Symbols, terminology and units

The symbols used in this volume are, wherever possible, the same as
those in EN 1994 and in the Designers’ Guide to EN 1994-1-1. They are
based on ISO 3898:1987, Bases for design of structures – Notation –
General symbols. They are more consistent than those used in the British
codes, and more informative. For example, in design one often compares
an applied ultimate bending moment (an ‘action effect’ or ‘effect of action’)
with a bending resistance, since the former must not exceed the latter.
This is written

MEd ≤ MRd

where the subscripts E, d and R mean ‘effect of action’, ‘design’ and

‘resistance’, respectively.
For longitudinal shear, the following should be noted:

• v, a shear stress (shear force per unit area), with τ used for a vertical
shear stress;
• vL, a shear force per unit length of member, known as ‘shear flow’;
• V, a shear force (used also for a vertical shear force).

For subscripts, the presence of three types of steel leads to the use of ‘s’
for reinforcement, ‘a’ (from the French ‘acier’) for structural steel, and ‘p’
or ‘ap’ for profiled steel sheeting. Another key subscript is k, as in

MEd = γ F MEk

Here, the partial factor γ F is applied to a characteristic bending action

effect to obtain a design value, for use in a verification for an ultimate
limit state. Thus ‘k’ implies that a partial factor (γ) has not been applied,
and ‘d’ implies that it has been. This distinction is made for actions and
resistances, as well as for the action effect shown here.

xiii
xiv Symbols, terminology and units

Other important subscripts are:

• c or C for ‘concrete’;
• v or V, meaning ‘related to vertical or longitudinal shear’.

Terminology

The word ‘resistance’ replaces the widely-used ‘strength’, which is reserved

for a property of a material or component, such as a bolt.
A useful distinction is made in most Eurocodes, and in this volume,
between ‘resistance’ and ‘capacity’. The words correspond respectively to
two of the three fundamental concepts of the theory of structures, equilib-
rium and compatibility (the third being the properties of the material).
The definition of a resistance includes a unit of force, such as kN, while
that of a ‘capacity’ does not. A capacity is typically a displacement, strain,
curvature or rotation.

Cartesian axes
In the Eurocodes, x is an axis along a member. A major-axis bending
moment My acts about the y axis, and Mz is a minor-axis moment. This
differs from current practice in the UK, where the major and minor axes
are xx and yy, respectively.

Units
The SI system is used. A minor inconsistency is the unit for stress, where
both N/mm2 and MPa (megapascal) are found in the codes. Similarly,
kN/mm2 corresponds to GPa (gigapascal). The unit for a coefficient of
thermal expansion may be given as ‘per °C’ or as ‘K−1’, where K means
kelvin, the unit for the absolute temperature scale.

Symbols

The list of symbols in EN 1994-1-1 extends over eight pages, and does
not include many symbols in clauses of other Eurocodes to which it
refers. The list can be shortened by separation of main symbols from
subscripts. In this book, commonly-used symbols are listed here in that
format. Rarely-used symbols are defined where they appear.

Latin upper case letters

A accidental action; area
B breadth
 Symbols, terminology and units xv

C factor
E modulus of elasticity; effect of actions; integrity criterion (fire)
F action; force
G permanent action; shear modulus
H horizontal load or force per frame per storey
I second moment of area; thermal insulation criterion (fire)
K stiffness factor (I/L); coefficient
L length; span; system length
M moment in general; bending moment
N axial force
P shear resistance of a shear connector
Q variable action
R resistance; response factor
S stiffness; width (of floor)
V shear force; vertical load per frame per storey
W section modulus; wind load
X property of a material
Z shape factor

Greek upper case letters

∆ difference in . . . (precedes main symbol)
Ψ combination factor for variable action

Latin lower case letters

a dimension; geometrical data; acceleration
b width; breadth; dimension
c outstand; thickness of concrete cover; dimension
d diameter; depth; effective depth
e eccentricity; dimension
f strength (of a material); natural frequency; coefficient; factor
g permanent action; gravitational acceleration
h depth of member
i radius of gyration
k coefficient; factor; property of composite slab; stiffness
l length; buckling length
m property of composite slab; mass per unit length; number
n modular ratio; number
q variable action
r radius; ratio
s spacing
t thickness
u dimension; perimeter
v shear stress; shear force per unit length
xvi Symbols, terminology and units

w crack width; load per unit length

x dimension to neutral axis; depth of stress block; co-ordinate along
member
y major axis; co-ordinate
K distance of excluded area from centre of area
z lever arm; dimension; co-ordinate

