Electronic Engineering and Communication Technology Department

Electro Engineering
Lectures Notes

ELCN216, ELC316

2021
9/1/2021 1
Prof. Dr. Mostafa Afifi
Dr. Fawzy Hashim

2 9/1/2021
 Teaching Classes
• Lectures: Two Hrs. / Week
• Tutorials: One Hr. / Week
• Labs: Two Hrs. / Week

Grading Policy
• Semester work (Assignments and Quizzes) 10% (20%)
• Midterm Exam 10% (20%)
• Practical Exam 20% 20%
• Final exam 60% (40%)
9/1/2021 3
 References
• Allan Hambley, Electrical Engineering, Principles and
Applications, Prentice Hall, 2012.
• R. Feynman, R. Leighton and M.L. Sand, "Feynman lecture
on physics, Reading Mass", Addison-Wesley,1989.

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 Course Contents
Part 1. Introduction
1.1 Electromechanical Interaction
1.2 History of Electricity
1.3 Basic Definitions of Electric Quantities
1.4 Basic Dimensions, and Units of Measurement
Part 2. Electricity
2.1 Electrical Force and Electrical Field
2.2 Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential
2.3 Charge Distribution

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 Part 3. Magnetism
3.1 Magnetic Force and Magnetic Field
3.2 Electromagnetic induction and Magnetic Circuits
3.3 Electromagnetic field formation and propagation
Part 4. Circuit Analysis
4.1 Circuit Elements
4.2 Ohm’s, KCL, and KVL Laws
4.3 Circuit Analysis
4.4 RLC Circuits

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Part 5. Electrical Machines
5.1 DC and AC Motors
5.2 Stepper and Servo Motors
5.3 Human Machine Interface

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 Part 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Electromechanical Interaction

1.2 History of Electricity
1.3 Basic Definitions of Electric Quantities
1.4 Basic Dimensions and Units of Measurements

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 1.1 Electromechanical Interaction
• The handling and operating of electric circuits by
mechanical engineers is proper for the advance of life
prosperity.
• In all aspects of our life Electric and Magnetic Field
Interactions with electromechanical integration is
now very evident.
• Mechanical engineers are the first to use electric
motors to operate and manipulate engine operations.
• Also they are the first to apply digital handling of
information using rotating shafts and timing activities.
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 Applications of Electrical Engineering in
Automotive Industry
• For Safety: Antiskid brakes, inflatable restraints,
Collision warning and avoidance, Blind-zone
detections, infrared night vision systems, Heads-
up displays and accident notifications.
• For Communications and entertainment:
AM/FM Radios, Digital audio Broadcastings,
CD/Tape players, Cellular phones, Computer /e-
mail.
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 • For convenience: Electronic navigation,
Personalized seat/mirror/radio settings, electronic
door locks.
• For Emission, performance & Fuel economy:
Vehicle instrumentation, electronic ignition, Tire
inflation sensors, computerized performance
evaluation and maintenance scheduling, and
adaptable suspension systems.
• For alternative propulsion systems: Electric
vehicles, advanced batteries, and Hybrid vehicles.

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 • Other examples are in Household Appliances:
– Keypads for operator control
– Sensors
– Electronic displays
– Microcomputer Chips
– Electronic digital switches
– Heating Elements
– Motors
• Electronics have become so intimately integrated with
mechanical systems that a new name, mechatronics,
is being used for the combination.
• Harmonious blending of many different technologies
allow the production of modern complex systems.

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 Major application subdivisions of Electrical Eng.
that interest Mechanical Engineering
• Communication systems: With major modern Information
technology using Internet broadcastings in ground and Satellite
systems.
• Computer Systems: Process and store of information in digital
formats, Examples of wide scale applications is the control
systems of modern cars.
• Control Systems: Gathering information with sensors and
processing for physical control, examples are the heating and
air cooling in buildings, temperature and flow rates in chemical
processes and control of motion in tall buildings.
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 • Electromagnetism: Using microwaves in ovens,
manufacturing cell phones, and satellite
applications.
• Electronics: applied in every field of
engineering and science, many useful circuits
are planned for this course to introduce and
build major engineering capabilities.
• Power systems: for interchanging conversion of
mechanical and electrical energies with
applications in transportation and increase of
efficiency.
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 • Signal Processing: where transducers (sensors) are
used to convert physical phenomenon to electrical
signals that can be processed for desired
performance by computers. Major example of this is
the control of the timing of the ignition spark in cars
to optimize performance and avoid damaging knock
of engines.

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 Output of a transducer for a Knocking Engine

• Pressure versus time for an internal

combustion engine experiencing knock.

• Sensors convert pressure to an

electrical signal that is processed to
adjust ignition timing for minimum
pollution and good performance.

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 1.2 History of Electricity
• THALES Originator of the word Electron for the Greek’s
AMBER (‫ )كهرمان‬rods used to discover Electric Forces
(Electrostatics), also originator of Magnetism taken
from a Greek place called Magnesia 22 centuries ago
• BENJAMIN FRANKLIN in 1750 discovered the
conservation of electric charges (positive and
negative)
• K F GAUSS formulated the Divergence Theorem
relating Electric Induction to enclosed charges
• A VOLTA invented the Voltage Cell in 1800
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 • H C OERSTED discovered the relation between
Currents and magnetic fields in 1819
• A M AMPERE invented the Solenoid coil for a
magnet in 1920
• G S OHM Published Ohm’s law in Germany
(first denied for a decade)
• M FARADAY discovered generation of currents
from changing Magnetic fields in 1831

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 • J C Maxwell demonstrated the Electro-Magnetism in
1873 and radiation
• H Hertz Generated and detected meter radio waves in
1888
• Albert Einstein discovered relativity to relate static
electricity to stationary person and varying
magnetism to moving person.

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 *Fluid-Flow Analogy
The Electrical circuits are analogous to fluid-flow Systems

• The Battery is analogous to a pump

• Voltage correspond to pressure
• Charges are analogous to fluid
• Current are analogous to rate of flow of fluid
• Wire conductors correspond to pipes
• Electrical Resistance is analogous to pipes constriction
in a fluid system resulting in turbulence and conversion
of energy to heat .

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 1.3 Basic Definitions of Electric Quantities
Electrical Charge
• The Electrical Charge "Q" is the quantity (mole) of
electricity Q = N × e, either negative as an excess
of electrons, or positive as deficiency in the
electrons (excess of protons).
• The standard unit of electrical charge is the
Coulomb: C = 6.24 × 1018 e
• The smallest unit of free charge known in nature
is the charge of an electron or proton, which has a
magnitude of: qe = qp =1.602 × 10-19 C

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 Electrical Current
Is a measure of time rate of flow of electrical charge
through the cross section of a conductor or circuit
element. The unit is ampere (A) which is equivalent to
coulombs per second (C/s)

t
dq ( t ) 
i( t ) = q ( t ) =  i( t ) dt + q ( t0 )
dt 
t0

Where t0 is some initial time at which the charge is known

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 Example
Suppose that charge versus time q(t) for a given
circuit element is given by:

q(t) = 0 for t < 0

and
q(t) = 2 -2 e-100 t C for t > 0

Current
i(t) = dq(t)/dt = 0 for t < 0

= 200 e-100 t A for t > 0

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 q(t) = 2 – 2 e-100 t i(t) = 200 e-100 t

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 Voltage (Electrical Potential Difference)
•The voltage across a circuit element is the energy
transferred per unit of charge (Joule/Coulomb)
flowing in the element.

The SI unit of the electrical potential is the Volt [V],

1V = 1[J/C]
• Notice that voltage is measured across the ends
of a circuit element, whereas current is a measure
of charge flow through the element.
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 Power
•The voltage “ V “ is defined as the energy transferred
per unit charge (Joules/Coulomb) .
•The current “ I “ is defined as the rate of flow of
charge (Coulombs/Second)
•These definitions lead to the definition of power “P”, as:
the rate of energy transfer, which is the product of the
voltage and the current.
P=V x I
Volt x Ampere
(Joules/Coulomb) x (Coulombs/Second) = (Joules/Second)
= (Watts)
P(t) = V(t) × I(t)
9/1/2021 29
 Energy
To calculate the energy “W” delivered to a circuit
element in a time interval between t1 and t2, we
integrate the power (rate of the energy transfer
J/s) to get the Energy transferred “W” as follows:
t2

w =  p ( t ) dt
t
1

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 Example:
Compute the Power “P” and the Energy “W” for the
shown voltage source, in the time interval between :
t1 = 0 and t2 = ∞

P(t) = v(t) x i(t) = 12 x 2 e-t = 24 e-t


 −t
w =  24  e dt
0
= [ -24 e-t ]inf0
= -24 e-inf – (-24 e0 ) = 24 J
Because the energy is positive it is absorbed by the
source.
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 An Example
Head Light Electric circuit in the CAR

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 •The circuit consists of a battery, a switch, the headlight,
and wires connecting them in a closed circuit, as illustrated in
the previous figure.

