ROAD

www.worldhighways.com November 2020 ISSUE 6

TECHNOLOGY
A N A LY S I N G T H E L AT E S T T E C H N O L O G Y, P R O D U C T S & S E R V I C E S

A special publication from

MICROPLASTICS
DETECTION
A REVIEW OF
THE RESEARCH
LITERATURE p12

p17 p25 p32

Surface inspections in South Africa Compaction equipment update Microsurfacing is gaining ground
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 WELCOME

There are many ways to test

for microplastics – some
methods better than others
(photo: David Arminas)

vibrations from road surfaces to relay all kinds

As the saying goes, desperate times call for desperate
measures. Actions that might have been rejected under
normal circumstances may be seen as the best choice now.
t could be argued that with the
of data about the use and health of pavement.
Environmental concerns will become more
important. We have an excellent review of the
literature concerning research on microplastic
pollution from road surfaces, including road
markings.
quickly amended or passed to allow for As financing for road construction and

I COVID-19 pandemic we live in

such desperate times - and are
apparently headed into more as
countries struggle with containing a second
wave of infections. Financial resources of
governments worldwide are dwindling as they
attempt to prop up their economies. They are
pumping billions into sustaining businesses
hit hard by closures and into health services
coping with overstretched hospitals.
However long this pandemic lasts – and
who knows – there will afterwards be a
road to recovery, both metaphorically and
physically.
If anything good has come out of this
pandemic, it is a reinforcement of just how
important transportation is to, not just
national economic health, but also the health
of citizens. This is especially true in urban
areas where inner city and suburban roads
have been repurposed from strictly vehicular
use to non-vehicular use.
In some cities, complete thoroughfares
have been closed to vehicles and local bylaws
outdoor café and restaurant tables on the
pavement. With winter now arriving in the
northern hemisphere, innovative plastic
bubbles are popping up to protect diners from
the cold.
As people shun public transport in fear of
COVID infection, more bicycles and scooters
– many of them electric – are cruising the
streets. Walking to work or the shops is
much more common. To facilitate this, entire
traffic lanes are being appropriated for these
increasingly popular mobility choices.
Ordinary people, not just academics and
consultants, are now questioning urban
design, from housing and retail space, to road
layout and public transportation connectivity.
Where does this leave the road design and
construction sector?
Within the pages of this year’s Road Surface
Technology Review, there are many examples
of how innovation is driving our sector,
everything from non-destructive pavement
testing to data collection. For example, one
company is testing fibre optics to monitor
improvements takes a hit, alternatives to
milling and repaving thousands of kilometres
of highway will be in demand. Our article on
the advantages of slurry surfacing, especially
microsurfacing, is extremely timely.
Visual road surface inspections can be
costly and time-consuming. We see how
two provincial road authorities in South
Africa have routinely been undertaking
semi-automated, full-spectrum road surface
surveys using a Network Survey Vehicle.
Hundreds of kilometres of surface ratings and
gradings can be done from the convenience of
an office desktop.
As countries struggle to get back on their
feet post-pandemic, they will be looking to
the road sector to help them maintain a high-
quality road network but on much-reduced
spending. As shown by our articles this year,
we have the experience, insight and research
capability to help achieve this. n
David Arminas, EDITOR
darminas@ropl.com

CONTENTS
4: ROLLING DYNAMIC TESTING 17: SURFACE INSPECTIONS
28: COMMAND PERFORMNCE
Caterpillar explains its semi-
autonomous compaction

30: AI PAVEMENT INSPECTION

A Texas airport is saved from major
runway reconstruction
8: SOFTENERS vs REJUVENATORS
There are choices for maintaining
aged bituminous binders
12: MICROPLASTICS DETECTION
Sweden’s National Road and Transport
Research Institute reviews the research
South African authorities are using a
Network Survey Vehicle for inspections Data-driven pavement decisions
in the US city of Savannah
23: ACOUSTIC SENSING
Fibre-optic cables collect data to help 32: SLURRY SURFACING
maintenance scheduling Alternative surfacing, especially
microsurfacing, gains ground
25: COMPACTION TECHNOLOGY
A review of the latest equipment 36: WHEEL TRACKERS
to ensure a perfect road surface A modified tracker from New Zealand