Greek lower case letters

α angle; ratio; factor
β angle; ratio; factor; coefficient
γ partial factor
δ steel contribution ratio; deflection
ε strain; coefficient
ζ critical damping ratio
η coefficient; degree of shear connection; resistance ratio (fire)
θ angle; slope; temperature
λ (or l if non-dimensional) slenderness ratio
µ coefficient of friction; ratio of bending moments; exponent (superscript)
υ Poisson’s ratio
ρ reinforcement ratio; density (unit mass)
σ normal stress
τ shear stress
φ diameter of a reinforcing bar; rotation; angle of sidesway
χ reduction factor (for buckling)
ϕ creep coefficient

Subscripts
A accidental; area; structural steel
a structural steel; spacing
b buckling; bolt; beam; bearing
C concrete
c compression; concrete; composite
cr critical
cu concrete cube
d design; dynamic
E effect of action
eff effective
e effective (with further subscript); elastic
el elastic
F action
f flange; full shear connection; front; finish (in hf); full
interaction
 Symbols, terminology and units xvii

fi fire
G permanent (referring to actions)
g centroid
H horizontal
h haunch
hog hogging bending
i index (replacing a numeral); thermal insulation
ini initial
j joint
k characteristic
L longitudinal (in vL, shear flow)
LT lateral-torsional
l (or
) longitudinal; lightweight-aggregate
M material; bending moment
m (allowing for) bending moment; mean; mass
max maximum
min minimum
N (allowing for) axial force
n number; neutral axis
o particular value
p profiled steel sheeting; point (concentrated) load; perimeter;
plastic
pa,pr properties of profiled sheeting (Section 3.3.1)
pl plastic
Q variable action
R resistance
r reduced; rib
rms root mean square
S reinforcing steel
s reinforcing steel; shear span; slab
sag sagging bending
sc shear connector
T tensile force
t tension; torsion; time; transverse; top; total
u ultimate
V shear
Vs shear (composite slab)
v vertical; shear; shear connection
w web
x axis along member
y major axis of cross-section; yield
z minor axis of cross-section
xviii Symbols, terminology and units

0, 1, 2, etc. particular values

0 combination value (in Ψ0); fundamental (in f0)
1 frequent value (in Ψ1); uncracked
2 quasi-permanent value (in Ψ2); cracked reinforced
0.05, 0.95 fractiles
 Introduction 1

Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Composite beams and slabs

The design of structures for buildings and bridges is mainly concerned

with the provision and support of load-bearing horizontal surfaces. Except
in some long-span structures, these floors or decks are usually made of
reinforced concrete, for no other material provides a better combination of
low cost, high strength, and resistance to corrosion, abrasion and fire.
The economical span for a uniform reinforced concrete slab is little
more than that at which its thickness becomes sufficient to resist the point
loads to which it may be subjected or, in buildings, to provide the sound
insulation required. For spans of more than a few metres, it is cheaper to
support the slab on beams, ribs or walls than to thicken it. Where the
beams or ribs are also of concrete, the monolithic nature of the construc-
tion makes it possible for a substantial breadth of slab to act as the top
flange of the beam that supports it.
At spans of more than about 10 m, and especially where the suscepti-
bility of steel to loss of strength from fire is not a problem, as in most
bridges, steel beams often become cheaper than concrete beams. It was at
first customary to design the steelwork to carry the whole weight of the
concrete slab and its loading; but by about 1950 the development of shear
connectors had made it practicable to connect the slab to the beam, and so
to obtain the T-beam action that had long been used in concrete construc-
tion. The term ‘composite beam’ as used in this book refers to this type of
structure.
The same term is in use for beams in which prestressed and in situ
concrete act together; and there are many other examples of composite
action in structures, such as between brick walls and beams supporting
them, or between a steel-framed shed and its cladding; but these are
outside the scope of this book.
No income is received from money invested in construction of a multi-
storey building such as a large office block until the building is occupied.