•Chemical forces in the battery cause electric charges of

electrons to flow through the circuit.

•The battery 12 Volt is a measure of the energy transferred

per a unit charge (12 joule/Coulomb) as it moves through
the circuit.

•The wires are made of excellent electrical copper

conductors and are insulated from others (including the body
of the car) by electrical plastic insulation, coating the wires.

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 •A switch is used to control the flow or non-flow of the electrical current,
so it is connected in series with the circuit.

•When the switch is closed current flows though the circuit, on the other
hand when the switch is opened, the head lamps dim, with no flow of
current.

•The headlamps contain special tungsten wired that can withstand high
temperatures, Tungsten is not good electrical conductor and electron
charges experience collisions with the atoms of the tungsten causing glow
from heat.

• Note that the two headlights are connected in parallel so that any defect
of one would not affect the other, and also to have identical circuit
dependence, getting the same potential difference on each of one of the
headlights.

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 1.4 Basic Dimensions and Units of Measurement
• A Dimension defines some physical characteristics of
the matter.
• A Unit is a standard by which a dimension is measured.
• The Basic Dimensions are:
– Length [L]
– Mass[M]
– Time [T]
They are Basic because other dimensions can be
derived in terms of them.

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 Examples of Derived Dimensions :
• Volume = [L]3
• Density = [M] [L]-3
• Speed = [L] [T]-1
• Acceleration = [L] [T]-2
• Force = [M] [L] [T]-2 Mass x Acceleration
• Work = [M] [L]2 [T]-2 Force x Displacement
• …

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 • The Dimensions of Electrical quantities can also be
derived from the basic dimensions as follows:
– The Force between two Electrical Charges is given by
Coulomb’s Law :
F = (1/4πε) (Q1 . Q2 / R2)
ε: permittivity of the medium, R: distance between charges

– The force F is also given by Newton as:

F = Mass x Acceleration
– Then the Dimension of Q is given as follows:
1/ε [Q]2 / L2 = M L T-2
[Q]2 = ε M L3 T-2
[Q] = ε1/2 M1/2 L3/2 T-1
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 • The Electrical Current I is the rate of flow of the
charge:
[I] = [dQ/dt] = ε1/2 M1/2 L3/2 T-2

• The Electrical Potential V is the work done (energy)

to transfer unit charge from one point to the other:
V = work / unit charge
[V] = [F*L/Q]
= ML2 T-2/ ε1/2 M1/2 L3/2 T-1
= -1/2 M1/2 L1/2 T-1

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 • Also, we can derive:
• [P] = [V][I]
= (-1/2 M1/2 L1/2 T-1)(ε1/2 M1/2 L3/2 T-2)
= M L2 T-3
• [W] = [P] T
= M L2 T-2
• [R] = [V]/ [I]
= (-1/2 M1/2 L1/2 T-1)/(ε1/2 M1/2 L3/2 T-2)
= -1 L-1 T
9/1/2021 39
 Systems of Units
• Different unit systems are defied for different
domains, some of them are:
- Electro-Static system of Units (ESU)
- Electro-Magnetic system of Units (EMU)
- Electrochemical System …..
• To avoid conversions among different systems,
the Standard International “SI” also called the
Practical System of units is devised to be the
Standard System.

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 Standard International “SI” System :
• Length is measured in meters (m)
• Mass is measured in Kilograms (Kg)
• Time is measured in Seconds (Sec)
• Electrical charge is measured in Coulomb (C)
• Electrical current is measured in Ampere (A)
• Electrical Voltage is measured in Volt (V)
• Electrical Power is measured in Watt (W)

• Note :
– (1 Amp =3000 Million ESU)
– (1 Volt = 3333.3 ESU)
9/1/2021 41
 For Currents, Voltages, Powers and other quantities we encounter a
tremendous ranges of values. The prefixes shown in the following
table are used to denote these ranges

Prefixes Abbreviation Scale Factor

Tera- T 1012
giga- G 109
mega- M 106
kilo- k 103
milli- m 10-3
micro- μ 10-6
nano- n 10-9
pico- p 10-12

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femto- f 10-15 42
 Part 2. Electricity

2.1 Electrical Force and Electrical Field

2.2 Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential
2.3 Charge Distribution

9/1/2021 1
 The FIVE Forces of Physics (Nature)

• Electric Forces (Mostly Influencing Life)

• Magnetic Forces (Mostly Influencing Life)
• Gravitational Forces (Influencing the Universe)
• Strong Nuclear Forces
• Weak Nuclear Forces (Radioactive Decay)

9/1/2021 2
Electrical Force
• Consider a system of two Point Charges Q1 and Q2 , separated by a
distance R in vacuum.

• The force exerted by Q1 on Q2 is given by Coulomb's Law:

F = K (Q1Q2 /R2)
o
9/1/2021 3
 Coulomb's Law : F = K (Q1Q2 / R2)

oWhere (K = 1 / 4πε) is called the Coulomb Constant, and its value is

dependent on the medium

o For free space K = 1 / 4πε0 = 9 X 109 (N m2/ C2)

o Where ε0 is called the Permittivity (Opposition) of the

free space [ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12 (C2/ N m2) or (Farad/m)]

o For any medium (ε = ε0 . εr) where εr is the relative

Permittivity of that medium

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 • Note that electric force is a vector which has both
magnitude and direction.
• The force is a Repulsion for similar polarity charges
and an Attraction for opposite polarity charges

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 Electric Force due to Multiple Point Charges
• When more than two-point charges are present, the net
(resultant) Force on any one charge is simply the Vector
Sum of the forces exerted on it by the other charges.

• Theresultant force experienced by

q3 due to q1 and q2 will be the
Vector Sum:

9/1/2021 6
 Vectors Representation (Rectangular Form)

In Rectangular Form the Vector is defined by its two projections

(components) on the x, and y axis

A = (8 - 0)x + (2 - 0)y = 8x + 2y B = (10 - 8)x + (6 - 2)y = 2x + 4y

C = A+B = (8+2)x + (2+4)y = 10x + 6y

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 Vector Representation (Polar Form)

In Polar Form the vector is defined by: its radius and its angle of
inclination from the positive X-axis (r, Ɵ)

Converting from polar to rectangular form:

x = r cos  y = r sin
(
x = 4 cos 30 o ) y = 4sin 30o 
x = 4
3
= 2 3 y = 4 1 = 2
2 2
So the vector r in rectangular form is:
𝒓=𝟐 𝟑 𝒙+𝟐𝒚
* Note: rectangular form is the most convenient form for summation and
subtraction operations
 Vector Summation
Vectors are resolved into their x and y components (rectangular form), and the
components are added separately; then recombine to find the resultant vector.

2 + F2
| Fnet | = Fnet
x net y

 FNet y 
 = tan −1

 FNet x 

9
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 Vector subtraction
Vector subtraction is a special case of vector addition : A - B = A + (- B)
Vector (- B) has the same magnitude but opposite in direction

Note:
Vector C = A + B
Vector D = A - B,

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 Example

What is the Magnitude of the net Force on q1 due to q2 and q3, and in
what Direction?

Fnet = F12 + F13 (Vector Sum)

 Values of x and y Components of force on q1 due to q2
−9 2
(10 C ) −5
F12 x = −9 *10 9 −2 2
= − 9  10 N
(10 m)
F12 y = 0

Values of x and y Components of force on q1 due to q3

−9 −9
( 2  10 C )(1  10 C) −5
F13 = 9 10 9 −2
= 3.6  10 N
( 5 10 m) 2

y - axis value
tan  =   = tan -1( 21 ) = 63.43 deg
x - axis value

𝐹13𝑥 = |𝐹13 | cos 𝜃 = (3.6 × 10−5 𝑁)(cos 6 3.43) = 1.6 × 10−5 𝑁



𝐹13𝑦 = |𝐹13 | sin 𝜃 = (3.6 × 10−5 𝑁)(sin 6 3.43) = 3.2 × 10−5 𝑁

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12
 X component of total force
Fnet = F + F = (−9 10 −5 + 1.6 10 −5 ) N = −7.4 10 −5 N
x 12 x 13x
y component of total force

Fnet = F +F = (0 + 3.2 10 −5 ) N = 3.2 10 −5 N

y 12 y 13 y
Net force : Vector Sum (Magnitude & Direction)
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑥 + 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑦 = −7.4 × 10−5 𝑥 + 3.2 × 10−5 𝑦

