Essays and paragraphs

Structure of an essay:
1- Introduction: [from general to specific]
- The hook (attracts readers’ attention).
- Details.
- Thesis statement (sums up the whole topic of the essay).
2- The body:
- Topic sentence (sums up the idea of the paragraph itself).
- Details arguments illustrations.
3- Conclusion:
- Sums up the idea of the essay (in general).
- Reformulate the thesis statement.

Structure of a paragraph:
- Introductory sentence (topic sentence).
- Details.
- Concluding sentence.

∗ What needs to be taken into account when writing:

1- Objectivity.
2- Write “he is” instead of “he’s”.
3- Capitalization full stops.
4- Coherence and cohesion.

Coherence (meaning) → flow of ideas

Cohesion (structure) → correctness of language (grammar, lexis)
 Reading task

HISTORY OF ENGINEERING
Since the early times of mankind, man has been searching for a better living and it is due
to his spirit for fighting that he has gone a long way in Engineering. In this manner the wheel
appeared as one of the engineering achievements of primitive man.
Some of the first evidences of engineering works were the Great Egyptian Pyramids in
the third century B.C., other works of the time are the Great Chinese Rampart and constructions,
roads and hydraulic works of Babylon. Some centuries later, the architectural works and roads
from Greeks and Romans, the magnificent Gothic cathedrals in Europe in the Middle Ages from
XIII to XVI centuries and the Incan and Mayan pyramids and aqueducts in America probably built
between the X and XV centuries are beautiful examples of the above stated.
However formal engineering, as we know it now, appeared in the last part of the XVIII
Century in France with Napoleon Bonaparte, who developed military strategies based on time
and motion studies, had to construct bridges, roads and fortifications, that enabled him to get
his conquests. Almost at the same time in England Civil Engineering came out, which is the
oldest engineering branch applied to build edifications and other works that were necessary for
the development of society in peaceful times. Later in 1775, the industrial revolution emerged
in this country, which brought up the invention of machinery for production of goods and
transportation, this was the origin of Mechanical Engineering. One century later, the search for
new and better goods gave birth to Chemical Engineering. At the same time, Electrical
Engineering came with the inventions of Thomas Alva Edison in the United States; and Industrial
Engineering based on Frederick W. Taylor theories in the last part of the XIX Century.

Nowadays, Engineering has a multitude of branches in several specialized fields and it has been
developing very fast. Everyday new and sophisticated equipment seek to help man in his
struggle for making a more happy and lasting life. Some examples of this are the great
communication systems by satellite, the atomic energy, computers, solar energy utilization, the
great space ships, biomedical Engineering, the submarine train that connects Great Britain with
Europe, and so on. All these engineering works have been possible thanks to the spirit that man
has within himself and moves him to obtain the best from his intelligence.

1- Introduction:
∗ Hook. ✓
∗ Details. (weak)
∗ Thesis statement. X
⟹ Not academic
2- Body paragraphs:
∗ Topic sentence. X
∗ Details. (weak)
3- Conclusion: X

- Objectivity X
- Punctuation X
- Formality ✓
- Coherence ✓ Cohesion X
 The Conditional

Type 0: (Facts) [If + Present Simple = Present Simple]

- If you do not brush your teeth, you get cavities.

- If people smoke cigarettes, their health declines.

Type 1: (Possibilities) [If + Present = Future Simple]

- If you rest, you will feel better.

- If you set your mind to a goal, you will achieve it.

- Tom: I think I left my lighter in your house. Have you seen it?

Ann: No, but I will have a look. If I find it, I will give it to you.

Type 2: (Unreal situations) [If + Past Simple = would + Infinitive]

- If I found 100$ in the street, I would keep it.

- If I owned a zoo, I would let people interact with animals more.

Type 3: (Regrets) [If + Past Perfect = would have + Past Participle]

- If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

Other rules:

- If I lived out of town, I could take up gardening. Type 2

- They might have found a better hotel if they had driven a few more kilometres. Type 3

“Could Might Should” can be used instead of “Would” in the unreal conditionals (Types 2 3).

- If he were to have a chance of success, he would need to move to London. Type 2

→ If he had a chance of success, he would need to move to London.

“Were + Infinitive” can be added in the “If clause” (Type 2).

