BOT 101

(General Botany)
JEEM CARLO F. PULA,MS Bio
BS Biology Program
College of Arts and Sciences
University of Northern Philippines
 Evolution:

Early Plants to Higher

Plants
 Biological classification
•  Used to group and categorize organisms into groups such
as genus or species. These groups are known as taxa.

•  Think about classification that is used in everyday life

•  What would happen if grocery stores did not use a classification
system?
•  What about libraries, movie stores, department stores, etc.?

•  About 1.8 million species have been given scientific names

•  nearly 2/3 of these are insects

•  Total number of living species is estimated to be between 13

and 14 million
•  with most being insects and microscopic life forms in tropical
regions
 Biological classification
•  Modern biological classification has its root in the
work of Carl Linnaeus, who grouped species
according to shared physical characteristics. 

•  Linnaeus attempted to describe the entire known

natural world and gave every species a two-part
name.
–  Linnaeus is often known as “The Father of
Taxonomy” Carl Linnaeus

•  These groupings were later revised to improve

consistency with the  Darwinian principle
of common descent.

•  He established that all species of life have

descended over time from common ancestors, and
proposed the scientific theory that this branching
pattern of evolution resulted from a process that
he called natural selection. Charles Darwin
From the wikimedia free licensed
media file repository
 Ideal Classification Scheme
ally we would construct a classification scheme which progresses from
mitive or ancestral traits to advanced or derived traits.

ally each taxon would be monophyletic - arisen by diversification from a

le ancestor – the Plant Kingdom – whether the Embrophytes (land plants
diplantae (green algae plus land plants).

ontrast polyphyletic groups have arisen from more than one ancestor -
tista

araphyletic group is one in which all members possess a single ancestor

mon, but which does not constitute all descendants of that ancestor - t
ots
Ancestral Green Bryophytes Ferns & allies Gymnosperms Ang
Algae
Seed Plants
Vascular Plants

Overview of
Plant
Origin of land plants
Evolution
 Developing Classification Systems
eveloping classification systems, we attempt to group plants which shar
ved characteristics - presumably these characters have only arisen onc
t a few times - it is not always easy to tell what is a derived character t

ved characters may arise independently in different groups of plants th

ergent evolution or parallel evolution

ergent - unrelated plants develop similar characteristics due to common

ronment

allel - plants with common ancestor develop similar characteristics even

ugh the ancestor did not have that characteristic
 Usefulness of Characters
ifferent characteristics have differing degrees of utility in terms of
lassification - a uniform characteristic may be very good at demonstrat
ohesion or relatedness at a higher level of classification such as the fam

onversely, some characters which have a great deal of variability may b

ttle value in differentiating higher orders of classification, such as fam
ut may be very valuable in differentiating lower taxonomic groups such
he genus or species
 Systematics
Since fossil records are not complete, scientists rely o
ther types of evidence to establish the best hypothes
f evolutionary relationships

Systematics: the study of evolutionary relationships

hylogeny: a hypothesis about patterns of relationship

mong species
stematics classifies species based on similarity of traits and
ible mechanisms of evolution, a change in the gene pool of a
ulation over time.

ylogenetic systematics is that field of biology that does deal

tifying and understanding the evolutionary relationships amon
y different kinds of life on earth, both living and dead.
Evolutionary theory states that similarity among individuals
pecies is attributable to common descent, or inheritance f
common ancestor.

lution requires genetic variation which results from changes w

ne pool, the genetic make-up of a specific population.
 Morphology
ts are highly plastic in their growth forms

ow tall they grow, their shape will vary

ending upon environment and growing
ditions

ever, reproductive structures tend not to

er in form from plant to plant of the same
cies

y may differ in number, but form is

ervative - flowers, cones tend to be similar
in all members of a species

us much plant classification and

tification is based upon reproductive
ctures Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing a
Cummings
 Morphology and Pollination
y important and easily observed taxonomic
erences in plants depend upon type of
nation

d pollinated plants typically have reduced,

nspicuous unisexual flowers - think of grasses,
he cones of pines

ect and other animal pollinated plants tend to

e large, colorful, conspicuous, nectar-secreting,
xual flowers

nsect pollinated plants have small flowers, they

usually gathered together into a large
orescence
From the wikimedia free licen
media file repository
y Floral Characteristics
ong the most important floral
aracteristics for classification and
ntification are:

ary position

ral symmetry

hesion and cohesion of parts (are they

ed together?)

