Research Process

Overview
Dr Prema Balusamy
What is Quantitative Research ?

• Quantitative research is a formal, objective, rigorous, systematic process for

generating numerical information about the world.
• Quantitative research is conducted to describe new situations, events, or concepts;
examine relationships among variables; and determine the effectiveness of
treatments or interventions on selected health outcomes in the world.
Some examples include:
• 1.Describing the spread of flu cases each season and their potential influence on
local and global health (descriptive study)
• 2.Examining the relationships among the variables—for example, minutes
watching television per week, minutes playing video games per week, and body
mass index (BMI) of a school age child (correlational study)
Cont.,,,

• 3.Determining the effectiveness of calcium with vitamin D3 supplements on the

bone density of adults (quasi-experimental study).
• Throughout the years, a number of other quantitative approaches have been
developed.
• Campbell and Stanley (1963) developed quasi-experimental approaches to study
the effects of treatments under less controlled conditions.
• Karl Pearson (Porter, 2004) developed statistical approaches for examining
relationships between variables, which were used in analyzing data when
correlational research was conducted.
• The fields of sociology, education, and psychology are noted for their
development and expansion of strategies for conducting descriptive research.
Cont.,,,

• A broad range of quantitative research approaches is needed to develop the

empirical knowledge for building evidence-based practice (EBP) in nursing
(Brown, 2014; Craig & Smyth, 2012).

• Understanding the quantitative research process is essential for meeting the

competencies for undergraduate nursing students, which are focused on patient-
centered care, teamwork and collaboration, EBP, quality improvement (QI), safety,
and informatics.
 Steps of Quantitative Research Process

• The quantitative research process involves conceptualizing a research

project, planning and implementing that project, and communicating the
findings.
• The descriptive correlational study conducted by Dickson, Howe, Deal, and
McCarthy (2012) on the relationships of work, self-care, and quality of life
in a sample of older working adult with cardiovascular disease (CVD) is
used as an example to introduce the steps of the quantitative research
process
Quantitative
Research
Process
Research Problem and Purpose
• A research problem is an area of concern in which
there is a gap in the knowledge needed for nursing
practice.
• The problem statement in a study usually identifies an
area of concern for a particular population that
requires investigation.
• Research is then conducted to generate essential
knowledge that addresses the practice concern, with
the goal of developing sound research evidence for
nursing practice (Brown, 2014; Craig & Smyth,
2012).
• The research problem is usually broad and could
provide the basis for several studies.
• The research purpose is generated from the problem
and identifies the specific focus or goal of the study.
• The focus of a quantitative study might be to identify
,describe, or explain a situation; predict a solution to
a situation; or control a situation to produce positive
outcomes in practice.
• The purpose includes the variables, population, and
often the setting for the study.
Review of Relevant Literature
Researchers conduct a review of
relevant literature to generate a picture
of what is known and not known about
a particular problem and to document
why a study needs to be conducted.
Relevant literature includes only those
sources that are pertinent to or highly
important in providing the in-depth
knowledge needed to study a selected
problem (Fawcett & Garity, 2009).
Often, the literature review section
concludes with a summary paragraph
that indicates the current knowledge of
a problem area and identifies the
additional research that is needed to
generate essential evidence for
practice.
Study Framework

• A framework is the abstract, theoretical basis for a study that enables the
researcher to link the findings to nursing’s body of knowledge.
• In quantitative research, the framework is a testable theory that has been
developed in nursing or another discipline, such as psychology, physiology,
pathology, or sociology.
• A theory consists of assumptions, an integrated set of defined concepts, and
relational statements that present a view of a phenomenon and can be used to
describe, explain, predict, or control the phenomenon (Chinn & Kramer, 2011).
• Assumptions are statements that are taken for granted or are considered true, even
though they have not been scientifically tested, and provide a basis for the
phenomenon described by the theory.
• A concept is a term that abstractly names and describes an object or phenomenon,
providing it with a separate identity and meaning
Study Framework
,cont.,,,

