Foundry, Casting & Pattern making

 A foundry is a place where castings are produced. The casting is a

process of pouring molten metal in to a mould and allowing it to
solidify.
 The mould or cavity into which the material is poured, is made of some
heat resisting materials. Sand is widely used, as it can be easily packed
to shape and resists high temperatures.
 Cast Iron is widely used for casting because it is possible to have easy
control on its properties which include fluidity rate of shrinkage,
strength & rigidity.
 The shape of the object is determined by the shape of the mould cavity.
 Casting
• Introduction: It is one of the oldest manufacturing processes in which metal is heated up to the desired temperature and
converted into liquid form in a suitable furnace. The liquid metal is poured in to mould cavity where it is solidified. The solidified
object is called casting and the place where the castings are made is known as foundry.

• Basic Steps in Casting: Successful casting process requires the following steps:
 Preparation of pattern from wood, metal, plastics.
 Select, test and prepare sand in case of sand casting.
 Preparation of mould by use of pattern.
 Melt the metal/alloy to be casted.
 Pour the molten metal/alloy in the mould and remove the casting from mould after the solidification of metal.
 Clean and finish the casting.
 Test and inspect the casting.
 Remove the defects if any.
 Relieve the casting stresses by heat treatment.
 Again inspect the casting.
 Pattern & its Materials
• Pattern: It is a model or replica of the desired castings. It is used to make the impression/mould/cavity
in the moulding sand. When this mould is filled with molten metal and the metal is allowed to solidified,
it forms a reproduction of the pattern and is known as casting. The process of making the pattern is
known as ‘pattern making’ and the person who makes the patters is known as ‘pattern maker’. and the
shop where patterns are made is called pattern making shop.
• Pattern Materials: The quality of casting is also influenced by the pattern materials. It is necessary to select
right material that can give the desired quality at the minimum cost. The selection of pattern materials depends
on the following factors:
 Number of castings to be produced.
 The size and shape of the casting.
 The types of moulding process i.e. sand moulding or machine moulding.
 Desired accuracy and surface finish.
 Patterns are made from wood, metals like cast iron, brass aluminium and its alloy, plastics,
plaster of paris and wax.
 Types of Pattern
The type of pattern selected for a particular casting depends upon the following conditions:
1. The shape and size of casting.
2. The number of castings required &
3. The method of moulding employed

• The common types of patterns are:


Solid or single piece pattern
 Split pattern
 Match plate pattern
 Loose pieces pattern
 Gated pattern
 Sweep pattern
 Skeleton pattern
 Follow-board pattern
 Segmental pattern
 Cope and drag pattern
• One piece or solid pattern: A solid piece pattern is made in one piece without any
joints. These are generally used for simpler shapes and do not create withdrawal
problems. It is inexpensive and usually made from wood.
• Split pattern: Some pattern cannot be made in a single piece due to difficulty in removing pattern
from mould. Pattern is split in to two parts by parting lines and kept half portion (lower) in drag and half
portion (upper) in cope.
• Dowels pins are provided with pattern to maintain proper alignment to both the parts.
• Gated Pattern: These are used in mass production work where many castings are required. These
patterns eliminate the hand cutting of runner and gates thus resulting in improved productivity.
Gated patterns are used for mass production of small castings.
 Pattern Allowances
• Pattern Allowances: Dimension of pattern differs from the dimension of final casting. This difference
of dimensions is called allowance and is provided to ensure easy withdrawal of pattern and dimensionally
correct finished casting.

• Allowances are usually provided in a pattern are:

a) Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance: Most of the metals used in casting work contract during
cooling from pouring temperature to room temperature. The amount of contraction varies with different
metals and therefore, their corresponding allowance also differs. There are two types of shrinkages in
casting; liquid shrinkage and solid shrinkage. The contraction of metals is always volumetric but the
contraction allowances are always expressed as linear measures.
 Machining or Finishing Allowance
• The finish and dimensional accuracy obtained in sand casting are generally poor and when accurate jobs
casting are required then some allowance is given/add to the surface. The excess in dimension of casting other
than that of final size to compensate for the loss of metal due to machining is known as machining allowance.
This allowance depends on material, shape and size of casting, degree of surface finish, moulding process,
method of machining and functional requirement of casting.
 Taper or Draft Allowance
• “All patterns are given a slight taper on all vertical surfaces, i.e. the surface parallel to the direction of their
withdrawal from the mould. This taper is known as draft allowance”. It is provided on both internal and
external surfaces. The purpose of providing this taper or draft is to facilitate easy withdrawn of pattern from
the mould without damaging the surfaces and edges of the mould.
 Rapping or Shaking Allowance
• When the pattern is to be withdrawn from the mould, it is first shaken, by striking over it from side to side, so
that its surface may be free from the adjoining sand walls of the mould. As a result of this size of the mould

cavity increases little and a negative allowance is provided in the pattern to compensate the same.
However, it may be considered negligible for all practical purposes in small & medium size castings.
 Distortion or Camber Allowance:
• This allowance is provided on patterns use for irregular shaped castings like ‘I’ & ‘U’ section, which are
distorted in the process of cooling. This result of uneven metal shrinkage. This shrinkage first takes place at
thicker section (i.e. lower and upper) than middle section. This will distort the casting. To compensate this, an
opposite distortion i.e. camber is provided in the pattern so that this effect is neutralized and sound casting in
correct shape is obtained.
 Moulding
• The process of making the moulds or cavities by use of pattern in the moulding sand is known as moulding.
Moulding may be carried out either manually or by use of machine.

• Moulding Flask: The box like frame without top and bottom base into which sand is rammed, is called
‘flask’. It holds the sand mould intact. It is made up of either wood or metal. It is made of two or more parts.

• Drag: Lower or bottom moulding flask is known as ‘Drag’.

• Cope: Upper moulding flask is termed as cope.

• Check: It is an intermediate moulding flask in three piece moulding. A suitable clamping device is used for
proper alignment of the parts.

• Parting line or parting surface: It is the surface or line that separates the cope and drag portion (halves) of the
mould. In split piece pattern, there is also the dividing line between two halves of the pattern.
 Moulding Sand & its desirable properties:
• Moulding Sand & its desirable properties:
• Moulding sand is prepared by use of various ingredients to develop the desired properties. A good quality moulding
sand has the following ingredients:

Silica Sand
Sand binders
Additives &
Moisture
 1. Silica Sand: The main material used in making a mould is sand. Silica sand (SiO2) is commonly used
for moulding. It is easily found in nature on the bottom s and banks of rivers and lakes etc. It is cheap, can
be packed easily in to any desired shape. It can also withstand very high temperature and does not react
with the molten metal. The % of silica in moulding sand varies from 86 to 90%. Along with SiO2, some
other constituents are alumina (Al2O3): 4 to 6 %, Iron Oxide (Fe2O3): 2 to 5 % etc.
2. Sand Binders: The pure silica sand is not used because it lacks in binding quality.
The materials which are added with moulding sand for binding action (Cohesiveness), is
called binders. These binders hold the sand grains together, impart strength, resistance to
erosion and breakage, degree of collapsibility. The binders are classified as:

a. Clay type binders: Natural Clay;

b. Organic Binders: Molasses (from sugar cane), dextrines (intermediate product in the
degradation of starch), linseed oil (from flax seed);

c. Inorganic binders: Portland cement, bentonites (a form of clay), fire clay (kaolinite),
sodium silicate and iron oxide. These binders have considerable strength at high
temperatures.
Continue….

3. Sand Additives: These are added in moulding sand to develop certain

desired properties like surface finish, cleaning of castings, improve collapsibility
and also prevent burning of sand. e.g. sea-coal, wooden-flour, coal-dust, charcoal
etc.

4. Moisture: Moisture (water) when added in correct proportion provides

strength and elasticity to sand.
 Properties of Moulding Sand
• The moulding sand must possess the following properties:
Porosity or Permeability: It is the property of the moulding sand which allows the gases
and steam to pass through the sand mould.

The sand used for casting must be porous enough so as to allow the gases, water vapours to escape
freely when the molten metal is poured in the mould.