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© Route One Publishing Ltd 2020

www.worldhighways.com ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 03

ROLLING DYNAMIC DEFLECTOMETER

RDD TESTING AT AUSTIN-

BERGSTROM AIRPORT
Continuous testing using a Rolling Dynamic Deflectometer saved a big Texas
airport from major runway reconstruction, explains Transtec’s Todd Hanke*

avement engineering firm

P Transtec Group was hired by

consulting engineer RS&H
to perform an evaluation of
airfield pavements at Austin-Bergstrom
International Airport (ABIA) in Texas. RS&H
was interested in using Rolling Dynamic
Deflectometer (RDD) testing to enhance the
traditional pavement evaluation and knew
Transtec had extensive experience with
evaluating and interpreting data from the
RDD process.
Primary evaluation included data collected
from runways, taxiways, maintenance
ramps and a section of the general aviation
apron to support the airport’s pavement
management programme (PMP). The data
was used to determine structural capacity,
evaluate support conditions, aid in forensic
analyses and select design and rehabilitation ABOVE: The RDD is a truck-mounted mobile
alternatives. device that was developed at the University of
During the evaluation, concerns regarding Texas at Austin LEFT: Deflections induced by the
the performance of one particular runway dynamic loads are measured with multiple rolling
– 17L/35R – were brought to Transtec’s sensors
attention. The runway was experiencing
distress in the touchdown areas earlier than
the airport authority had anticipated. It was frequency, thus increasing costs and duration.
determined that a more detailed evaluation With many runways, long periods of testing
on the runway pavement was necessary to can impact on general airport operations, so
determine the potential impacts and limits technology that reduces testing time is a cost-
in order to select an appropriate course of saving benefit.
action. To address this time limitation, the RDD
was selected to support HWD testing. The
DEFLECTION TESTING RDD collects deflection measurements
Non-destructive test (NDT) equipment can continuously and while constantly moving.
be used to evaluate pavements by measuring This allows for a higher resolution of the
the pavement response (deflection) to requirements and budget. data – more data points in less time. In turn,
specified loading conditions. The HWD works by dropping a weight on users can easily pinpoint where pavement
The resulting data helps owners understand to a loading plate, thus applying a transient conditions change.
how the pavement is performing, given force on the pavement. Sensors spaced at The RDD is a truck-mounted mobile
current or future loading. For this project, set intervals then measure the pavement device that was developed at the University
two methods were selected to perform response or deflection. The HWD enables of Texas at Austin and performs continuous
deflection testing and assess pavement users to identify differences in pavement deflection testing of pavement systems. As
structural integrity - Heavy Weight response. However, the discrete testing the truck moves along the pavement, the
Deflectometer (HWD) and RDD testing. makes it impossible to define where changes RDD generates and measures large dynamic
The HWD measures pavement deflections occur and it may miss other localised issues forces which are applied to the pavement
at discrete locations, typically every 50- between test locations. To address this, it through loading rollers. The deflections
250 feet (15-76m), depending on project would be necessary to increase the testing induced by the dynamic loads are measured

04 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 www.worldhighways.com

 ROLLING DYNAMIC DEFLECTOMETER

with multiple rolling sensors. These measured

deflections are indicators of the mechanical
properties of the pavement system.
In addition to general structural analysis,
the continuous collection of RDD data helps
identify differences in deflection response
related to various construction features.
These can be, for example, fills versus cuts,
drainage structures as well as identification
of differences in pavement structural
sections. Identification of these features
is useful for conducting future structural
evaluations, interpretation of results, and
optimising future pavement maintenance and
rehabilitation.
The RDD is complemented by conducting
HWD testing. The RDD can be used to
identify areas where additional discrete
testing using an HWD is needed. The results
from the discrete HWD testing can then
be used to assess the remaining life and
support conditions for specified loading and
determine pavement classification numbers,
PCNs.