rpel number

men number
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing a
mber of petals and sepals Cummings
omologous Features

Dissimilar structures
with an underlying
similarity of form
and development that
occur in different
species with a
common ancestry

Indicate evolutionary
ties between the
organisms possessing
them
omoplastic Features

tructures in unrelated
pecies that are similar in
unction and appearance
ut not in evolutionary
rigin

re the result of
onvergent evolution
•  Independent evolution of
similar adaptations in
unrelated species living in
similar environments
 Comparative Biology
moplastic convergence: plant
nducting tubes
Sieve tubes (in phloem) facilitate
ong-distance transport of food
hat is essential for the survival
f tall plants

rown algae also have sieve

lements

losest ancestor a single-celled Convergent evolution of

rganism conducting tubes
Vestigial Structure
An evolutionary remnant
of a formerly functional
structure

Occasionally present as
an ancestral species
adapts to a different
mode of life
Plant Evolution
Plants from Sea
to the Land
Algae - from the
Kingdom Protista
anisms in this Kingdom don’t
clearly into what we call plant,
mal, or fungi.

t diverse eukaryotic Kingdom

0,000 species).

are interested in this Kingdom

ause of the Chlorophytes &
rophyceans - green algae.
From the wikimedia fre
media file reposit
 PROTISTS
tists are eukaryotes because they all
a nucleus.
st have mitochondria.

ny have chloroplasts with which they

y on photosynthesis.
ny are unicellular and all groups (with
exception) contain some unicellular
bers.
A better name for Protists would
Eukaryotes that are neither
mals, Fungi, nor Plants".

From the wikimedia free licensed media file rep

 The start - Algae
e are the simplest multicellular plants. Some
unicellular eg. Chlamydomonas

t body: known as Thallus and they are

cular

itat: Algae are usually aquatic, either

hwater or marine and some are terresterial.

e are eukaryotic thallophytes.

e are photoautotrophs.

rage form of food: Starch

roduction: Algae reproduce either by

etative, asexual or sexual method
 Classification
the basis of photosynthetic pigments,
e are classified into three classes.

rophyceae (green algae)

eophyceae (brown algae)

dophyceae (red algae).

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publi

Benjamin Cummings
 Green Algae
s the largest class of algae

tosynthetic pigments: chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b

small amount of β-carotenoids.

body structure and chloroplasts vary in shape. Can

nicellular or colonial

h freshwater and marine, some parasitic (They are

ellular as well as multicellular.

h cell is eukaryotic

roduction: vegetative, asexual and sexual method

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Educ

publishing as Benjamin Cummin
 Brown Algae
ophyceae are called commonly known as brown
e

tosynthetic pigments: They possesses brown

red photosynthetic pigments fucoxanthin and
rotenoids in addition to chlorophyll a and c.

tly marine, very few are fresh water

y are multicellular. No unicellular and colonial

tile or non-motile) known.

rage form of food: laminarin starch, manitol

ohol) and some store iodine also.

roduction: vegetative, asexual and sexual

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Educ
hods publishing as Benjamin Cummin
ucture of Brown Algae-kelp
anchors itself to the sea floor by use
ssive holdfast.
oes not absorb nutrients from the
ater

s (both CO2 and O2), water ant

ient exchanges occurs from water into
blade by permanently open stomata

Bladder (Pneumatocysts) developed as

ans to maximize energy production
ugh photosynthesis by keeping the
eedclose to the surface

From the wikimedia free licensed media

repository
 Red Algae
dophyceae are commonly known as Red Algae

tosynthetic pigments: They possesses Red

red photosynthetic pigments r-phycocyanin and
ycoerythrin along with chlorophyll a, d,
thophyll and β-carotenoid

y are aquatic, mostly marine. Some are

hwater. They show a variety of life forms.

rage form of food is starch and 5-Carbon sugar

stly Xylose).