2 + F2
| Fnet | = Fnet = (( 7.4) 2 + (3.2) 2 )  (10 −5 ) 2 N
x net y

| F net | = +8.06 10 -5 N

 3.2 10 −5 N 
1 = tan 
−1
−5

 − 7.4 10 N 

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1 = 23.3 from the - x axis 13
 Electrical Field E

F = K (Q1 Q2) /R2 [N] E = K (Q) /R2 [N/C]

K = 1/4πε K = 1/4πε

• A Point charge has an electric field E in the space around it (sphere)

*Note: the surface area of the sphere is (1/ 4πr2)

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 Electric Field Strength E due to Point Charge Q

The electric field E at any point P is

defined as the force F applied to a unit
positive test charge placed at that point

E = K (Q / R2) [N/C]
Notes:
➢ Since F = K (QQ’/ R2) Then F = E Q’
➢ The direction of force F = EQ’ is the
Q is the Field Source (Originator) aliened to the direction of the electric
q is the Test Charge (+1 C) field lines E
9/1/2021 16
 The Electric field strength (density) E is a Vector
➢Its direction is away from Q, If Q is positive
➢Its direction is toward Q, If Q is negative
➢Its magnitude is large near by Q and week far from Q
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 3-D Cartesian Coordinate System P(x, y, z)

We will use The Right-Handed (Positive) 3-D Coordinate System, as

shown in the above below:
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Vector Representation in Cartesian 3D System P(x, y, z)
 3D Spherical Coordinate System P(r   )

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 Unit Vector
The Unit Vector is dimensionless vector of magnitude =1, and
specify a certain direction
Example:
Define the unit vector in the direction of the vector 𝑟Ԧ which
is given by:
𝑟Ԧ = 2𝒙 − 2𝒚 − 𝒛
𝑟Ԧ
The unit vector is defined as: 𝑟Ƹ =
|𝑟|
As: 𝑟 = 22 + (−2)2 +(−1)2 = 3
𝑟Ԧ 2 2 1
Then: 𝑟Ƹ = = 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧
|𝑟| 3 3 3
𝑟Ƹ = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒙 − 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒚 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒛

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Example

What is the Magnitude, and direction of the net Field E at point P

due to Q1 and Q2,?
9/1/2021 23
• R1 and R2 x, y, z Components :
R1 = (0 - 3) x + (3 - 0) y + (3 - 3) z = -3 x + 3 y
R2 = (0 - 3) x + (3 - 3) y + (3 - 0) z = -3 x + 3 z

• R1 and R2 Magnitudes
│R1│ = − 32 + 32 = 18
│R2│ = − 32 + 32 = 18

• R1 and R2 Unit Vectors

෢𝟏 = R1 /│R1│= − (3 / 18 ) x + (3 / 18 ) y = - 0.707 x + 0.707 y
𝑹

෢𝟐 = R2 /│R2│ = − (3 / 18 ) x + (3 / 18 ) z = - 0.707 x + 0.707 z

𝑹

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E1 and E2 Magnitudes :
• |E1| = K Q1 / │R1│2 = (9*109*5*10-9) / (18) = 2.5 N/C
• |E2| = K Q2 / │R2│2 = (9*109*8*10-9) / (18) = 4 N/C
E1 and E2 x,y,z Components :
෢𝟏 ) = 2.5 (- 0.707 x + 0.707 y) = -1.767 x + 1.767 y
• E1 = |E1| (𝑹
෢𝟐 ) = 4 (- 0.707 x + 0.707 z) = -2.8 x + 2.8 z
• E2 = |E2| (𝑹
Total or Net Electric field (Vector Sum of E1,E2):
Enet = (E1X + E2X) + (E1y + E2y) + (E1z + E2z) = -4.567 x + 1.767 y + 2.8 z
Thus:
│Enet│ = (-4.567 ) 2 + (1.767 ) 2 + (2.8) 2 = 5.64 N/C
𝟐.𝟖 𝟏.𝟕𝟔𝟕
𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 = 60o from z axis, and 𝝓 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 = 21o from -x axis
𝟓.𝟔𝟒 𝟒.𝟓𝟔𝟕
9/1/2021 25
 Part 2. Electricity

2.1 Electrical Force and Electrical Field

2.2 Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential
2.3 Charge Distribution
 Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential

• The law of conservation of energy states that:

“Energy cannot be vanished, but can only be transformed from one
form to another”
• Recall the idea of Gravitational Potential : lifting an object against
gravity requires work, and energy is transferred to the object in terms
of potential energy.
• The same idea can be used to explain Electric Potential Energy and
Electric Potential.

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• Electric Potential Energy (Ue):
Is the work done (W) to locate a charge in a position (at a distance)
relative to other charge(s)
Potential Energy (U) = Work done
= Force x Distance
U = F x r = [K (Q1 x Q2)/ r2] x r
= [K (Q1 x Q2)/ r] (J)
• If the two charges Q1, and Q2 have the same sign, U is positive, and
work must be done to bring the charges together.
• If the two charges have opposite signs, U is negative, and work is
done to keep the charges apart .
29

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• Electric Potential (V):

Is the work done to locate a Unit charge in a position (at a distance)

relative to other charge(s)
Potential (V) = Potential Energy (U) / Unit Charge (J/C)
V = [K (Q × q) / r] / q
= K (Q / r) (Volt)
Also Ue can be defined in terms of V :
U=Q×V (J)
And the change in U can be defined as the change of V :
Ua - Ub = Q × (Va - Vb)
ΔU = Q × ΔV
30
 Superposition of Electric Potentials

• The electric potential V is a Scalar and

has no direction.
• To find the voltage due to a combination
of Point Charges, we add the individual
voltages as numbers.

• The electric potential V at point P is the sum of the potential contributions

from charges Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, and Q5 so that :
VP = k [Q1/r1 + Q2/r2 + Q3/r3 + Q4/r4 + Q5/r5]

*Note: Q may be positive or negative

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Relation between Potential (V) and Field Strength (E)
Remember:
• E = KQ / R2 Force / unit charge (N/C)
• V = KQ / R Energy / unit charge (J/C = V)

• Then V =E×R (V)

and E =V/R (V/m)

•Thus, the Field Strength E which is expressed in units of (N/C) can

also be expressed in units of (V/m)
 Note that the formula: V =E×R or E =V/R

Is for a special case of a uniform electric field , where E is constant any

where due to special arrangements of Field originators as shown below:

• E is constant every
where between the two
plates V varies from one
equipotential line to the
other.

9/1/2021 Uniform Electric Field 33

• General formula is:
∞
• V is the integral of E 𝑽𝒂 = න 𝑬 . 𝒅𝒓
𝒂
𝒃
𝑽𝒂 − 𝑽𝒃 = න 𝑬 . 𝒅𝒓
𝒂

• E is the differential of V 𝑬 = 𝒅𝑽/𝒅𝒓

9/1/2021 8
 Potential Difference in an Electric Field due to point charge
Using the General formula:

Va = KQ/ra, Vb = KQ/rb
9/1/2021
34
 Field lines (solid) and equipotential lines (dashed)
9/1/2021 35
See You Next Lecture
 Part 2. Electricity

2.3 Charge Distribution

 Charge Distribution
Charges can be distributed over:
• A Line with a charge density  (C/m), or

• A Surface with a charge density σ (C/m2), or

• A Volume with charge density ρ (C/m3)

9/1/2021 38
 Electric Field due to Uniformly Distributed Line Charges

•The line charges can be considered as long array of small (dx), with
elementary charges (dQ) distributed along its length (L).
•If the line charge density is  = Q / L (C/m), then Q =  L, and

dQ =  dx
•As E = K Q / R2, then each dQ would generate an Electric Field dE
dE = K dQ / R2 = K  dx / R2
Where R is the distance from dQ to some point around the line, and K
(coulomb constant) = 1/4πε0 = 9 x 109 (N m2/ C2) in free space

9/1/2021 39
 dE y = dE cos
dQ
=K cos
P (r
+ x2 2
)
2

dQ r
=K 2
r + x r 2 + x2
2

rdx
=K
(r 2
+x )
2 3/ 2

dE = K dQ / R2 = K  dx / R2
dEx = dE sinƟ (eliminate each other)
dEy = dE cosƟ (add to each other)
40
 𝒓  𝒅𝒙
➢For Finite line charge of Length L 𝒅𝑬𝒚 = 𝑲 𝟑ൗ
𝒓𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 𝟐

rdx
L/2 L/2
Ey = 2  K
dx
= 2K r  (r
0 (r 2
+x )
2 3/ 2
0
2
+x )
2 3/ 2

L/2
x
= 2 K r .
r 2
(r 2
+x )
2 1/ 2
0
L/2
= 2K r .
r (r + ( L / 2)
2 2
)
2 1/ 2

2 K L/2
= .
r (r + ( L / 2) )
2 2 1/ 2

𝐿/2
Note that : 2 = sin Ɵ𝑚𝑎𝑥
(𝑟 + (𝐿/2)2 )1/2 41
➢For Infinite line charge
𝒓  𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑬𝒚 = 𝑲 𝟑ൗ
𝒓𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 𝟐

 
rdx x
Ey =  K (r +x )
2 3/ 2
= Kr.
( )
2 1/ 2
r r +x
2 2 2
−
−

K x 2 K
= =
(
r r 2 + x2 )1/ 2
−
r
42
Example:
For  = 1 nC/m, and r = 2 m, find Er ?