TESTING AT ABIA
Transtec used the RDD to provide continuous
and detailed deflection data for runway
pavements tested at Austin-Bergstrom
International Airport. The data was then used
to help select specific HWD test locations for
a more detailed analysis. TOP: Figure 1 - The peaks represent the higher deflections along the pavement joints
One of the key reasons for selecting the TOP: Figure 2 - An overlay of data on Runway 17L35R where the deflection was higher than 5 mils
RDD was to reduce the number of test BELOW: Graph showing impacts per foot
locations required by the HWD, while
increasing the amount of data obtained and
providing a much clearer and more detailed
picture of the actual structural condition of
the pavement. This was especially important
in the evaluation of Runway 17L/35R because
the goal was to determine the limits of
possible rehabilitation.
A large volume of RDD data was collected
for each runway, taxiway, the maintenance
ramp and a section of the general aviation
apron. The data was evaluated at a deeper
level on Runway 17L/35R due to the
concerns about localised pavement distress.
The RDD data helped identify differences
in deflection response related to various
construction futures, such as fills and cuts,
drainage structures and differences in
pavement structural sections. Identification
of these features is useful for conducting
future structural evaluations, interpretation with high-resolution aerial imagery, joint Runway 17L/35R is shown in Figure 1.
of results and planning for pavement layout diagrams and other information, The individual peaks represent the higher
maintenance and rehabilitation. provided valuable insights into the pavement deflections along the pavement joints.
The deflection profiles collected were condition and were used to aid in the The process of selecting the HWD test
processed and converted to shapefiles for selection of HWD testing areas. locations included conducting statistical
viewing in ArcGIS Pro. These profiles, along An example of the continuous data along distribution of data points, identifying trends,