roduction: vegetative, asexual and sexual mode

e species shows Alternation of generations in Copyright © 2002 Pearson Educ

r life cycle. publishing as Benjamin Cummin
tosynthesis underwater
advantage of Moving to a
estrial Environment
creased Photosynthesis and Decreased
mpetition

energy available to organisms living

ath the water's surface is greatly
ed.

blue and especially red wavelengths

ht that are absorbed by
synthetic pigments do not
rate deep beyond the surface of
ater
erefore, photosynthetic organisms living
an aquatic environment do not receive
e full amount of light energy radiated
om the sun.

synthetic organisms growing on land

t face this problem From the wikimedia free licensed media file reposi
bsorbance spectra
tons emitted from the sun can directly
ike light-absorbing surfaces and the full
ge of the most useful wavelengths are
ilable for photosynthesis

the aquatic environment, many large

ae compete for sunlight (similar to the
mpetition for sunlight in modern
ests).

early plants first moving into

restrial environments, there was no
mpetition for access to light.

From the wikimedia free licensed media file repo

 Getting carbon for Photosynthesis
e plants can utilize bicarbonate ions.
When CO2 dissolves in seawater, carbo
acid is produced via the reaction:
usion rates of dissolved carbon
ide have been attributed to limiting
tosynthesis, especially in still waters. This carbonic acid dissociates in the wa
releasing hydrogen ions and bicarbonat
ization of HCO3- under natural
ditions has been reported for a
ber of aquatic species, while other
to
cies were found to utilize primarily
One result of the release of hydrogen
that they combine with any carbonate i
CO2 is taken up by plants, the the water to form bicarbonate:
librium shifts so that more CO2 is
ased. This is a diurnal process, at
t more CO2 is released than is taken
to plant
 ual Reproduction
r not…
ual reproduction is
ensive both energetically
physiologically.

etimes it’s better to

oduce by asexual means
m fragments, spores, or
s.

etimes algae use both

al and asexual
oduction depending on
ronmental conditions.
Ancestral Green Bryophytes Ferns & allies Gymnosperms Ang
Algae
Seed Plants
Vascular Plants

Overview of
Plant
Origin of land plants
Evolution
 charophyceans
e than 280,000 species of plants
bit Earth today.

t plants live in terrestrial

ronments, including deserts,
slands, and forests.
ome species, such as sea grasses, have
eturned to aquatic habitats.

d plants (including the sea grasses)

ved from a certain green algae, called
rophyceans.

d plants share two ultrastructural

tures with these algae. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benja
 plasma membranes of land plants and
rophyceans possess rosette cellulose-
hesizing complexes that synthesize the
ulose microfibrils of the cell wall.

h rosette floats in the cell's plasma

mbrane and "spins" a microfibril into
cell wall.

tain at least three different cellulose

hase enzymes encoded by CesA genes

uires chain initiation and elongation, and

two processes are separate.

e complexes contrast with the linear arrays of

ose-producing proteins in other algae.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benja
presence of peroxisomes.
roxisomes are typically found in association with
loroplasts.

nzymes in peroxisomes help minimize the loss of

ganic products due to photorespiration.

uring this process a toxic 2C molecule called

osphoglycolate is produced

plant immediately gets rid of the

phate group
onverting the molecule to glycolic acid

transported to the peroxisome and there

rted to glycine (4 carbons) and transported into a
hondria where it is converted into serine (3
ns)
eleases CO2
nd Plants – Four main groups
Bryophytes - most common - mosses.

Pteridophytes - most common - ferns.

gymnosperms include pines and other

fers.

angiosperms are the flowering plants.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as
 From Sea to Land
errestrial habitats, the resources
a photosynthetic organism
ires are found in two different
es.

ght and carbon dioxide are mainly above

round.