➢For finite long line L = 4 m

2 K L/2 9 −9
Er = . 1/ 2 =
2 * 9 *10 *1 *10 2
r (r + ( L / 2) )
. 1/ 2
2 2 2 (8)
= 9 x 0.706 = 6.35 N/C
➢For infinite long line L =
9 −9
2 K 2 * 9 *10 *1*10
Er = = = 9 N/C
r 2
9/1/2021 44
 Electric Field due to Uniformly Distributed Arc Charges
Semi-Circle dEy = −dE sin 
dQ = dl
KdQ KRd Kd
= RdƟ =− 2
sin  = − 2
sin  = − sin 
R R R
K K
 
Ey =  − sin d = −  sin d
0
R R 0

K
= . (cos )
R 0
2 K
=−
Note: Electric field strength at the center of R
a complete circle will be zero.
For R =5 m, and = 1 nC/m

2 * 9 *10 9 *10 −9
E = = 3.6 N/C
9/1/2021
5 45
 Electrical Potential due to Infinite Line Charge

The Potential difference between two points P1, P2 at

distances a, b along a line that is a perpendicular to the
infinite line of charge, where a < b
b
Va − b =  Er . dr
9/1/2021 a 46
 b
Va − b =  Er . dr
a

2 K
Since Er of an infinite line charge =
r
Then:
b
2 K
b b
1
Va − b =  dr = 2K  dr = 2K . ln r
a
r a
r a

= 2 K . (ln b - ln a)
= 2 K . ln b/a
9/1/2021 47
Example: Calculate the Capacitance C between two concentric, equally and
oppositely-charged lines

C=Q/V

2k
b b b
1
V =  Er dr =  dr = 2k  dr = 2 K . ln (b/a)
a a
r a
r
  2
C per unit length = = = ε = ε0 × εr
V 2k. ln( b / a) ln( b / a)
9/1/2021 48
 Table of Commonly Used Integrals:

 dx = x + C  sin xdx = − cos x + C

n +1
x
 dx = n + 1 + C
x n
 cos xdx = sin x + C
b b
1
a x dx = ln x = ln b - ln a = ln b/a  tan xdx = − ln cos x + C = ln sec x + C
a

L/2
L/2
dx x
 (r 2
+x )
2 3/ 2
=
(
r r +x
2 2
)
2 1/ 2  sec(x) tan( x)dx = sec(x) + C
0 0

9/1/2021 13
See You Next Lecture
 Part 3. Magnetism

3.1 Magnetic Force and Magnetic Field

9/1/2021 1
 Electric Field & Magnetic Field
• Electric forces acting at a ❑ Magnetic forces acting at a distance
distance through Electric field through Magnetic field.
Vector field E. Vector field B, H.

• Source: electric charge. ❑ Source: moving electric charge, wire

carrying current, or magnetic
substance such as permanent magnet.

• Positive charge (+) and negative ❑ North (N) and south (S) pair of poles
charge (-). (no mono pole)

• Opposite charges attract, like ❑ Opposite poles attract, like poles repel.
charges repel.

• Electric field lines visualizing the ❑ Magnetic field lines visualizing the
direction and magnitude of E. direction and magnitude of B, H.
9/1/2021 2
Sources of magnetic Filed
• Permanent Magnet

• Moving Point Charge

• Wire Carrying Current

9/1/2021 3
 Magnetic field
• In physics, there are two different attributes of a magnetic field
B, H :
– B is the magnetic “field density“, measured in tesla (T)
– H is the "magnetic “field strength“, measured in (A/m).
• B and H are related by factor μ which is the magnetic
permeability of the medium (B = μ H)
- μo = 4π*10-7 for free space (H/m)
- μ = μo μr

9/1/2021
 Magnetic Force (Lorentz Force)
• The force exerted on a moving charge by a magnetic field is given by
the vector cross product:

→ → →
(N)
FB = q (v B )

• Right-hand rule determine the direction of magnetic force, the

direction of magnetic force FB is always perpendicular to both v and B.
• The magnitude of the magnetic force is given by:

FB = q(vB sin  )
9/1/2021
 → → →
FB = q (v B ) FB = q(vB sin  )

❑ The magnitude FB depends on q, v, B, and sinθ

❑ FB = 0 when the charge q moves parallel to the magnetic field vector

B, (θ = 0)

❑ The direction of FB is perpendicular to both B and v

❑ FB direction on a positive charge is opposite on a negative charge.

9/1/2021
 Motion of a point charge in a Uniform Magnetic Field
❑ FB never has a component parallel to v so it can not change the kinetic
energy of the charge q
❑ The force FB can change only the direction of movement of charge q.
❑ So, the q moves in a circle in a plane perpendicular to the B.

9/1/2021
 Magnetic Force on a Wire Carrying Current
❑ Moving charges with a drift velocity vd in a uniform (constant)
magnetic field B feel Lorentz force FB :
→ → →
F B = q vd  B
❑ Over a time period t required for the charge to traverse the length L of
→ → →
the wire, we have:
F B = (q / t ) vd t B
❑ Since q / t = i and v t = L, we can write:
→ → →
F B = i ( L B )
→
❑ The equation is known as the motor equation Where L is a vector
that points to the direction of i and has a length equal to │L│
9/1/2021 8
 → → →
F B = i ( L B )

9/1/2021 9
Torque on a Current Loop

9/1/2021 10
9/1/2021
• Magnetic Force on a Wire Carrying-Current (motor equation)
→ → →
F B = i L B
• Suppose the Initial position: Lines 2 and 4 are parallel to magnetic field B
lines, then:
F2 = F4 = iaB = 0, F1 = F3 = ibB, A = ab
→ → →
• Torque on one loop:
 = i A B
• Torque of an N loop coil of same area:
→ → →
 = Ni A B
9/1/2021
 See You Next Lecture

9/1/2021 13
 Part 3. Magnetism

3.1 Magnetic Force and Magnetic Field

(Continue)

9/1/2021 1
 Magnetic Field Caused by Current
• As you may know, it is possible to make a magnet by winding wire
in a coil and running a current through the wire.
• From this and other experiments, it can be noticed that current
creates a magnetic field.
• The magnitude of the magnetic field B at a specified distance (r)
from a wire carrying current, depends on the current I, and falls
off as 1/r.
B∝I/r

9/1/2021
• To find the direction of the field, we use another right-hand rule:-
➢ Point your thumb in the direction of the current I; the way your
fingers of your right-hand wrap is the direction of the magnetic field.

9/1/2021
 Biot&Savart Law
• The magnetic field dB due to 
a current element (Segment) i ds

 m 0 i ( ds  rˆ)
dB =
4 r 2

m0 = permeability of free space

= 4 10 −7
T  m/A (H/m)

❖ Remember: Electrical field due to

a charge element dE = K dQ / R2
9/1/2021
 B due to a Long Straight Wire carrying current

Just add up all the contributions of the current
 m 0 i ( ds  rˆ)
❑ dB =
segments ds, keeping track of distance r: 4 r2
 m 0i  sin  ds
B = 2 dB = 
0 2 0 r 2

❑ Since sin θ = sin (π - θ) then:

m 0i  R ds
B=
2 0 ( R 2 + s 2 )3 / 2 R2 + s2
❑ So the integral becomes:

m 0i  s  m 0i
B=   =
2R  R 2 + s 2  0 2R

❑ The integral’s result is: m 0i

B=
9/1/2021
2R
 B at the Center of a Current Loop
❑ Symmetry indicates that R is constant  m0 i ds  rˆ
and θ is always 90 degree dB =
4 r 2
m 0i
2 loop
B= ds
4R
m 0i
B= 2  R
4R 2

m 0i
B=
2R
9/1/2021
 Force Between Two Parallel Current Lines
m 0i
❑ Recall that a wire carrying a current in B =
2R
a magnetic field feels a force.
❑ When there are two parallel wires
carrying current, the magnetic field
from one causes a force on the other.
❑ When the currents are parallel, the
two wires are pulled together.
❑ When the currents are anti-parallel,
the two wires are forced apart.   
FB = i( L  B)
9/1/2021
 m 0i
Ba at a distance d from Long Straight B =
Wire carrying current ia
2R
m 0ia
then Ba =
2 d

Force between two parallel currents

  
Fba = ib L  Ba
m 0ia ib L
Fba =   
2d FB = i( L  B)
9/1/2021
 Ampere’s Law

Ampere’s Law
B&S Law
 
m 0i
B =
2R
 B  ds = m0ienc
dot product

9/1/2021 9
❑ Ampere’s Law for magnetic fields is
analogous to Gauss’ Law for electric fields.
❑ Draw a closed “amperian loop” in any
shape around a system of current lines.