• The study framework by Dickson and co-workers (2012)

included the concept of self-care, which was
conceptualized as a naturalistic, decision-making process
implemented to improve an individual’s health and
quality of life.
• The relational statements in theories identify the links
between two or more concepts that are tested in research.
• Thus, in quantitative studies, researchers test selected
relational statements of the theory, not the entire theory.
• A study framework can be expressed as a map or a
diagram of the relationships that provide the basis for a
study and is described in the research report, or the
framework can be presented in narrative format.
 • Investigators formulate research objectives (or aims),
questions, or hypotheses to bridge the gap between the more
abstractly stated research problem and purpose and the study
design and plan for data collection and analysis.
• Objectives, questions, and hypotheses are narrower in focus
than the purpose and often specify only one or two research
variables.
Research • They also identify the relationship between the variables and
indicate the population to be studied.
Objectives,
• Some descriptive studies include only a research purpose,
Questions, or whereas others include a purpose and objectives or questions to
Hypotheses direct the study.
• Some correlational studies include a purpose and specific
questions or hypotheses.
• Quasi-experimental and experimental studies need to include
hypotheses to direct the conduct of the studies and the
interpretation of findings (Grove et al., 2013).
Study Variables

• The research purpose and objectives, questions, or hypotheses identify

the variables to be examined in a study.
• Variables are concepts at various levels of abstraction that are
measured, manipulated, or controlled in a study.
• More concrete concepts, such as temperature, weight, or blood
pressure, are referred to as variables in a study.
• More abstract concepts, such as creativity, empathy, or social support,
sometimes are referred to as research concepts.
Study Variables ,Cont.…

• Researchers operationalize the variables or concepts in a

study by identifying conceptual and operational
definitions.
• A conceptual definition provides a variable or concept
with theoretical meaning (Grove et al., 2013), and it comes
from a theorist’s definition of the concept or is developed
through concept analysis.
• The conceptual definitions of variables provide a link from
selected concepts in the study framework to the study
variables.
• Researchers develop an operational definition so that the
variable can be measured or manipulated in a study.
• The knowledge gained from studying the variable will
increase understanding of the theoretical concept from the
study framework that the variable represents
Study Design
• Research design is a blueprint for the conduct of a study that maximizes control over factors that
could interfere with the study’s desired outcome.

• The type of design directs the selection of a population, procedures for sampling, methods of
measurement, and plans for data collection and analysis.

• The choice of research design depends on what is known and not known about the research
problem, the researcher’s expertise, the purpose of the study, and the intent to generalize the
findings. Sometimes the design of a study indicates that a pilot study was conducted.

• A pilot study is often a smaller version of a proposed study, and researchers frequently conduct
these to refine the study sampling process, treatment, or measurement of variables (Hertzog, 2008).

• For example, researchers might conduct pilot studies in a manner like the proposed study using
similar subjects, the same setting, the same treatment, the same measurement methods, and the
same data collection and analysis techniques to determine their quality.
Study Design.Cont,,,
• Designs have been developed to meet unique research needs as they emerge; thus, a variety of
descriptive, correlational, quasi-experimental, and experimental designs have been generated over
time.
• In descriptive and correlational studies, no treatment is administered, so the purposes of these study
designs include improving the precision of measurement, describing what exists, and clarifying
relationships that provide a basis for quasi-experimental and experimental studies.
• Quasi-experimental and experimental study designs usually involve treatment and control groups,
and focus on achieving high levels of control, as well as precision in measurement
• A study’s design usually is in the methodology section of a research report.
• Dickson and colleagues (2012) conducted a descriptive correlational study with a typical
descriptive design and a predictive correlational design.
• The descriptive part of the design provided a basis for describing the study variables of self-care
adherence behaviors, job-level factors, quality of life, depression, and physical functioning for
older adults with CVD.
• The predictive correlation part of the design focused on examining the relationships among the
study variables and the use of job-level factors to predict self-care adherence behaviors, which
were then included with depression and physical functioning to predict quality of life
Population and Sample

• The population is all elements (individuals, objects, or

substances) that meet certain criteria for inclusion in a
study (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000).
• A sample is a subset of the population selected for a
particular study, and the members of a sample are the
subjects or participants.
• The following excerpt identifies the sampling method,
sample size, population, setting,
• sampling criteria, and sample characteristics for the
study conducted by Dickson and associates (2012).
• This study included a quality description of the
sampling process and a power analysis discussion,
which is often conducted to determine an adequate
sample size for a study (Grove et al., 2013).
Measurement Methods

• Measurement is the process of “assigning numbers to objects (or events or situations) in

accord with some rule” (Kaplan, 1964, p. 177).
• A component of measurement is instrumentation, which is the application of specific
rules to the development of a measurement method or instrument (Grove et al., 2013).
• An instrument is selected to measure a specific variable in a study.
• The numerical data generated with an instrument may be at the nominal, ordinal,
interval, or ratio level of measurement.
• The level of measurement, with nominal being the lowest form of measurement and
ratio being the highest, determines the type of statistical analysis that can be performed
on the data.
• Dickson and co-workers (2012)
measured self-care adherence to
commonly
recommended behaviors using the
Specific Adherence Survey from
the Medical Outcomes study and
the SCHDI.
• The following study excerpt
identified the scales and
questionnaires used to measure
the other study variables.
• The researchers provided
quality descriptions of the
measurement methods used in
their study and indicated that
these methods were commonly
used in other studies and found to
be reliable (consistent
measurement) and valid (accurate
in measuring a variable)
Data Collection

• Data collection is the precise, systematic gathering of information relevant to the research purpose or the
specific objectives, questions, or hypotheses of a study.