www.worldhighways.com ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 05

ROLLING DYNAMIC DEFLECTOMETER
differentiating mid-slab deflections from
joint deflections and using 3D renderings,
such as Figure 1, to select critical locations.
During this process, the initial focus was on
areas showing high deflections. This data
was then cross-checked against other outside
information, including previous repair plans
– to know which panels were previously
replaced, the pavement condition survey and
other limited historical information.
OVERLAY OF DATA
The information in Figure 2 provides an
example of how the data was evaluated in
GIS and includes an overlay of pavement-
condition data sample units (colour-coded
red to green), mid-panel deflections from
the RDD (bars), joint locations, and previous
panel repairs (hatched boxes). The data
was filtered to show where the deflections
were higher than the baseline average. The
continuous data available from the RDD
showed that additional panels should have
been replaced that were not originally
replaced and that some of the repaired areas
may not have been performing adequately.
To provide an initial verification of
the structural support of the pavement,
additional life analysis was conducted using
FAARFIELD, an airport pavement design and
evaluation software developed by the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA). The main
inputs in the analysis included the airplane
fleet mix, modulus values for the various
pavement layers, and the as-built thickness.
The results of the analysis confirmed that the
majority of the pavement was structurally
sound, but there were isolated areas in
which the pavement needed some form of
rehabilitation or maintenance.
06 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
Night testing along Runway 17L35R
THE RDD ALLOWS USERS TO:
• Assess the overall structural response
and service life of a pavement structure
• Differentiate the relative stiffness of
different regions
• Detect cracks, joints and weak regions
• Assess the performance of cracked or continue to be useful as ABIA develops and
jointed regions monitors its PMP. Airports that measure
• Look for trends in pavement deflections on a routine basis, as a part of
deterioration across a continuous data set their pavement management system, will
• Delineate the regions of the pavement be able to monitor trends in the pavement
influenced by joints and cracks performance and condition which will help
identify the rate of deterioration. They will
be able to better predict with a high level of
The primary focus of the evaluation was to certainty when they will need to intervene
provide baseline data to be incorporated into on their pavement to rehabilitate and avoid
the airport’s PMP and to help with planning requiring a major, costly reconstruction. Q
and budgeting of future maintenance and
rehabilitation activities. The continuous *Todd Hanke joined Transtec Group in 2015.
deflection data from the RDD allows for a He holds a BSc in geological engineering
quick comparison of the performance of the and a BSc in geology and geophysics, both
various surfaces measured. from the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Supplemental analysis was conducted As a project manager with Transtec, he is
on Runway 17L/35R due to the premature the lead airfield pavement designer, having
distress and concerns over the pavement 18 years of extensive experience that also
performance. Transtec’s testing and includes evaluation, non-destructive testing
analysis of the data collected with the RDD and pavement management. Apart from
determined that the overall condition of the Austin-Bergstrom International Airport,
runway 17L/35R was good and that there he has worked with Dallas Fort Worth
were no significant deficiencies in the overall International Airport and Phoenix Sky
pavement structural condition. As a result, Harbor Airport.
the data showed that the need for complete
rehabilitation was not required.
However, the findings did verify that there
were isolated areas experiencing accelerated
distress and that those areas would need to
be reconstructed. The continuous nature
of the deflection data allowed Transtec to
pinpoint the areas that were performing the
worst and find the exact limits of the zones
needing repair. The team eliminated the need
to reconstruct the entire runway and instead
focused on areas showing higher distress,
saving the airport millions of dollars in
reconstruction costs.
The data gathered by the RDD will Todd Hanke
www.worldhighways.com
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RECYCLING AGENTS
SOFTENERS
VERSUS
REJUVENATORS
An investigation by Iterchimica and the University of
Calabria shows how an asphalt rejuvenator can revitalise
the chemical components of an aged bituminous binder*
he re-use and recycling of asphalt
T pavements started around 40
years ago in Japan and is now well
established and practised around
the world. It is commonly acknowledged that
asphalt materials are 100% re-usable without
any degradation to their performance in any
structure or form of road pavement, from
base and sub-base layers to wearing courses.
However, the level of successful recycling
is highly dependent on the correct choice
of the type and quantity of the recycling
agent. Recycling agents not only play a key
role in the recycled mixture’s performance
and mechanical properties but also in the
mixture’s durability¹. In fact, one of the main
obstacles to increasing the level of recycling
is the uncertainty about the durability and
cracking susceptibility of mixtures containing
high amounts of reclaimed asphalt,
particularly in low-temperature climates².
It should be noted that, during recent
years, more polymer-modified and harder-
grade bitumens have been used in asphalt
08 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
production. Because of this, reclaimed
asphalt bitumens may not be adequately
reused with standard technology³. It should
also be noted that despite the importance of
recycling agents, there is as yet no consensus
on their function, associated mechanisms
and their classification.
However, it has been widely accepted
that recycling agents can be classified
into two main categories – softening
agents (softeners) and rejuvenating
agents (rejuvenators). Both softeners and
rejuvenators are being used to recycle
reclaimed asphalt into different asphalt
pavement layers. But, as expected, the targets
and expected performances are different.
The issue is how to distinguish between
them.
The following discussion addresses the
question according to Iterchimica’s latest
research collaboration with Italy’s University
