biloba, which is regarded as a
living fossil.
Glyptodons: Glyptodon was a large, armored mammal.
Gomphotheres: Gomphotheriidae is a diverse taxonomic
family of extinct elephant-like animals (proboscideans),
called gomphotheres. These were widespread in North
America during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, 12-1.6
million years ago.
Gondwana: Gondwana was the southernmost of two
supercontinents (the other being Laurasia) that later became
parts of the Pangaea supercontinent. It existed from
approximately 510 to 180 million years ago.
GPS: The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based
satellite navigation system that provides location and time
information in all weather, anywhere on or near the Earth,
where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more
GPS satellites.
Granites: Granite is a common and widely occurring type of
intrusive igneous rock made up essentially of quartz and
felspar, also commonly known as hard rock.
Ground water: Groundwater is water located beneath the
ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of
rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated
deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable
quantity of water.
Groynes: A groyne is a rigid hydraulic structure built from an
ocean shore (in coastal engineering) or from a bank (in
rivers) that interrupts water flow and limits the movement
of sediment. In the ocean, groynes create beaches, or avoid
having them washed away by longshore drift.
Hermatypic: Hermatypic corals, or stony corals, are reef-
building corals.
Hypsithermal: The hypsithermal was a period of global
warming.
IGS: The International GNSS Service (IGS), formerly the
International GPS Service, is a voluntary federation of
more than 200 worldwide agencies that pool resources and
permanent GPS & GLONASS station data to generate
33
precise GPS & GLONASS products. The IGS is committed
to providing the highest quality data and products as the
standard for Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)
in support of Earth science research, multidisciplinary
applications, and education.
Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution was a period
from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in
agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and
technology had a profound effect on the social, economic
and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United
Kingdom, and then subsequently spread throughout Western
Europe, North America, Japan, and eventually the world.
Jetties: A jetty is any of a variety of structures used in river,
dock, and maritime works that are generally carried out in
pairs from river banks, or in continuation of river channels
at their outlets into deep water; or out into docks, and
outside their entrances; or for forming basins along the sea-
coast for ports in tideless seas.
Laurentia: Laurentia (North American craton) is a large area
of continental craton, which forms the ancient geological
core of the North American continent.
Laurasia: In paleogeography, the name Laurasia was given to
the northernmost of two supercontinents (the other being
Gondwana) that formed part of the Pangaea supercontinent
from approximately 510 to 200 million years ago (Mya).
Lycophytes: The Division Lycopodiophyta (sometimes called
Lycophyta or Lycopods) is a tracheophyte subdivision of
the Kingdom Plantae. It is the oldest extant (living)
vascular plant division at around 410 million years old, and
includes some of the most “primitive” extant species.
Magmatism: Magmatism is a process responsible for forming
igneous rock in or above the earth’s surface, e.g. granite
and basalt.
Magnetic field: A magnetic field is a mathematical description
of the magnetic influence of electric currents and magnetic
materials. The magnetic field at any given point is specified
by both a direction and a magnitude (or strength); as such
it is a vector field.
Mammoths: A mammoth is any species of the extinct genus
Mammuthus, proboscideans (relate to elephant family)
commonly equipped with long, curved tusks and, in
northern species, a covering of long hair.
Mastodons: Mastodons were large, tusked, mammal species of
the extinct genus Mammut, which inhabited Asia, Africa,
Europe, North America and Central America from the
Oligocene through Pleistocene, 33.9 my to 11,000 years
ago.
Mercalli’s Scale: The Mercalli intensity scale is a seismic scale
used for measuring the intensity of an earthquake. It
measures the effects of an earthquake, and is distinct from
the moment magnitude.
Mesasaurs: Mesasaurs are large extinct marine lizards. The
first fossil remains were discovered in a limestone quarry at
Maastricht on the Meuse in 1764.
Mesolithic: The Mesolithic (Greek: mesos “middle”, lithos
“stone”) is an archaeological concept used to refer to
certain groups of archaeological cultures defined as falling
between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic.
Metamorphic rocks: Metamorphic rock is the transformation
of an existing rock type, the protolith, in a process called
 metamorphism, which means “change in form”, when the
rocks are subjected to higher temperature and pressure.
Meteorites: A meteorite is a natural object originating in outer
space that survives impact with the Earth’s surface.
Meteorites can be big or small.
Milankovitch Cycle: Milankovitch theory describes the
collective effects of changes in the Earth’s movements upon
its climate, named after Serbian civil engineer and
mathematician Milutin Milankoviæt.
Mitochondrial: Mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a
membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic
cells. These organelles range from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometer
(ìm) in diameter.
Moraines: A moraine is a glacially formed accumulation of
unconsolidated glacial debris (soil and rock) which can
occur in currently glaciated and formerly glaciated regions,
such as those areas acted upon by a past glacial maximum.