Water and mineral resources are found

ainly in the soil.

refore, plants show varying

rees of structural specialization
subterranean and aerial organs -
s and shoots in most plants
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benja
 From Sea to Land
eral characteristics separate the
land plant groups from their
est algal relatives, including:

al meristems

icellular embryos dependent on

parent plant

rnation of generations

etangia that produce gametes

angia that produce walled spores Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benja
 Apical Meristems

ht © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Meristems
tissue in most plants consisting of
ferentiated cells (meristematic cells), found in
s of the plant where growth can take place.

stematic cells are analogous in function

em cells in animals, are incompletely or not
rentiated, and are capable of continued cellular
on.

hermore, the cells are small and protoplasm fills

ell completely.
vacuoles are extremely small.
cytoplasm does not contain chloroplasts although
are present in rudimentary form (proplastids).
stematic cells are packed closely together
out intercellular cavities.
Tunica-Corpus model of the apical
meristem (growing tip). The epidermal
(L1) and subepidermal (L2) layers form
the outer layers called the tunica.
The inner L3 layer is called the corpus.
Cells in the L1 and L2 layers divide in
a sideways fashion which keeps these
layers distinct, while the L3 layer divides i
random fashion.
 Multicellular gametangia

metangia are the gametophyte

ms of bryophytes, pteridophytes,
gymnosperms.  Gametes are
duced within these organs.
                        
male gametangia are called
hegonia (produce and retain egg
s)

e gametangia are called antheridia

oduce sperm)
 Alternation of Generations
ulticellular life stages:

porophyte:
iploid

ivides by meiosis to form spores

pores – haploid cells that can grow into a

ew, multicellular, haploid organism (the
ametophyte) without fusing to another cell.

metophyte:
aploid

ivides by mitosis to form the gametes (egg

nd sperm)

gg & sperm fuse to form the diploid

ygote, which divides by mitosis to form the
porophyte
 Walled spores produced in sporangia
res are produced by sporangia
ells in the sporophyte through the
rocess of meiosis.

able spores are an adaptation

surviving on land. sporocy
ontain Sporopollenin

withstand long periods of

erse conditions.

ily transported by wind and

er.
 Sporopollenin
lgae, including charophyceans, live in
ral ponds that dry up.

l selection favored individuals with traits

st enabled them to survive and/or produce
ng despite drought.

hyceans produce a tough polymer,

llenin, that covers the zygotes (which are
ached to the mother plant) and protects
om desiccation.

ollenin is also found in plants, where it is a

ent of the protective covering of plant
C90H144O35

e sporopollenin allowed plants to survive in Quilichini et al., (2015) The biosynthesis, composi
bitats, it facilitated their early colonization assembly of the outer pollen wall: A tough case to
Photochemistry, 113, 170-182
 Sporopollenin
use sporopollenin allowed plants to survive in drier
ats, it facilitated their early colonization of land.

would a terrestrial existence be an advantage?

Air filters less sunlight than water.

There's more light for photosynthesis.

Air has more CO2 than water.

There's more fuel for photosynthesis.

arly terrestrial habitats lacked pathogens or C90H144O35

redators/herbivores.

Terrestrial soil is richer in nutrients than aquatic

oil
of the earliest exaptations that allowed plants to
stand the harsher environment of land
Quilichini et al., (2015) The biosynthesis, com
and assembly of the outer pollen wall: A toug
to crack. Photochemistry, 113, 170-182
 Bryophytes
the Mosses, Hornworts and Liverwort

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Bryophytes
k xylem and phloem (hence, lack true organs)

vascular tissue absorbing water by capillarity

transporting carbohydrates by diffusion

rue roots, stems, or leaves as lack vascular

ue.

oids are root-like but are only used for

horage.

e a very thin waxy cuticle

e stomates are fixed in the open position

hey cannot be closed The Peat Moss - from the wikimed
licensed media file repository
 Bryophytes
ase bi-flagellated sperm directly into the
ronment (and so need water--at least a thin
--for reproduction)

rnation of generations and gametophyte

inates with gametes formed inside
icellular gameteangia called antheridia
rm) or archegonia (egg)

e a dominant gametophyte generation, and a

rt-lived sporophyte

relatively undifferentiated body of such

ts is known as the thallus, the term used to
cribe a plant (or fungal) "body". The Peat Moss - from the wikimedi
licensed media file repository
 ife cycle of a moss
Gametophytes (n)
Key 1
Haploid (n) Male
Diploid (2n) 5 Mitosis and
development S

m must swim in a drop of rain water fr

m an antheridium to an egg in an
egonium

ertilization takes place, it results in a Spores (n)