of Calabria. The team studied the chemical
mechanism of recycling and the physical
recovery, using different types of products.
SOFTENING AGENTS
The introduction of softening agents to
the asphalt mixtures containing reclaimed
material tends to reduce the viscosity and
softening point. It increases the penetration
of the final binder component to the required
design specification of the bituminous binder
and the final asphalt mixture. However, the
permanence of the effect is not guaranteed
since the modification is limited to physical
and rheological properties. This category
includes flux oils from different origins.
REJUVENATING AGENTS
Aged-bitumen rejuvenation is the process of
restoring the chemical properties that have
been deteriorating since the asphalt was
produced to the transportation, construction
and its life-cycle service. Consequently, a
rejuvenator has the capacity to partially
restore the lost chemical features of the
reclaimed asphalt and the properties of its old
bituminous binders as well as recovering the
physical and rheological features.
In this way, the long-term performance
of the asphalt mixture containing reclaimed
asphalt can be predicted. Generally,
rejuvenators contain a high proportion of
maltenes** with low saturate contents4.
SOFTENERS VS. REJUVENATORS
According to former definitions, a real
rejuvenating agent should, besides recovering
the physical and rheological properties of
an aged bituminous binder, be capable of
partially revitalising the chemical properties.
www.worldhighways.com
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RECYCLING AGENTS
Iterchimica’s research, in collaboration with
the University of Calabria, applied various
testing methods to study the chemical impact
of different types of recycling agents on the
bitumen’s features. Several recycling agents
were investigated using a variety of physical
and chemical testing methods.
According to the results, all the recycling
agents were capable of recovering the physical
properties to a varying extent. But not all of
them were capable of restoring the chemical
features, as found by using different chemical
testing analyses.
Among the testing methods, atomic
force microscopy (AFM) revealed how a
rejuvenator acts to restore the chemical
structure and components of an aged
bituminous binder. Depending on the type
of the measurement, non-contact mode
or pulsed-force mode, the results can be
presented either by surface topography image
or phase image (see box).
In Figure 1, the top images are phase
images and the bottom images are surface
topography images.
Column A in Figure 1 is virgin bitumen
that hasn’t been aged.
Column B shows how the chemical features
of a virgin bituminous binder were changed
after an ageing process. In this case, the
images are after both short-term and long-
term ageing that were done in a laboratory.
The performance of the rejuvenating agents
on the aged bituminous binder is shown in
column C. In fact, the images in column
C are those of column B but taken after
a rejuvenator has been added to the aged
bitumen.
Comparing column A and column C,
Figure 1
A B
10 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
ATOMIC FORCE
MICROSCOPY (AFM)
Atomic force microscopy – sometimes
called scanning force microscopy – is a
very high-resolution-type of scanning probe
microscopy. Resolution is in the order of
fractions of a nanometre, making it more
than 1,000 times better than the optical
diffraction limit.
Unlike the electron microscope, which
provides a two-dimensional projection
or a two-dimensional image of a sample,
the AFM provides a three-dimensional
surface profile. Also, in order to be seen,
the samples under observation using AFM
need no special treatment, such as metal or
carbon coatings, which would irreversibly
change or damage the sample.
AFM, in normal contact mode, generates
images by scanning a small cantilever
over the surface of a sample. The sharp
tip on the end of the cantilever contacts
the surface, bending the cantilever and
changing the amount of laser light reflected
into the photodiode. The height of the
cantilever is then adjusted to restore the
response signal, resulting in the measured
cantilever height tracing the surface.
But there are several modes of AFM,
depending on the information required
from the sample.
In non-contact mode – sometimes called
tapping mode – the tip of the cantilever
does not contact the sample’s surface.
The cantilever is oscillated at its resonant
frequency (frequency modulation), or just
above (amplitude modulation), where
the amplitude of oscillation is a few
nanometres (<10nm), down to a few
picometres.
Pulsed-force mode adds another
dimension to AFM by measuring the elastic,
electrostatic and adhesive properties of a
sample under investigation. Scanning speed
is comparable to that for the contact mode.
Figure 2
C 80
70
60
Intensity (a.u.)
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
there is a considerable likeness in the images,
pointing to rejuvenation of the aged bitumen,
as seen in column B. However, it should be
noted that chemical scientists are divided
over what they are actually seeing in column
C. Some scientists believe that the bee-
shaped structures are asphaltene and other
researchers believe that they are petroleum
waxes. Asphaltenes and waxes are a general
category of solids and cover a wide range of
materials.
Asphaltenes, and resins, are large
molecules consisting mostly of hydrogen and
carbon, with one to three sulphur, oxygen or
nitrogen atoms per molecule. Asphaltenes
tend to form aggregates, called micelles, in
hydrocarbon solutions. The basic structure
is composed of rings, mainly aromatics, with
three to 10 or more rings per molecule.
Meanwhile, there are two general types of
petroleum waxes. Waxes composed primarily
of normal alkanes crystallise in large, flat
plates – macrocrystalline structures – and
are called paraffin waxes. Waxes composed
primarily of cycloalkanes and i-alkanes
crystallise as small needle structures and are
called microcrystalline waxes.
Yet, regardless of what these features
are in the rejuvenated bitumen, the aged
bituminous binder plus a real rejuvenator
would provide the same image of the virgin
bituminous binder as reference¹.
In addition to AFM, X-ray diffraction
(XRD) was another technique used for
investigating the performance of the recycling
agents. XRD is a non-destructive method
often employed to gather information about
the microstructure and crystallite parameters
of asphalt mixtures and a defined atomic
Virgin bituminous binder
Aged bituminous binder
Aged bituminous binder + 2% Rej. Agent
Aged bituminous binder + 6% Rej. Agent
20 30 40 50 60 70
2 Theta (o)
www.worldhighways.com