❑ Adding up the component of B along the
loop, for each loop element of length ds.
❑ The value of this integral is proportional
to the current enclosed by the loop.
 
 B  ds = m0ienc Ampere’s Law

dot product

9/1/2021 10
 B Outside Long Straight Wire carrying current
• We are free to draw an Amperian loop of any
shape, but since we know that the magnetic
field goes in circles around a wire, it is easier to
choose a circular loop of radius r > R.
• Then B and ds are parallel, and B is constant
on the loop, so:
 
 B  ds = B 2r = m0ienc  
• And solving for B gives our earlier expression.
 B  ds = m0ienc
Ampere’s Law
m 0i
B = outside a straight wire
2r
9/1/2021 11
 B Inside Long Straight Wire carrying current
• Because the current is evenly distributed over the
cross-section of the wire, it must be cylindrically
symmetric.
• So we again draw a circular Amperian loop
around the axis, of radius r < R.
• The enclosed current is less than the total
current, because some is outside the Amperian
loop, then the amount current enclosed is:
r 2

• so  ienc = i
 R 2
r2
 B  ds = B 2r = m 0ienc = m 0i 2 R
 m 0i 
B= 2 
r inside a straight wire
9/1/2021
 2R  12
 Solenoids
• One loop of wire has a magnetic field B at
its center:
m 0i
B=
2R
• We can make B stronger by simply adding
more loops. A many turn coil is called a
solenoid.
• We can use Ampere’s Law to calculate
B inside the solenoid.

Note: The field near the wires is still circular,

but farther away the field blend into a nearly constant field down the axis.
9/1/2021 13
❑ The coil magnetic field is constant inside
and zero outside (just like the capacitor Coil Length: L, Number of Turns: N
electrical field).
Turns Density: n = N/L
❑ Characterize the windings in terms of
number of turns per unit length, n.
❑ Each turn carries current i, so total current
enclosed over length h is i n h.
 
 B  ds = Bh = m0 ienc = m0 i n h
B = m0 i n
B inside a solenoid with Consider only section a b of the
N turns and length L
m0 i N Loop that has non-zero
contribution
B=
9/1/2021 L 14
• When we wrap our coil around like a doughnut, so Toroid
that it has no ends, it is called a toroid.
• Now the field wraps uniformly around in a circle.
• To calculate B inside, we draw an Amperian loop
parallel to the field, with radius r.
• If the coil has a total of N turns, then the Amperian
loop encloses current = N i.
 
 B  ds = B 2r = m0 ienc = m0 i N
m0 i N B inside toroid with N
B= turns and radius r
2 r
9/1/2021 15
 Table of Commonly Used Integrals:

 dx = x + C  sin xdx = − cos x + C

n +1
x
 dx = n + 1 + C
x n
 cos xdx = sin x + C
b b
1
a x dx = ln x = ln b - ln a = ln b/a  tan xdx = − ln cos x + C = ln sec x + C
a

L/2
L/2
dx x
 (r 2
+x )
2 3/ 2
=
(
r r +x
2 2
)
2 1/ 2  sec(x) tan( x)dx = sec(x) + C
0 0

9/1/2021 16
 See You Next Lecture

9/1/2021 17
 Part 3. Magnetism

3.2 Electromagnetic induction and

Magnetic Circuits

9/1/2021 1
 Electromagnetic Induction
• Current produces Magnetic Field.
• Does Magnetic Field produce Current?

9/1/2021 2
 Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
Farady’s Law of Induction
“A voltage (Electro Motive Force emf) is induced in a circuit whenever
relative motion exists between a conductor and a magnetic field, and
the magnitude of this voltage (emf) is proportional to the rate of
change of the flux”.

Lenz’s Law of Direction

“The direction of the induced current is such that to produce a
magnetic field that opposes the source magnetic field” .

9/1/2021 3
 Mutual Inductance
• If two coils are placed near to each other, a changing current in one coil will
induce an EMF (E) in the other coil

• From Faraday’s law, the EMF E2 induced in coil2, is proportional to the rate of
change of the magnetic flux passing through it.

E2 
d 2,1 dI1
E2  dt
9/1/2021 dt 4
 d 2,1 dI 1
E2 = C E2 = C'
dt dt
• Constant C is defined by the number of turns in coil2: N2
• Constant C’ is defined as the Mutual Inductance M2,1

Fraday’s Law:
d 2,1 dI 1
E2 = N 2 and E 2 = M 2,1
dt dt
• If we equate the two right hand sides, we get the Mutual Inductance
M2,1 N
M 2,1 =
2 B2 ,1

I1
Where N 2  B2 ,1 is the total flux in coil2 in Weber (Wb)
9/1/2021 5
• The reverse situation can also take place when a change in
current in coil2 induces an EMF into coil1
• The mutual inductances M1,2 = M2,1 so that :
dI 2 dI1
1 = − M and 2 = −M
dt dt
• the SI Units for mutual inductance is the Henry (H)

• The negative sign indicates that the direction of the induced

current is such that to produce a magnetic field that opposes
the source magnetic field (Lenz Law).

9/1/2021 6
 Self Inductance
• The concept of inductance applies also to a single coil of N turns
• When a changing current passes through a coil, a changing
magnetic flux is inducing in the coil, that induces an EMF (E) in the
same coil.
• The induced EMF E, due to the self-inductance L of the coil is by
Faraday’s Law:

d B dI
 = −N = −L
dt dt
9/1/2021 7
 • So: N B
L=
I
A
 = B  A =  0 NI B inside Solenoid (coil)
l

A
• Then: L = 0 N 2

l
Note :
The coil inductance L depends on the coil geometry and the
medium

9/1/2021 8
 Magnetic Circuits
Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

V >>> MMF = N i [A- turns]

i >>> φ [Wb]

i = V/R >>> φ = MMF / R

9/1/2021 R = ρ l/ A >>> R = l /μ A [A- turns/ Wb]
 Electric Circuit vs Magnetic Circuit
Electric Circuit
EMF is the driving force in the
electric circuit. The unit is volts.
There is a current I in the electric
circuit which is measured in
amperes.
Resistance (R) oppose the flow of
the current.
The unit is Ohm
9/1/2021
Magnetic Circuit
MMF is the driving force in the
magnetic circuit. The unit is
ampere-turns.
There is flux φ in the magnetic
circuit which is measured in the
weber.
Reluctance (R) is the oppose to the
flux in magnetic path. The Unit is
ampere-turn /weber.
 Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
R = l/ (μ A).
R = ρ. l/A.
Directly proportional to l. Inversely
Directly proportional to l.
proportional to A Inversely
Inversely proportional to A.
proportional to
Depends on nature of material ρ.
μ = μ0μr.

The current I = The Flux φ =

EMF/ Resistance MMF/ Reluctance
A Wb
Energy must be supplied to the Energy is required to create the
electric circuit to maintain the magnetic flux but is not required to
flow of current. maintain it.

9/1/2021
 Magnetic Field (B, H) & Magnetic Flux (Φ)

Magnetic Field strength H H = MMF/l = Ni/l [A/meter]

(l = path length in meters)
Magnetic Flux Density B B = μH [T] Tesla
B = Φ/A [Wb/m2]
Magnetic Flux Φ Φ=B.A [Wb] weber
Φ = mmf/R = NI / (l/μA)
R: magnetic path reluctance
l: magnetic path length
A: magnetic path cross-section area
9/1/2021
 Properties of Magnetic Circuits

• Coils are sources of Magneto Motive Forces (Manipulated

as source voltages in electric Circuits)
• Reluctances in series or parallel can be treated as those
of resistors in Electric circuits.
• Can be applied to Unsymmetrical Magnetic Cores with
Multiple Coils.