Female 1 Egg

te that develops into a tiny sporophyte

he parent gametophyte plant.
Sporangium

sporophyte produces haploid spores, and Stalk

e develop into the next generation of Meiosis

Sporophytes (growing
from gametophytes)

etophyte plants. 4
Sporophyte (2n)

n the cycle repeats. 3 Mitosis and

development

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cu

Seedless Plants with a Vascular Syste
- Ferns, Horsetails, and Club Mosses

From the wikimedia free licensed media

file repository
ering land relied on a variety of plant-fungal symbiotic strategie
at work today

Field KJ, Pressel S, Duckett JG, Rimington WR, Bidartondo MI. Trends Ecol Evol. 2015
and Plant Root-Mycorrhizal Associatio
unusual
3% of dicots, 79% of monocots and all
ymnosperms

otrophic Mycorrhizal fungi

orm a thick sheath around root. Some
ycelium penetrates the cortex cells of the
oot

oot cortex cells are not penetrated,

urrounded by a zone of hyphae called Hartig
et

he capacity of the root system to absorb

utrients improved by this association – the
ungal hyphae are finer than root hairs and
an reach beyond nutrient-depleted zones in
he soil near the root
and Plant Root-Mycorrhizal Associatio
cular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
yphae grow in dense arrangement , both within
he root itself and extending out from the root
to the soil

fter entering root, either by root hair or

hrough epidermis hyphae move through regions
etween cells and penetrate individual cortex
ells.

Within cells form oval structures – vesicles –

nd branched structures – arbuscules (site of
utrient transfer)

Cu, & Zn absorption improved by hyphae reaching

eyond the nutrient-depleted zones in the soil near
he root
 Ferns
mportant group of plants – 10,000 species
t

ns have developed vascular tissue

itat: Moist tropics, woodlands,

ambanks

exhibit Alternation of Generations, but…

diploid Sporophyte generation is

inant (larger and more visible)

haploid Gametophyte is small & short

d.

ogically important: Hold and form soil to From the wikimedia free licensed media file
ent erosion
olution of Leaves
o basic types of true
ves:

crophylls
ontains one vascular strand

gaphylls,
ontains multiple vascular
trands

lved independently of
h other
 Internal Structure of Leaves

chloroplasts

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Xylem and Phloem
Stomatal control
ost all leaf transpiration
lts from diffusion of water
r through the stomatal pore
axy cuticle

ide a low resistance pathway

diffusion of gasses across
epidermis and cuticle

ulates water loss in plants

the rate of CO2 uptake
Needed for sustained CO2
ixation during
hotosynthesis
ern sporophyte morphology
ern sporophyte
s fronds (leaves)

oung fronds are called

ddleheads

oung fronds are called

ddleheads

rue roots arise from the

izome From the wikimedia free licensed media file repos
 Fronds
rns have complex leaves called
nds, for photosynthesis and
production

der the fronds, spores are

duced in sporangia in clusters
led sori (sorus = singular)

sporangia, meiosis occurs

ducing haploid spores
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benja
 Fern Gametophyte generation (1n)
gle spore grows into the gametophyte
nt

art-shaped called prothallus, very small.

hegonia and antheridia produced in

thallus

male gametophytes produce a chemical

t induces spores to produce male
metophytes around it.

From the wikimedia free licensed media file

 Fern gametophyte
heridium produces motile sperm that swim to the
hegonia’s egg – fusion occurs and the diploid sporophyt
eration begins

ote develops into a new embryo – that eventually grow

mature sporophyte

ight © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.,

blishing as Benjamin Cummings
onds bear sporangia in clusters

osis in sporangia produces

oid spores

metophyte (prothallus)
s from a haploid spore
rs both archegonia and
heridia

chegonium contains a single,

le egg;
h antheridium produces
erous sperm cells

g fertilization, diploid zygote

y mitosis into a multicellular
(immature sporophyte)
 Lichens
- A tail of two organisms

From the wikimedia free licensed media

file repository
symbiotic association of cyanobacteria or
green algae and fungi.
hens are very sensitive to air pollution; used as indicators of air quality.
 Bacteria – the Most Abundant Organisms

Bacteria (Staphylococcus Mycoplasma Borrelia burgdorferi, the bacterium

aureus; yellow spheres) E. Coli bacteria that causes Lyme disease.
hyopneumoniae
adhering to nasal cilia.