Photo courtesy of Tarmac
A rejuvenator has the
capacity to partially
restore the lost
chemical features of
the reclaimed asphalt
and the properties of
its old bitumen
arrangement5. The technique is based on the
interaction between the incident wave, or
X-rays, and the crystal lattice.
Figure 2 shows how the different
concentration of a rejuvenator impacts on the
chemical properties of an aged bituminous
binder.
VARIETY OF PRODUCTS
Thanks to advances in industrial chemistry,
several types of recycling agents are available
for recycling asphalt at different temperature
levels. These can be as cold, warm or hot mix
asphalt.
Cold asphalt recycling agents are composed
mainly of soft bituminous binders or binder
from any origin as well as various additives
including flux oils. They are considered as an
alternative solution for bitumen emulsions in
cold asphalt recycling. While these bituminous
emulsions are associated sometimes with
practical difficulties, alternative recycling agents
can be used for a variety of paving applications
including maintenance and rehabilitation work.
Iterchimica’s Iterlene ACF 1000 HP has been
successfully used also for construction of the
binder layer of a low-traffic-volume road in
Spain, providing a new sustainable technology
for road-paving applications6.
www.worldhighways.com
Nowadays, hot mix asphalt recycling is the
most common recycling practice. Hot mix
recycling agents with a high boiling point
can be added either to the hot bituminous
binder or to reclaimed asphalt materials.
Iterchimica’s Iterlene ACF 1000 and ACF
2000 belong to the rejuvenator category of
recycling agents.
In addition to cold mix and hot mix
recycling agents, there is a third category
that also enables the asphalt production at a
moderate level of mixing/laying temperatures
(WMA), providing its workability. For this
purpose, Iterchimica offers two products:
Iterlow RS and Iterlow V, to be used
according to the production temperatures. Q
*The authors are Shahin Eskandarsefat, a
senior researcher at Iterchimica, and Loretta
Venturini, Iterchimica’s scientific and strategic
development director.
**Maltenes are the n-alkane (pentane or
heptane)-soluble molecular components
of asphalt, which is the residue remaining
after petroleum refiners remove other useful
derivatives such as gasoline and kerosene from
crude oil. Asphaltene compounds are the other
primary component of asphalt.
RECYCLING AGENTS
References
[1] V. Loise et al., A rheological and
microscopic study. Proceedings of first
Macedonian Road Congress, 2019.
[2] S. Ashimova et al., Organic-based recycling
agents for road-paving applications in cold-
climate regions. International Journal of
Pavement Engineering, 2020.
[3] European Asphalt Pavement Association-
EAPA Position paper, Recommendations
for the use of rejuvenators in hot and warm
asphalt production. Online at: https://eapa.
org/eapa/, 2018.
[4] I. Soohyok, et al., Impact of rejuvenators
and performance and engineering properties of
asphalt mixtures containing recycled materials.
Construction and Building Materials, 2014.
[5] Chemistry LibreTexts, Powder-Xray
diffraction. Online at https://chem.libretexts.
org/, 2020.
[6] S. Eskandarsefat et al., 100% cold recycled
asphalt mixture using a multi-functional
rejuvenator/binder. Proceedings of Road and
Environment Conference, 2019.
ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 11
MICROPLASTICS