9/1/2021 14
 Example 1

9/1/2021 Calculate Ø
Answer:
• μ = μ0μr=(4π* 10-7) *2500 = 31.4 10-6 H/m
• R=l/μA
• l1 =l3 = 45 cm, A1 =150 cm2, A3 =100 cm2
• l2 =l4 = 42.5 cm, A2 =A4 =150 cm2
• Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R + R
3 4

= l1/μ.A1 + l2/μ.A2 + l3/μ.A3 + l4/μ.A4

= 41900 A-turn/Wb
• Flux Φ = mmf/Rtotal
• = NI/Rtotal = 200/41900 = 4 mWb
9/1/2021
 Example 2

Agap=1.05 Acore Bgap =0.5 T

9/1/2021 Calculate Ø, I
 Answer:
• For Bgap = 0.5 T
• Bgap = Φ/Agap
• 0.5 = Φ / (1.05)(12* 10-4)
• Φ = 6.3 * 10-4 Wb
(Φ is constant in both core & gap)

• Φ = mmf / total reluctance

• Φ = N I / Rtotal
• I = Φ Rtotal / N
9/1/2021
 • μc = μ0μr= 4000 *4π* 10-7 = 5*10-3 H/m
• R=l/μA
• Rc = lc/μc Ac = 66300 A-turn/Wb
• Rg = lg/μ0 Ag = 316000 A-turn/Wb
• Rtotal = Rc + Rgap = 38.23 * 104 A-turn/Wb
• I = Φ Rtotal / N
• = 6.3 * 10-4 * 38.23 * 104 / 400
• = 0.602 A

9/1/2021
 See You Next Lecture

9/1/2021 20
 Part 4
Circuit Analysis
4.1 Circuit Elements, Ohm’s Law, KCL, and KVL
4.2 Circuit Analysis Methods
4.2.1 Node Voltage Analysis
4.2.2 Mesh Current Analysis
4.2.3 Superposition Analysis
4.2.4 Thevenin’s and Norton theorems
4.3 RLC Circuits
9/1/2021 1
 Circuit Elements
❑ Electrical circuits consist of various types of circuit elements
connected by conductors.
❑ The circuit elements can be resistors, inductors, capacitors, and
electrical Voltage and current sources
❑ Voltage and current sources are:
➢ independent sources : maintain a specified value, independent
of other elements of the circuit.
➢dependent sources : its value is a function of other source
❑Examples of independent and dependent current and voltage
sources are shown in the next slide
9/1/2021 2
 Independent Current Sources Independent Voltage Sources

dependent Current Sources dependent Voltage Sources

9/1/2021 3
 Resistor
• The geometry of the resistor and its material influence its
resistance value: R = ρL / A, in ohms (Ω)
➢ ρ is the resistively of the material, in ohm meters (Ωm)
➢ L and A are the resistor’s length
and cross section area respectively

• Voltage-Current relation
V = iR , i =V/R
• Power consumption
P = v i or i 2 R or v 2 / R in watt (W)
• The conductance of a resistor is the inverse of its Symbol
resistance value G=1/R [Mho Ʊ or Siemens S]
9/1/2021 4
 Resistivity (Ωm) values of selected materials at (300o K)
❑ Conductors High conductivity (Low Resistivity)
➢ Aluminum 2.73 x 10-8
➢ Carbon (amorphous) 3.5 x 10-5
➢ Copper 1.72 x 10-8
➢ Gold 2.27 x 10-8
➢ Nichrome 1.12 x 10-6
➢ Silver 1.63 x 10-8
➢ Tungsten 5.44 x 10-8

❑ Semiconductors Moderate conductivity/resistivity

➢ Silicon (device grade) 10-5 to 1 Dependent on the impurity concentration

❑ Insulators Low conductivity (High Resistivity)

➢ Fused Quartz > 1021
➢ Glass (typical) 1 x 1012
➢ Teflon 1 x 1019

9/1/2021 5
 Practical Applications (Strain Gauge)
1. Using resistance to measure strain
❑ Strain (ε) is defined as fractional change in length, given by:
ε = ∆L / L
❑ As Strain is applied, the length and area change, resulting in changes in the resistance :
R = ρL / A
❑ The Strain and the change in resistance are related by the gauge factor:
G = (∆R / R) /(∆L / L) = ∆R / R ε
R is the resistance of the gauge before strain
❑ Then ε = ∆R / R G
Resistive strain gauge consists of:
nickel-copper alloy foil that is photo-etched
to obtain multiple conductors aligned with
the direction of the strain to be measured
9/1/2021 6
 2. Using Wheatstone bridge to measure unknown resistances
❑ For example, it is used to measure the resistances of strain gauges in
experimental stress studies, as follows:
❑R2 and R3 are adjusted until
the meter indicates zero current.

Gauge

❑In this condition, we say that the bridge is balanced, then the current
ig and the voltage difference vab are zero.

9/1/2021 7
 ❑Applying KCL at node a and node b, we have:
➢ i1 = i3 and i2 = i4
➢ As vab = 0, the potential of the point a equals the
potential of the point b yielding:
i1 R1 = i2 R2 and i3 R3 = i4 Rx
➢As i1 = i3 and i2 = i4 then R1 / R3 = R2 / Rx
➢Or Rx = R2R3 / R1

❑ Rx represents the unknown resistance of the strain

gauge after applying the stress.

9/1/2021 8
 Capacitor
• A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an
insulator (or dielectric).
A
C =ε
d
 =  r 0
 0 = 8.854  10 −12
(F/m)

Current _ Voltage
Relation

t2

Energy stored w =  p ( t ) dt
Symbol 2 t
W=½Cv J in Capacitor 1 P=i.v
9/1/2021 9
 Inductor
• An inductor is made of a coil of conducting wire
N2A N / L (turns density)
L= N . A (turns area)
l
 =  r 0
 0 = 4 10 (H/m)
−7

 : permeabili ty of the core

Voltage _Current
Relation
Symbol

t2

Energy stored w = 
• W=½Li2 J in Coil
t
1
p ( t ) dt
P=i.v
9/1/2021
10
 Reactance
❑As resistors have resistance R, Inductors and Capacitors have
reactance X, also in ohms (Ω)
❑We can think of the reactance as a frequency-dependent
resistance.
❑ There are two types of reactance
➢Inductive reactance XL
➢Capacitive reactance XC
❑Unlike resistors that dissipate energy in the form of heat
➢ Inductive reactance (XL) stores energy in the form of a
magnetic field
➢ Capacitive reactance (XC) stores energy in the form of an
electric field
9/1/2021 11
 ❑For sinusoidal voltage source V (t) = V0 sin(ωt):
➢ XL = ω L = 2 π f L
➢ XC = 1/ω C = 1/2 π f C
• ω: Angular velocity in radians per second (ω = 2πf)
• L: Inductance in henries
• C: Capacitance in farads
• f: Frequency in hertz
❑ For (f = 0)
➢ XL = 2 π f L = 0 Short circuit
➢ XC = 1/2 πf C =  Open circuit
❑For (f = )
➢XL = 2 π f L=  Open circuit
➢XC = 1/2 πf C = 0 Short circuit
9/1/2021 12
 Impedance
❑ The impedance Z describes the total opposition to the electrons flow
in AC circuit.
❑Z is complex value composed of two parts: the real part R and/or the
imaginary part X, in ohms (Ω)

Z = R + jX (Rectangular Form) Z = Z  (Polar Form or Phasor)

Z = R 2 + X 2 ,  = tan −1 ( X R )

R = Z cos( ) , X = Z sin ( )

❑ Where φ is the phase difference between:

➢ Voltage source V (t) = V0 sin(ωt), and
9/1/2021
➢ circuit Current I(t) = I0 sin(ωt ± φ) . 13
 ❑ For simple circuit with only one element connected to
the AC voltage source, the results are as follows:

9/1/2021 14
 ❑ For circuits which have more than one circuit
element connected in series, the results are:

9/1/2021 15
 Ohm’s Law
❑ The Ohm’s Law relates the voltage and the current by
v = i R , where the resistance “R“ is the constant of
proportionality, with a dimension of ohm Ω .

9/1/2021 16
 ❑ Ohm’s Law can also be used to determine the AC
voltages and currents in a circuit when impedances are
used: v = Z i, where “Z“ is the proportionality constant
in ohm Ω, for fixed frequency.
❑Note that:
➢ voltage and current are in phase if Z is resistive.
➢Voltage leads current by 90o if Z is inductive.
➢Voltage lags current by 90o if Z is capacitive.
Component Impedance Amplitude and Phase

Resistor ZR R R0 o
Inductor ZL j L L90 o
9/1/2021
Capacitor ZC − j (C ) 1 C  − 90 o 17
 Vector Representation of Impedance
Imaginary
+J
Complex Plane

XT

Real

𝒁= 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝑻 𝟐
-J φ = tan-1 (XT / R)

9/1/2021 18
 Kirchhoff’s Current & Voltage Laws
❑A node in an electric circuit is a point at which
two or more circuit elements are joined
together.
❑ A loop in an electric circuit is a closed path,
starting at one node, proceeding through
circuit elements, and returning to the same
node.
❑ A mesh is a loop, that has no inner (nested)
loops inside it.