There are more bacteria in your mouth than there have been people
living since the dawn of humans.
More Bacteria!
n Bryant and David M. Ward, (2007)
ience. 317(5837):523-6

andidatus Chloracidobacterium
ermophilum:
robic phototrophic Acidobacterium

ew genus and species. It also belongs to

e Acidobacteria phylum, a poorly
aracterized phylum that was not
eviously known to include bacteria
pable of photosynthesis.

ve the hot springs in Yellowstone their

markable yellow, orange, red, brown and
een colors.
From the wikimedia free licensed media file reposit
 Cyanobacteria
yosynthetic pigments are
obilin and phycocyanin
ater-soluble pigments, thus found in the
toplasm, or in the stroma of the
loroplast.

photosynthetic prokaryotes able to

uce oxygen.

n as 'cyanobacteria' in order to
the term "algae", which in modern
e is restricted to eukaryotes.

the origins of chloroplasts in

er plant cells
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publi
Benjamin Cummings
 FUNGI

Fungi sometimes look like plants, but they’re not!

Fungi can’t photosynthesize, because they don’t have chloroplasts;
they get their nutrients from the organic material they live in.

v Are Decomposers --feed on dead organic material.

v Some fungi feed on living organisms, such as plants, animals

and even other fungi. This causes diseases and infections in
these organisms (like athlete’s foot and ringworm in humans).

v Some fungi live as symbiotic partners with algae. The

result: lichen

Other differences from plants:

• fungi don’t have roots, they have a mycelium.
• fungi’s cell walls are made of chitin, not cellulose.
 Physiology
trophic associations – algal/fungal
carry out photosynthesis, lichen
nds on net production of organic
pounds by photosynthesis

t of the photosynthate (70-80%)

uced by alga is incorporated into the
us

al cells secrete polyalcohols like

ol

obacteria secrete glucose

obiont becomes leaky of

ohydrates when associated with
us – not so when grown alone
Plant and Lichen Polysaccharides

Amylose (Plant starch) Cellulose (Plant cell walls)

α-(1-4)-D-glucan β-(1-4)-D-glucan
n = 250 to 5,000 n = lots

Isolichenin (Lichen starch) Lichenin (Lichen starch)

α-(1-3)(1-4)-D-glucan β-(1-3)(1-4)-D-glucan
n = 40 to 50 n = 60 to 70
 Growth
bit low growth rates – many grow at
s of 1-4 mm/yr, up to 9 cm/yr

es studies difficult

tors affecting growth

ght – variable – some prefer low light
tensities, others high

emperature – variable

oisture – appears to be an important

ariable, do not have water absorbing
rgans, depend on moisture in air
 Moisture
n lichen thallus is wetted, absorbs water
ly by gelatinous matrix in the cortex

ts growth process

hallus dries, growth process slows and

s

and humidity are important sources of

ture

i are inactive when dry – only grow when

ed – may be responsible for slow growth
ymbiotic association
ditionally been classified as a
ualistic symbiosis where both
bionts benefit

gus appears to be chief

efactor, receives:

rganic compounds as C and energy

ource

With cyanobacteria, N fixation may

ccur so that the fungus also receives
source
ymbiotic association
fits for autotrophic symbiont are
lear-cut

al/fungal cells produces substances that

orb water which is provided to alga

al/fungal cells takes up inorganic

rients from atmosphere

tects algal/fungal cells from mechanical

ury, predation, and high light intensities

sociation allows algal/fungal to achieve a

er distribution than if free-living
 Reproduction
al reproduction – characteristic of
al symbiont

spores are discharged, algal cells

ot discharged with them

ght that after ascospores

inate, they make contact with algal

ual reproduction – variety of

anisms – e.g. fragmentation
 Gymnosperms and angiosperms

The gymnosperms include pines and other conifers.

The angiosperms are the flowering plants.

Covered in talk eight - Flowers and Reproduction

 ANY
QUESTIONS?