• To collect data, the researcher must obtain permission from the setting or agency in which the study will
be conducted.

• Researchers must also obtain consent from all study participants to indicate their willingness to be in the
study. Frequently, the researcher asks the study participants to sign a consent form, which describes the
study, promises them confidentiality, and indicates that they can withdraw from the study at any time.

• The research report should document permission from an agency to conduct a study and consent of the
study participants
 • During data collection, investigators use a variety of
techniques for measuring study variables, such as observation,
interview, questionnaires, scales, and biological measures.
• In an increasing number of studies, nurses are measuring
physiological and pathological variables using high technology
equipment.
• Researchers collect and systematically record data on each
subject, organizing the data in a way that facilitates computer
entry.

Data Collection • Data collection is usually described in the methodology section

of a research report under the subheading of “Procedures”
,cont..
Data Analysis

Data analysis reduces, organizes, and gives meaning to the data. Analysis
techniques conducted in quantitative research include descriptive and
inferential analyses . Investigators base their choice of analysis techniques
primarily on the research objectives, questions, or hypotheses, and level of
measurement achieved by the measurement methods. Often research reports
indicate the analysis techniques that were used in the study, and this content is
covered prior to the study results.
Data Analysis

• Dickson and associates (2012) clearly identified the analysis

techniques used in their study in the following excerpt. The “Results”
section of their study described the study outcomes and clearly
presented the results in figure, tables, and narrative

• Dickson and colleagues also conducted regression analyses to predict

self-care adherence behaviors and quality of life. Regression analysis
is a common technique used in nursing studies for making predictions.
Discussion of Research Outcomes

The results obtained from data analyses require interpretation to be meaningful.

Interpretation of research outcomes involves examining the results from data analysis,
identifying study limitations, exploring the significance of the findings, forming
conclusions, generalizing the findings, considering the implications for nursing, and
suggesting further studies. The study outcomes are usually presented in the discussion
section of the research report. Limitations are restrictions in a study methodology and/or
framework that may decrease the credibility and generalizability of the findings. A
generalization is the extension of the conclusions made based on the research findings
from the sample studied to a larger population. The study conclusions provide a basis for
the implications of the findings for practice and identify areas for further research.
Summary

• Quantitative research is the traditional research approach in nursing; it includes

descriptive, correlational, quasi-experimental, and experimental types of research
• Conducting quantitative research requires rigor and control.
• The quantitative research process involves conceptualizing a research project,
planning and implementing that project, and communicating the findings.
• The research problem is an area of concern in which there is a gap in the
knowledge needed for nursing practice.
• The research purpose is generated from the problem and identifies the specific
goal or focus of the study.
• The review of relevant literature is conducted to generate a picture of what is
known and unknown about a particular topic and provides a rationale for why the
study needs to be conducted
Summary
• The study framework is the theoretical basis for a study that guides the development of the study and enables
the researcher to link the findings to nursing’s body of knowledge.
• Research objectives, questions, and/or hypotheses are formulated to bridge the gap between the more
abstractly stated research problem and purpose and the study design and plan for data collection and analysis.
• Study variables are concepts at various levels of abstraction that are measured, manipulated, or controlled in a
study.
• Research design is a blueprint for conducting a study that maximizes control over factors that could interfere
with the study’s desired outcomes.
• The population is all the elements that meet certain criteria for inclusion in a study.
• A sample is a subset of the population that is selected for a particular study; the members of a sample are the
subjects or study participants.
• Measurement is the process of assigning numerical values to objects, events, or situations in accord with some
rule. Methods of measurement are identified to measure each of the variables in a study.
• The data collection process involves the precise and systematic gathering of information relevant to the
research purpose or the objectives, questions, or hypotheses of a study.
• Data analyses are conducted to reduce, organize, and give meaning to the data and address the research
purpose and/or objectives, questions, or hypotheses.
• Research outcomes include the findings, limitations, generalization of findings, conclusions, implications for
nursing, and suggestions for further research.
Dr Prema Balusamy
Ph.D. ( Nursing )