If these gases do not escape completely through the mould, the casting will contain gas holes and
pores (defects).

The porosity of sand depends on the grain size and shapes, moisture and clay contents in the
moulding sand.

This property is also affected by ramming of sand. A soft ramming will increase permeability and
hard ramming will reduce it. If the sand is too fine, its porosity will be low.
2. Flowability or Plasticity: It is the property of the sand due to which it flows
to all the portions of the moulding flask (box) during ramming, packs properly
around the pattern to acquire the desired shape and distribute the ramming
pressure evenly to all parts of the mould.

The sand must have sufficient plasticity to produce a good mould. It can be
increased by adding water and clay to the sand.

3. Adhesiveness: It is the property of the sand due to which it is capable of

adhering to the surface of other materials.

Due to this property the sand particles stick to the surface of the moulding box.
4. Cohesiveness: It is the property of the sand due to which sand grains stick
together during ramming. Due to this property, pattern withdrawal from the mould is easy
and also the mould faces get sufficient strength to withstand the pressure of molten metal. It
may be defined as the strength of the moulding sand.
• There are three types of strength:
a. Green Strength: Strength of sand in moist state is known a green strength. A mould
should have sufficient green strength to retain the shape even after the removal of
pattern.
b. Dry Strength: When the molten metal is poured in the mould the moisture of sand in
contact with hot metal is converted in steam and makes the sand dry. So the strength of
dry sand which enables it to resist erosion and withstand the pressure of molten metal is
known as dry strength.
c. Hot Strength: Strength of mould in hot conditions generally above 15000C is known as
hot strength. Hot strength maintains the shape of mould cavity at higher temperature and
pressure of molten metal.
5. Refractoriness: It is the ability of the moulding sand to
withstand the high temperature of the molten metal so that fusion of
mould does not occur.
6. Chemical Resistivity: Due to this property, sand does not react
chemically with molten metal and can be used repeatedly.
Chemical resistivity also leads to good quality of cast surfaces.
7. Collapsibility: It is ability of sand to automatically collapse the
sand mould after solidification of casting to permit free contraction of
metal and thus preventing cracks and tears in casting.
This property is very important for cores.
 Types of Moulding sand
a. Green Sand
b. Dry sand
c. Facing sand
d. Loam sand
e. Backing sand
f. Parting sand
g. Core sand
 Green Sand: It is a mixture of silica sandwith18 to 30% clay and 6 to 8%
water. It is generally used for rapid production of small and medium sized
mould. Green sand moulds require less flour area as no storage is required.
It is fine, soft, light and porous. It can easily retain the shape given to it.
 Facing Sand: It has high strength and refractoriness. It consists of silica
sand and clay without addition of used sand. It is used next to surface of
pattern, which comes in contact with molten metal.
 Parting sand: Parting sand is sprinkled on the pattern and parting surfaces
of the mould to avoid sticking of sand of one flask to other flask or to the
pattern. Dry sand and brunt sand are used as parting sand.
 Elements of Gating System:
The passage or way to bring out the molten metal from ladle to mould cavity is called gating system.
Gating system refers to all the elements which are connected with the flow of molten metal from the ladle
to mould cavity. The various elements that are connected with a gating system are:
a) Pouring basin (Cup)
b) Sprue
c) Runner
d) Gate
e) Riser