9/1/2021 19
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
❑ KCL states that the total flow of current into a node is
zero. In other words the sum of currents entering a
node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving this
node.

• At node “a”: i1 + i2 – i3 = 0 or i1 + i2 = i3
• At node “b“: i3 – i4 = 0 or i3 = i4
• At node “c“: i5 + i6 + i7 = 0.
9/1/2021 20
 Currents’ reference Directions
❑ To know the direction of flow of currents, it is possible
to assume the direction based on first guess and then
be sure of the direction by analysis.
❑A convenient way is to give currents entering a node a
positive value, and currents leaving a node a negative
value.
❑ After the analysis the positive values of the currents
indicate the correct guessed directions, and the
negative values indicate the reversal of the direction.

9/1/2021 21
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
❑ KVL states that : the algebraic sum of the voltages
for any closed path (loop) in an electric circuit equals
to zero

• Loop 1 Equation: - va +vb + vc = 0

• Loop 2 Equation : -vc - vd + ve = 0
• Loop 3 Equation : -va + vb - vd + ve = 0
9/1/2021 22
 ❑In moving around a loop we encounter various
voltages, some with positive sign while others with
negative sign
❑ A convenient way is to use the first polarity mark
encountered for each voltage to decide if it is positive
or negative in the algebraic sum, as follows:
➢ Going from positive polarity to negative polarity, the
voltage is added.
➢ Going from negative polarity to positive polarity , the
voltage is subtracted.

9/1/2021 23
 Conservation of Energy related to Kirchhoff’s Law
❑ At any time the sum of the powers in all the circuit
elements must be zero: Pa + Pb + Pc = 0, otherwise more power is
absorbed (consumed) than the power supplied (delivered) to the
circuit.
❑The Power in each element is given by:
➢In Element “ A “ Pa = va i
➢in Element “ B “ Pb = - vb i
➢in Element “ C “ Pc = vc i

❑Then va i - vb i + vc i = 0, and va - vb + vc = 0 (which is KVL)

❑ So we can check our results for currents and voltages by checking
that: the power adds to zero for all the elements.
❑ Thus element “B” with negative power must be a “battery” supplying
9/1/2021 power to the circuit 24
Series and Parallel Resistances
❑ Series connection of resistances means that the same current flows in all
of them.

➢ The KVL yielding the relation: v = v1 + v2 + v3

v = R1 i + R2 i + R3 i = ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) i = Req i
➢ Then Req = R1 + R2 + R3
9/1/2021 25
❑ Parallel connection of resistances means that the same voltage exists
across all of them

The KCL yielding the relation: i = i1 + i2 + i3

v v v 1 1 1 v
i = + +
R1 R2 R3
= v[ R + R + R ] = Req
1 2 3
1
➢Then Req =
9/1/2021
1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 26
 Voltage divider and Current divider Circuits
❑When a voltage is applied to a series combination of resistances, a fraction
of that voltage appears across each of the resistances.
❑When a current is flowing into a parallel combination of resistors, a
fraction of the that current flows through each of the resistances.
Voltage Division Current Division

vx = i . Rx ix = v / Rx
9/1/2021
vx = (vtotal / Req) . Rx ix = (itotal . Req) / Rx
27
 See You Next Lecture

9/1/2021 28
 Part 4
Circuit Analysis

4.2 Circuit Analysis Methods

4.2.1 Node Voltage Analysis
4.2.2 Mesh Current Analysis
4.2.3 Superposition Analysis
4.2.4 Thevenin’s and Norton theorems
4.3 RLC Circuits

9/1/2021 1
 Node Voltage Analysis
❑ The strategy of node voltage analysis is as follows:
1. Identify all nodes in the circuit and select a reference
node
2. Assign a voltage to each node, and a current to each
branch
3. For each unknown node, write KCL Equation in Terms
of the node Voltages (using Ohm’s low i = v/R).
4. Solve the resulting set of algebraic equations to
determine the unknown node Voltages, and use Ohm’s
low to determine the branch currents .

9/1/2021 2
 Example
❑ Steps 1&2

1. Identify all nodes in the circuit

and select a reference node
2. Assign a voltage to each node,
and a current to each branch

9/1/2021 3
❑ Step 3: KCL for Nodes with unknown voltage value

Node 2: +i2 – i3 – i4 = 0

(v1-v2)/R2 - (v2-v3)/R3 - v2/R4 = 0

-8v2 + v3 = -50 Equation 1

Node 3: i1 + i3 – i5 = 0
(v1-v3)/R1 + (v2-v3)/R3 - v3/R5 = 0
v2 - 4v3 = -10 Equation 2
9/1/2021 4
❑ Step 4: Calculate each node voltage and branch current

❑ As the voltage at node1 v1 is known = vS (the value of source voltage).

❑ Now we have 2 equations in 2 unknown voltages: v2, v3
❑ Different methods can be used to solve a set of algebraic equations to
calculate the unknown node Voltages
❑ Then by using Ohm’s low we can calculate the unknown branches’ currents.
❑ After analysis, currents with positive signs have the right assumed
directions, and currents with negative signs have to be reversed.

9/1/2021 5
Solving the set of algebraic equations :
Equation 1: -8v2 + v3 = -50
Equation 2: v2 - 4v3 = -10
❑ Express it into Matrix Form [G][V]=[I] : *Standard Form
−8 1
1 −4 =
❑ Calculate the determinants of matrix : D, M1,and M2
|D| = −8
1 −4
1
= 32 - 1 = 31
|M1| = −50
−10
1
−4
= 200 + 10 = 210
−8 −50
|M2| = 1 −10
= 80 + 50 = 130
❑ V2 = |M1|/|D| = 210/31 = 6.77 V
❑ V3 = |M2|/|D| = 130/31 = 4.19 V
6
 Mesh Current Analysis

❑The strategy of mesh current analysis is as follows:

1. Identify meshes
2. Assign mesh currents (clockwise)
3. Apply KVL around each mesh
4. Solve the system of equations for unknown
currents

9/1/2021 7
Example

Step 1,2
1.Identify meshes
2.Assign mesh currents (clockwise)

9/1/2021 8
Step 3: Apply KVL around each mesh
❑The three unknown mesh currents i1, i2 and i3 are obtained from the solution of
the following three simultaneous KVL equations:
➢- vA + (i1 - i3 ) R2 + (i1 - i2) R3 = 0
➢ vB + i2 R4 + (i2 - i1 ) R3 = 0
➢ -vB + (i3 - i1 ) R2 + i3 R1 = 0
*Standard form [R][I]=[V]
➢(R2 + R3) i1 - R3 i2 - R2 i3 = vA
➢-R3 i1 + (R3 + R4) i2 = - vB
➢- R2 i1 + (R1+ R2) i3 = vB

Step 4: Given the values of voltages sources and resistors we can calculate
the unknown current as follows:
9/1/2021 9
 • [R][I]=[V]

D= M1 =

M2 = M3 =

9/1/2021 10
 Matlab Code:

❑ i1 = |M1|/|D| = | vA -R3 –R2; - vB (R3 +R4) 0;

vB 0 (R1+R2)| / |(R2 +R3) -R3 –R2; - R3 (R3 +R4)
0; -R2 0 (R1+R2)|
❑ i2 = |M2|/|D| = |(R2 +R3) vA –R2; - R3 -vB 0; -
R2 vB (R1+R2)| / |(R2 +R3) -R3 –R2; - R3 (R3
+R4) 0; -R2 0 (R1+R2)|
❑ i3 = |M3|/|D| = |(R2 +R3) -R3 vA; - R3 (R3 +R4)
-vB ; -R2 0 vB| / |(R2 +R3) -R3 –R2; - R3 (R3
+R4) 0; -R2 0 (R1+R2)|

9/1/2021 11
 Superposition Analysis
❑ The Superposition analysis finds the response of linear circuit to each
independent source acting alone, and then add them up to find the
response of the circuit to all sources acting together, as follows :
1. Turn off all independent sources except one. Find the output (voltage or
current) due to that active source.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total output by adding algebraically all the results found in steps
1 & 2 above

9/1/2021 12
 Turning sources off
Current source:
a
i = is We replace it by a current
is source where is  0 open-circuit

Voltage source:
+ We replace it by a voltage
source where v  0 short-circuit
DC
vs v = vs s
i
-
9/1/2021 13
❑ An Example: Find the Voltage Across R2

Circuit b (v1 due to vs):

v1 = vs R2/(R1+R2) = 5 V
Circuit c (v2 due to is):
v2 = is R1R2/(R1+R2) = 6.6 V
Total voltage:
vT = v1 + v2 = 11.6 V

9/1/2021 14
Superposition Application to voltage Adders
❑Output voltage Vo can be found by adding the contribution of
each input voltage Vi acting alone while the others are turned off
(shorted):
Vo1 = [v1 / (R1+ R2llRo)] * [R2llRo]

Vo2 = [v2 / (R2+ R1llRo)] * [R1llRo]

❑ Then
Vo = Vo1 + Vo2
*Remember : the total value of two parallel resistances
= their Product / their Sum
15
 Thevenin’s and Norton theorems
❑ Thevenin’s and Norton theorems are techniques that
replaces everything in a linear circuit, except for the load, by a
simple equivalent circuit that facilitates the analysis.
❑ Thevenin’s theorem:
States that: a two-terminal linear (one-port) circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of:
“voltage source VTh in series with resistor RTh”

9/1/2021 16
❑ VTh is the Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc) at the terminals a and b,
when the load RL is Opened (disconnected).
❑ RTh is the equivalent resistance at the terminals a and b, when
all independent sources are turned off.