Figure 1

MICROPLASTICS: A
RESEARCH UPDATE
Sweden’s VTI recently published an update on the
research literature concerning microplastics from
tyre and road wear; the following is an edited
version of Chapter 6, Sampling Methods

he push towards greener, more real road, or under similar conditions. The equipment was used in the European

T sustainable roads is improving

our knowledge about microplastic
pollution. We know it comes from
Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials
has a test rig where a tyre is worn against
a drum covered in sandpaper. The drum
Union’s Re-tyre project, the classification of
re-treaded truck tyres. It was also used to
study wear particles from tyres using cyclone
a myriad of sources – from tyres to highway is enclosed in a chamber through which vacuum cleaners to collect dust behind the
paints – and has a wide variety of dispersal purified air flows. Samples are collected from wheels. The collection efficiency was low and
patterns allowing it into the ecosystem. the air, downstream from the contact point the study focused on the inhalable fraction of
Yet research into microplastics specifically between the tyre and the sandpaper-covered the dust (PM10).
focusing on roads remains sparse and often drum. The main focus is on PM10 and As only small amounts of this fraction were
obscure. smaller particles. collected, coarser particles up to 150μm were
This is why Sweden’s National Road and There are at least two types of large-scale also collected for analysis. At present, no
Transport Research Institute – VTI – has test facilities where real road surfacing methods specifically for microplastics from
brought together detailed information about materials are used to study both tyre wear tyre wear have been published.
what research exists. Microplastics from Tyre and road surface wear. The other type of facility used for studies
and Road Wear: a literature review is an In Germany, BASt (Bundesanstalt für of road surface and tyre wear is the Circular
invaluable sampler for highways authorities, Straßenwesen/Federal Highway Research Road Simulator of Sweden’s VTI. It consists
road concessionaires and contractors. Institute) and the Karlsruhe Institute of of a 16m-long circular track that can be
Chapter 6 covers sampling methods. Technology have standing drums with road covered in any road surface material (Figure
Sampling for tyre particles and road wear surfacing on the inside which are equipped 2). The machine rotates around a central
particles differs according to the medium in with an internal wheel rig (Figure 1). The vertical axle on which six-wheel axles are
which the particles exist. A simple method
for sampling materials from tyre tread is to
cut pieces using a knife. Another commonly
used method is to use a file to remove
material, which gives coarse tyre filings rather
than whole pieces. Samples are also often
frozen using liquid nitrogen, after which they
are ground into finer materials to be analysed
for chemical composition.
A common denominator for all these
methods is that they do not reflect actual tyre
wear. They tell nothing about the physical
characteristics of the wear particles, such as
shape or size, but only provide information
about their chemical composition. Naturally,
the metal in knives and files can contaminate
the samples. But as long as the focus of the
analyses is microplastics or other organic
compounds, this is a minor problem.
A more realistic sampling of generated tyre
wear particles requires sampling of wear dust
either from a laboratory environment, where Figure 2
tyres are worn against a road surface from a

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MICROPLASTICS
Figure 3
mounted. Four of the axles are powered, in
this case by electric motors.
Different types of personal car tyres can
be mounted on the wheel axles. During
testing, the wheels are lowered onto the
track until the desired axle load is reached
and the wheels then drive the rotation
of the machine. The speed can be varied
continuously to up to 70kph. At speeds
above 30kph, an eccentric movement can be
activated causing the wheels to move across
almost the entire width of the track, rather
than follow the same line.
During tests using the Circular Road
Simulator, the tyres follow a fairly tight
circular track. The inner edge of each tyre
travels slightly more slowly over the surface
than the outer edge. This results in a small
rotational slip of the contact surface which is
why the tyre wear in the simulator is greater
than in real driving.
Since the early 2000s, the simulator has
also been used for generation and sampling
of wear particles with a focus on the inhalable
fraction – PM10. The majority of the studies
have focused on the wear caused by studded
tyres on different types of road surfacing
materials. Some studies on tyre wear have
also been carried out, although without
all the wear materials being collected for
analysis.
Particles larger than PM10 have been
collected by the simulator using wet vacuum
cleaners connected to a device behind one
of the tyres (Figure 3). This method may not
be optimal for the collection of samples of
microplastics from tyre wear. Both the hoses
between the device, the vacuum cleaner and
the vacuum cleaner container are made of
plastic which may contaminate samples.
A number of vehicle-based systems have
been developed to sample emissions from
the contact between tyres and the road
14 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
Figure 4
surface. Like most laboratory methods,
these are designed to study emissions and
characteristics of PM10. Studies by the Tyre
Industry Project (see box) used cyclone
vacuum cleaners with specially designed
mouthpieces mounted behind the tyres.
Examples of systems include the Finish
Sniffer for measuring behind the left back
wheel of a van and the TRAKER which
measures particle concentrations behind both
front wheels. This type of method has been
copied by a number of researchers. However,
particles have generally not been collected to
determine a source.
A similar measuring vehicle has been
used in the Republic of Korea to collect
particles for elementary analysis and
electron microscopy. Bit-only PM10 has
been collected, which means that a large
proportion of tyre wear has probably been
missed. Other studies suggest that larger
particles make up the main part. Without
exception, the collection methods used are
designed to collect mainly inhalable particles.
DUST
There are multiple studies concerning
resistance and wear of road markings. These
are to assess whether they meet physical
requirements and to evaluate the wear of new
markings. However, no studies were found
focusing on road marking wear specifically
for environmental purposes. Some test
facilities designed for other particles could
be used to test the wear of road markings by
tyres.
In the field, tyre and road wear samples
can be collected in a similar way as for soil
samples which are then sieved and separated
from other types of particles.
Studies where the main aim is to analyse
road dust simply use a dustpan and brush or
a basic vacuum cleaner. In some cases, pre-
determined areas are sampled to determine
the amount of material per square metre. In
other cases, sampling focuses on collecting
a particular sample volume without any
relation to the size of the sampled area.
For collecting dust from a road surface,
VTI uses a proprietary machine called the
Wet Dust Sampler (WDS). A prototype was
used from 2011 until 2014 when an improved
version, the WDSII, was developed. Two
copies of a slightly modified and further
improved version, the WDSIII, have been
built and sold to Finland and Norway.
The WDSIII washes a known area of road
using a known amount of pressurised water
after which it is transferred into a sample
bottle using air pressure (Figure 4). The
collected dust samples can also be analysed
for physical and chemical characteristics.
For many years, the focus of the analyses
was on the amount of dust, size distribution
and proportion of organic materials. It was
aimed at evaluating different methods for
decreasing particle concentrations in the road
environment. Since 2017, samples have been
collected to also determine the microplastic
content of road dust. In Norway, the WDS
has also been used in studies of organic
compounds associated with tyre rubber.
One of the samplers for road surfaces
most commonly mentioned in the literature
is based on a vacuum pump which sucks
air through a deposition chamber, a PM10
separator and a filter for PM10 with 25 litres
per minute. Samples are collected over 1m²
using a hose nozzle.
Another road dust sampler uses a leaf-
blower to blow air onto a section of road
surface. A particle sampler is connected to
a hood between the blower’s nozzle and the
road surface. The sampler collects PM10
on a filter for analysis (Figure 5). Samples
have been collected for elementary analysis
www.worldhighways.com