Molten metal is poured in to the pouring basin. The metal travel down through sprue then along horizontal
channels (called runner) and finally through gates reaches to the mould cavity.
Element of gating system have a great impact on the quality of casting produced. The gating system
should be designed in such a manner that defect free (sound casting) can be produced.
The main function of gating system is to deliver molten metal to all sections of mould cavity.
Elements of Gating System
 • To design the gating system two important parameters are considered,
first degree of cooling while flowing and second is speed of metal
movement. Slag, dross and other unwanted material should not be
allowed.
1. Pouring Basin: It is a small funnel shaped cavity. The molten metal is not
directly poured in to the mould cavity because it may cause mould erosion.
Molten metal is poured in to a pouring basin or cup, which acts as a
reservoir from which its flows smoothly in to the sprue.
2. Sprue: It is a vertical taper portion through which the molten metal enters
in to the runner and gates to ultimately reach the mould cavity.
3. Runner: It is a horizontal passage which is used to take the molten metal
from the sprue base and distribute it to several gate passage ways around
the cavity. In case of a single gate, the runner may not be required.
4. Gate: These are also called ingates and are actual entry points through
which molten metal enters in to the mould cavity or these are the channels, which
connects runner with mould cavity through which the molten metal enters in to the
mould. The size and location of gate depends upon the number of factors such as:
a. Flow rate of metal
a. Distribution of metal in mould cavity
b. Filling of mould
c. Erosion of mould
d. Temperature loss
Depending on the casting size and gating design, various types of gates are used in
the moulds such as parting gate, bottom gate & step gate.
5. Riser: It is the vertical passage located in the cope to permit the
molten metal to rise above the highest point in the casting. Riser acts as
reservoir and feed to the molten metal in mould cavity to compensate
for contraction. Riser must contain sufficient volume of molten metal
for compensating the contraction of castings and metal in riser must
solidify after the casting.
• Following are the main types of risers:
a. Top risers which are open to the atmosphere
b. Blind risers
c. Internal risers which are enclosed on all sides by the castings.
 Moulds making with the use of core
Core is a sand shape generally prepared separately in a core-box and baked in an oven.

It is used to form internal cavities and hollow projections that are not possible to produce
by pattern.

Cores are surrounded by hot molten metal and are subjected to more severe thermal
stresses than the mould. So core should have sufficient strength and hardness to withstand
high stresses and to support its own weight.

To make the core strong core binders are used with silica sand. Common binders used in
core sand are molasses, resins, dextrin, core oil, linseed oil etc. organic binders develop
strength by means of polymerization and cross linking.

Core-sand must possess good refractoriness, permeability and collapsibility.

 • Types of Cores: cores are classified as:
a. On the basis of type of sand used:
1. Green sand core
2. Dry sand core
a. On the basis of their position:
1. Horizontal core
2. Vertical core
3. Balanced core
4. Hanging core
5. Wire core
a. Horizontal Core: When core is assembled in the mould by keeping its axis horizontal it is called
horizontal core. It is usually cylindrical in shape and is positioned along the parting line with its
one half in the cope and other half in the drag. It is used for making through holes.
b. Vertical core: It is similar in shape to that of horizontal core but it is assembled in mould with its
axis vertical. The ends of the core are placed in cope and drag.
c. Balanced Core: it is a horizontal core supported only at one end and is used to produce a blind
hole along a horizontal axis in casting.
• Core Print: Core prints are extra projections provided on the pattern to position the core at
proper place in mould cavity. Core-prints form the core-seats to support cores such as horizontal,
vertical etc.
 Core and Core Prints
Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various sizes and shapes.

These impressions can be obtained by using cores. So where coring is required,

provision should be made to support the core inside the mould cavity.
Core prints are used to serve this purpose. The core print is an added projection on
the pattern and it forms a seat in the mould on which the sand core rests.
The core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can support the weight
of the core during the casting operation.
Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed horizontal, vertical and can be
hanged inside the mold cavity.
A Typical Job, its Pattern and the Mold Cavity
 Difference between Core and Core-prints:

 Core is used to form cavity in a casting while core-prints are

used to produce core-seats to place the core.
 Core is made in core box by core sand whereas core prints
are made on pattern with pattern material.
 One core can produce only one casting while one core print
can be used in number of castings.
 Core is a part of mould while core print is a part of pattern.
 Casting defects and remedies:
 A large number of defects occur in sand castings produced through various methods.
 The factors which are normally responsible for the production of these defects are as:
 Design of casting
 Design of pattern equipment
 Moulding and core making equipment and techniques.
 Mould and core materials
 Gating and risering
 Melting and pouring
 Metal composition
 Various casting defects are as follows:
a. Blow holes
b. Porosity
c. Misrun and cold shuts
d. Hot tears
e. Drop
f. Shift: i) Mould shift ii) Core shift
g. Rat tails or buckles
h. Swells
i. Hard spots
j. Warpage
Casting Defects