- If you happen to be in our area, drop in and see us. Type 1

→ If you are in our area, you will drop in and see us.

“Happen to” can be used in the “If clause” (Type 1).

- There will be no chance of you getting the job unless you apply. Type 1

→ If you do not apply, there will be no chance of you getting the job.

- You cannot travel on this train unless you have a reservation. Type 1

“Unless” is used in the real conditional (Type 1) with the meaning “If not”.
Exercises:
Exercise 100.1: Choose from these verbs to complete the sentences, using each verb once only.
catch – fail – like – know – win – understand
If possible, use the pattern were + to-infinitive. If this is not correct, use the past simple form of the verb.

1. If the police were to catch him, he’d spend at least five years in prison.
2. If they failed to reach their target, the order would be lost.
3. If I knew how to contact Mike, I’d get in touch with him today.
4. If she were to win the next four races, she would be world champion.
5. If I were to understand how it worked, I’d explain it to you.
6. If you liked his first film, I’m sure you’d enjoy this one, too.

Exercise 100.3: Are the underlined parts of the sentences correct? Correct the ones that are wrong.

1. If they will get married, they'll probably move to France. If they get married…………
2. If it will make you happy, we'll buy a dishwasher. If it makes you happy…………
3. If you will send me a copy of your previous letter, I will reply immediately. If you send me…………
4. If some extra money will help, take this £200. If some extra money helps…………
5. If anyone will ask for me, I'll be in the café. If anyone asks for me…………
6. If he will continue to improve, he should be out of hospital next week. If he continues…………

Exercise 100.4: Make these requests and suggestions more polite. Begin with “If you would…”.

1. Excuse me. I have to make a telephone call.

If you would excuse me, I have to make a phone call.
2. Leave your name and telephone number. I’ll call you back as soon as I can.
If you would like to leave your name and telephone number, I’ll call you back as soon as I can.
3. Stay here until I return. I’d appreciate it.
If you would stay here until I return, I’d appreciate it.

Exercise 100.5: If possible, rewrite the underlined parts of these sentences with happen to. If it is
not possible, write X after the sentence.

1. If you see Ken, tell him that I'd like to see him. If you happen to see Ken…………
2. If you are at home on Monday evening, you must see the TV programme on Korea. If you
happen to be at home on Monday evening…………
3. If computers could think like humans, then more people would lose their jobs. X
4. If I am in New York in December, we must meet up. If I happen to be in New York …………
5. It's delicious - if you like very sweet things. It’s delicious - if you happen to like very sweet things.
6. The world would be very different today if the aeroplane had been invented in 1800. X
Exercise 101.1: Write a new sentence with the same meaning. Use unless in your answer and begin
with the word given.

1. I have to telephone Mike tonight or he'll sell the car to someone else.
Unless I telephone Mike tonight, he'll sell the car to someone else.
2. The hospital must get more money or it will close. Unless…
Unless the hospital gets more money, it will close.
3. You should keep medicines in the fridge only if it is necessary. You…
You shouldn’t keep medicines in the fridge unless it is necessary.
4. Speak to her only if she speaks to you first. Don't…
Don’t speak to her unless she speaks to you first.
5. It must rain within the next week, or water supplies will be cut off. Unless…
Unless it rains within the next week, water supplies will be cut off.
 Reports and abstracts

What is a report?
An account given of a particular matter (giving a spoken or a written account of something that
one has observed, heard or investigated).
What is an abstract?
A good abstract provides an overview of the research paper (100-150 words).
Structure of a report:
A report can be written in a form of:
- One single paragraph.
- Multiple paragraphs (with no titles on).
- Multiple paragraphs (with titles on).
Structure of an abstract:
There are two types of abstracts:
- Unstructured abstract (a single paragraph [100-150 words]).
- Structured abstract (Divided into several paragraphs [no titles]).
Framework of a report:
A report contains:
- Title.
- Date and time.
- Problematic.
- Description of the situation.
- Results and recommendations.
Framework of an abstract:
A typical abstract contains:
- An overview of the study.
- The aim of the study.
- The methodology of the study.
- The findings of the study.
Questions that need to be answered before writing an abstract or a report:
- What?
- Who?
- Where?
- When?
- Why?
- How?