SIGNAL CONDITIONING

❑Principles and operation

❑Divider circuit
❑Bridge circuit
Principles and operation
❑ Output signal from the sensor of a measurement system has to be
processed to make it suitable for display or use in control system.

❑ The reason for this are, signal may be:

➢ Too small and have to be amplified
➢ Analogue and have to be made digital
➢ Digital and have to be made analogue
➢ A resistance change and have to be made into a current change
➢ A voltage change and have to be made into a suitable size current
change
➢ A pressure change and have to be made into a current change
Principles of Signal conditioning
❑ Signal level and bias changes: Adjusting the magnitude level and bias
value of some voltage representing a process variable.

❑ Linearization : To provide an output that varies linearly with some

variable even if the sensor output is not linear.

❑ Conversions : Converting electrical variations into another form for

further processing e.g. signal transmission and digital control.

❑ Filtering and impedance matching : Filters unwanted signals and also

match line impedance with sensors impedance.

❑ Loading : Handle the effect of voltage drop at sensors output.

Signal Conditioning Circuit
Divider Circuit Bridge Circuit

Convert impedance
Convert resistance variations into
variation to a voltage voltage variations
variation

Wheatstone Bridge
Voltage Divider
❑ The elementary voltage divider can be
used to provide conversion of resistance
variation into a voltage variation.

❑ Objective: The primary purpose of this

circuit is to scale down the input voltage
to a lower value based on the ratio of
the two resistors.

❑ Voltage divider includes a voltage

source across a series of two resistors

𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
 Voltage Divider
The ohm’s law states that V=IR
From the above equation, we can get the following equations
V1 (t) =R1i (t)…………… (I)
V2 (t) =R2i (t)…………… (II)

From KVL (the algebraic sum of voltage around a closed path in a circuit is = 0)

-V (t) +V1 (t) +V2 (t) =0

V (t) = V1 (t) +V2 (t)

Therefore -> V (t) =R1i (t)+ R2i (t)= i(t)(R1+R2)

Hence -> i (t) = V (t) /R1+R2……………. (III)

Substituting III in I and II equations

V1 (t) = R1 (V(t) /R1+R2)

= V (t) (R1/R1+R2)
V2 (t) = R2 (V(t) /R1+R2)
= V (t) (R2/R1+R2)

The above circuit shows the voltage divided between the two resistors which is directly

proportional to their resistance.

Example 1
Find Vx
Example 2
Voltage across 100Ω resistance =

Voltage across 200Ω resistance =

Bridge Circuit
❑ In the real world we come across various signals, some of them are
measured by changes in resistance and some of them are with
inductance and capacitance.

❑ If we consider the resistance, most of the industrial sensors like

temperature, strain, humidity, displacement, liquid level, etc. produces
the change in value of the resistance for a variable change. Therefore,
there is a need for a signal conditioning for every resistance sensor.
The beginning of Wheatstone Bridge
❑ Developed around 1833 by Samuel Hunter Christie, then further studied,
analysed and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone over the next ten
years.

❑ The bridge solved the problem of measuring the resistance value of

unknown materials to high accuracy, in the days before the voltmeter (or
anything even close to it) even existed.
What is a Wheatstone bridge?
❑ The most common and simplest bridge network to find the resistance is the
DC Wheatstone Bridge.

❑ This bridge is used where small changes in resistance are to be measured

like in sensor applications. This is used to convert a resistance change to a
voltage change of a transducer.

❑ A Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors that are connected in the

shape of a diamond with the supply source and indicating instruments.
Wheatstone Bridge: Concept
❑ The basic bridge configuration, has four
resistors arranged in a diamond
configuration. Rx is the unknown resistance
to be measured, while R1, R2, and R3 are
known.

❑ When the ratio of R2/R1 (called the "known

leg") equals the ratio of the resistors in the
unknown leg, Rx/R3, there is no voltage
(potential difference) at the midpoint and
therefore the current flow due to the
excitation voltage is zero, which is easily
observed using the galvanometer.

At that point, the bridge is said to be at null

or in balance. Furthermore, the direction of
current flow indicates if R2 is high or low
compared to Rx. When the bridge is in
balance, R2/R1 = Rx/R3.
Wheatstone bridge circuit
Balance
Condition

𝑅2 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 𝑅𝑥 = 0

𝑅2 𝑅3 = 𝑅1 𝑅𝑥
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 0
𝑉𝑅2 𝑉𝑅𝑥
∆𝑉 = − 𝑅2 𝑅
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥
𝑅1 3

𝑅2 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 𝑅𝑥
∆𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑅2
(𝑅1 +𝑅2 )(𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑥 ) 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅3
𝑅1
Example 3
Determine the value of
unknown resistor, Rx in the
circuit, assuming a null
exist, current through the
galvanometer is zero.
Example 4
The following unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge is constructed.

A) Calculate the output voltage across points C and D

B) the value of resistor R4 required to balance the bridge circuit.

Wheatstone bridge Application
❑ The Wheatstone bridge is used for measuring the very low resistance
values precisely.

❑ Wheatstone bridge along with operational amplifier is used to measure

the physical parameters like temperature, strain, light.

❑ Can also measure the quantities capacitance, inductance and

impedance using the variations on the Wheatstone bridge.
Example 5
Rx = resistance of known or unknown
value in the sensing arm of the
Wheatstone Bridge.
Adjust the opposing resistor, R3 to
“balance” the bridge network.