Nautiloid: Nautiloids are a large and diverse group of marine
cephalopods (Mollusk) that began in the Late Cambrian and
are represented today by the living Nautilus.
Nebula: A nebula (from Latin: “cloud”; pl. nebulae or nebulæ,
with ligature or nebulas) is an interstellar cloud of dust,
hydrogen, helium and other ionized gases.
Neoglacial: The Neoglacial was a period of cold that lasted
more than 2000 years during the mid-Holocene, from
approximately 4700 to 2500 years ago
Neolithic: The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone era,
was a period in the development of human technology
when fine stone implements were made by the man.
Opossums: Opossums make up the largest order of marsupials
in the Western Hemisphere, including 103 or more species
in 19 genera.
Orion Arm: The Orion–Cygnus Arm is a minor spiral arm of
the Milky Way galaxy some 3,500 light years across and
approximately 10,000 light years in length. The Solar
System (and, therefore, the Earth) is within the Orion–
Cygnus Arm. It is also referred to as the Local Arm, the
Orion Arm, the Local Spur or the Orion Spur.
Paleolithic: The Paleolithic (or Paleolithic) Age, Era or Period,
is a prehistoric period of human history distinguished by
the development of the most primitive stone tools discovered
(Modes I and II), and covers roughly 99% of human
technological prehistory.
Paleotemperatures: The temperature at a location in the
geologic past.
Pangaea: Pangaea is hypothesized as a supercontinent that
existed during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, forming
300 million years ago and beginning to break up
approximately 200 million years ago, before the component
continents were separated into their current configuration.
Pannotia: Pannotia, first described by Ian W. D. Dalziel in
1997, is a hypothetical supercontinent that existed from the
Pan-African orogeny about six hundred million years ago
to the end of the Precambrian about 550 Ma ago. It is also
known as the Vendian supercontinent.
Panthalassa: Panthalassa also known as the Panthalassic
Ocean, was the vast global ocean that surrounded the
supercontinent Pangaea, during the late Paleozoic and the
early Mesozoic years
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Perissodactyls: An odd-toed ungulate is a mammal with
hooves that feature an odd number of toes. Odd-toed
ungulates comprise the order Perissodactyla. The middle
toe on each hoof is usually larger than the adjoining ones.
Plates: Tectonic plates are pieces of the Earth’s crust and
uppermost mantle, together referred to as the lithosphere.
Plovers: Plovers are a widely distributed group of wading
birds.
Pluvial: In geology and climatology, a pluvial (“rain”) was an
extended period of abundant rainfall lasting many thousands
of years. Pluvial is also applied to the sediments of these
periods (e.g. Lake Bonneville, Lake Lahontan, and Lake
Manly).
Richter Scale: The expression Richter magnitude scale refers
to a number of ways to assign a single number to quantify
the energy contained in an earthquake. In all cases, the
magnitude is a base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by
calculating the logarithm of the amplitude of waves
measured by a seismograph. An earthquake that measures
5.0 on the Richter scale has shaking amplitude 10 times
larger and corresponds to an energy release of “1000 H”
31.6 times greater than one that measures 4.0.
Salamander: Salamander is a common name of approximately
550 extant species of amphibians. They are typically
characterized by a superficially lizard-like appearance, with
their slender bodies, short noses, and long tails.
Savanna: A savanna, or savannah, is a grassland ecosystem
characterized by the trees being sufficiently small or widely
spaced so that the canopy does not close.
Sloths: Sloths are the six species of medium-sized mammals
belonging to the families Megalonychidae (two-toed sloth)
and Bradypodidae (three-toed sloth), part of the order
Pilosa and therefore related to armadillos and anteaters,
which sport a similar set of specialized claws,
Stromatolites: Stromatolites or stromatoliths are layered
accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the
trapping, binding and cementation of sedimentary grains
essentially by algae.
Stromatoporoid: Stromatoporoidea is a class of aquatic
invertebrates common in the fossil record from the
Ordovician through the Cretaceous. They were especially
abundant in the Silurian and Devonian and were reef
builders.
Tectonic: Tectonics (from the Vulgar Latin tectonicus, meaning
“building”) is a field of study within geology concerned
generally with the structures within the lithosphere of the
Earth (or other planets and moons) and particularly with the
forces and movements that have operated in a region to
create these structures.
Terrace: A step-like landform that borders bank or floodplain
of a river.
Valley glaciers: Valley glaciers are found in mountain regions
all around the world. They begin at the top of the mountain
where it is snows all year and the temperatures are always
below freezing. The glacier is so heavy at the top that it
begins to move slowly down the mountain.
Volcanicity: The magma under great pressure with molten
materials forces its way through the fissure of the
underground rocks and reaches the Earth’s surface to form
igneous extrusion.