9/1/2021 17
An Example

9/1/2021 18
❑Norton’s equivalent circuit can be found by: transforming the Thevenin
equivalent circuit into a current source in parallel with the Thevenin
resistance, as shown:
i a

VTh RL
IN = RN = RTh
RTh

❑It states that, a two-terminal linear (one-port) circuit can be replaced by an

equivalent circuit consisting of:
9/1/2021
“ Current source IN in parallel with a Resistor RN” 19
❑IN is the Short-Circuit Current (isc) through the terminals a and b, when the load
RL is Shorted.
❑RN is the equivalent resistance at the terminals a and b, when all independent
sources are turned off.

❑Thevenin’s and Norton theorems can also be applied to AC circuits by

replacing Vth or IN by an AC source, and Rth or RN by and impedance Z .

Thevenin’s equivalent Norton’s equivalent

9/1/2021 20
 RLC Circuits

9/1/2021 21
 Resistance R (Ω) Reactance X (Ω)
Frequency Independent Frequency Dependent

R XL = j ωL XC = 1 / j ωC
ω = 2пf ω = 2пf

Impedance (Ω)
Z=R+jX Rectangular Form
Z = Z  Polar Form

Z = R 2 + X 2 ,  = tan −1 ( X R )
Ф (Angle between v and i ) = 0 o Resistance
= 90 o Inductance
9/1/2021 =-90 o Capacitance 22
AC Steady State Analysis using impedance method (phasors)

Vs = 100 V, ω = 2πf = 500 rad/s, Ø = 30°

R = 100 Ω , L= 0.3 H, C= 40 pF

ZR = R = 100 Ω

ZL = XL = j ωL = j500 × 0.3 = j150 Ω

= 40 pF
ZC = XC = -j (1/ωC)

= -j (1/ 500 × 40 × 10-6 ) = -j50 Ω

Vs = Vm cos (ω t + Ø)
Vs = Vm ∠ Ø phasor form
9/1/2021 = 100 ∠ 30° 23
• Zeq = ZR + ZL + ZC = 100 + j150 - j50 = 100 + j 100
= Phasor Form
• i = Vs / Zeq = = Phasor Form

• i(t) = 0.707 cos (500t - 15°) Time Function

Voltage across each element

• VR = ZR × i = = = 70.7 cos (500 t - 15)
• VL = ZL × i = = = 106.1 cos (500 t + 75)
• VC = ZC × i = = = 35.4 cos (500 t - 105)

9/1/2021 24
 Phasor Diagram

9/1/2021 25
 1st Order RC and RL Circuits

9/1/2021 26
 Resistor R (Ω) Inductor L (H) Capacitor C (F)

R = ρ l / A (Ω) L = µ N 2 A/I (H) C = ε A/d (F)

V=iR vL = L (di/dt) ic = C (dV/dt)

P=vi (W) W = ½ L i 2 (j) W = ½ C v 2 (j)

9/1/2021 27
 DC Transient Analysis of RC Circuit
Case 1: Discharge of the Capacitor
Note:
C prevents instantaneous
change in voltage, then
Vc0- = Vc0+ = Vc initial
KCL at the top Node joining R and C
i R+ i C = 0
Vc /R + C dVc /dt = 0
Vc + RC (dVc /dt) = 0 1st order diff. eq.
Assumed Solution: vc (t) = K e s t
➢We get k from the circuit initial conditions,
Then K = vc (0) = vc initial
➢We get s by substituting the assumed
Solution in the 1st order diff. eq.
K e s t + RC K s e s t = 0
K e s t (1+ RC s) = 0
RC s + 1 = 0 Thus s = - 1/RC
vc (t) = vci e - t / RC RC = Ʈ
 Natural (Source Free) Response of RC circuit
e = 2.71828

vc (t) = Vci e - t / Ʈ

Steady States:
At t = 0, vc = vi & At t =  , vc = 0
9/1/2021 29
Case2: Charging a Capacitor
KVL around the loop

-Vs + i R + VC = 0
-Vs + (C dVC /dt) R + VC = 0
VC + RC (dVC /dt) = Vs 1storder diff. eq.
Vc initial = 0 Vc Final = Vs
Assumed Solution vc (t) = K1+ K2 e s t
Where K1 = Vc Final and K2 = Vc initial - Vc Final

K1 = Vs K2 = -Vs s = - 1/RC
vc (t) = VS - VS e – t / RC
RC = Ʈ
vc (t) = VS (1 - e – t / RC )
9/1/2021 30
 Step (Forced) Response of RC Circuit

vc (t) = VS (1 - e – t / Ʈ )

Steady States:
At t = 0, vc = 0 & At t = , vc = vs
9/1/2021 31
 Low Pass RC Filter Transient Analysis in LabVIEW Design Environment
KVL around the loop
-Vs + i R + VC = 0
R
-Vs + (C dVC /dt)R + VC = 0
vR (t ) VC + RC (dVC/dt) = Vs 1storder diff. eq.
+ C vc (t )
vs (t ) - With time interval ∆t, and with a value of
i (t ) variables after n time intervals we get the
following input-output difference equation:
Vi = Vs , Vo = Vc
Vi = Vo + (RC/∆t) ∆Vo
Vi n = Vo n + (RC/∆t) (Vo n - Vo n-1)

Yielding to the following digital equations for voltage and current:

Vo n = Vi n/[1 + (RC/∆t)] + Vo n-1{(RC/∆t)/[1 + (RC/∆t)]} = K Vi n+ K1 Vo n-1
I n = (Vi n - Vo n) / R
32
 Graphical G-Code for the RC Filter v & i digital equations
Vo n = K Vi n + K1 Vo n-1

Von
Vo n-1

LabVIEW MMI

Vo n = K Vi n + K1 Vo n-1

K =1/[1 + (RC/∆t)] K1=(RC/∆t)/[1 + (RC/∆t)]

I n = (Vi n - Vo n) / R

9/1/2021 33
 LabVIEW v & i Curves

9/1/2021 34
 • The same process used in the previous low pass RC filter can be
applied to high pass RC filter, and low pass and high pass RL filters
• For RL filters, the results are the same as for RC filters, just replace RC
by L/R ( both represent Ʈ )
Note:
• The analysis in the previous RC filter is done in time domain,
representing voltage and current as a function of time.
• To represent the concept of filtering, the analysis should be done in
Frequency domain, to illustrate the filter’s transfer function (Vout/Vin)
as a function of the source frequency, as shown in the next slide

9/1/2021 35
 AC Steady State Analysis of RC Low Pass Filter
Low Pass Filter tends to pass low-frequency components and reject high-
frequency components
Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis is done in frequency
domain to determine the filter’s Transfer Function
(Vout/Vin) as a function of the source frequency ω, as
follows:
Using linear circuit analysis methods, we get:
𝑿𝑪 = 𝟏/𝒋𝛚𝑪
𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒊𝒏
Vout = 𝑹 + 𝑿 . 𝑿𝑪 = 𝑹ൗ
= 𝑽𝒊𝒏 / (1 + j ωRC )
𝑪
𝑿𝑪 + 𝟏

Then Transfer Function H(ω) : (𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 / 𝑽𝒊𝒏 ) = 1 / (1 + j ωRC )

9/1/2021 36
 RC Filter Transfer Tunction:
H(ω) = (Vout / Vin) = 1 / (1 + j ωRC)
• Defining ωc as the cut-off frequency of the filter: ωc = 1/RC
• The transfer function H(ω) will be: H(ω) = 1/ [1+ j (ω/ωc)]

9/1/2021 37
 Good Luck

9/1/2021 38