Figure 5
Blower
Hood
and microscopy but not yet for analysis of
microplastics or organic compounds.
VARIATIONS
When sampling for road surfaces, variations
in both the size and composition of dust
deposits over the year are likely. Consider
the use of summer and winter tyres, as
well as meteorological variations - wind,
temperature, rainfall. All these may influence
the accumulation of road dust on the surface,
as well as the emissions of microplastics.
Study over shorter periods (hours, days,
weeks) may indicate how wind, precipitation
and sudden changes in traffic volume,
composition and characteristics affect dust
deposits on a road surface.
Variations between different traffic
environments, with different road surfaces,
traffic volume and composition, speeds and
so on, would also make for interesting study.
Variations in how dust and microplastics
are distributed across and along a road
may show where deposits of microplastics
are to be found and how they are affected
by differences in the macro-texture and
condition of the road.
Coarser particles above 10μm can be
collected using a dustpan and brush, as was
done in the recent project Tire Abrasion in the
Environment at the Technische Universität
Berlin which analysed for microplastics. A
number of studies have used an antistatic
brush with durra (sorghum bicolor) bristles
and a steel dustpan to avoid contaminating
samples with plastic.
RUNOFF
Samples of runoff water have been analysed
for different types of pollutants. But it has
not been possible to find in the literature a
sampler specifically designed for collecting
microplastic samples. Plastic content in the
www.worldhighways.com
MICROPLASTICS
PM10 inlet
Figure 6
PARTISOL-
FRM
MODEL 2000
Generator
Mobile
platform
physical sampling system should be avoided the particles are more closely associated with
to reduce contamination; a sampler may need the only traffic and no other source.
to be adapted away from plastics to achieve Runoff samples may also be collected from
this. gully pots or specific facilities for runoff
Unless runoff sampling during real collection. As runoff only takes place during
precipitation is required, tunnels make a precipitation, it is often difficult to plan and
good sample area. Samples of runoff water carry out manual sampling. This is why
can be collected after washing the tunnel automatic samplers – passive and active - are
road surface using flushing equipment. The frequently used.
advantage of using a tunnel is that it provides Active samplers come in a wide range of
a more controlled environment with minimal designs and can often be programmed to
impact from the weather, such as wind and collect samples at certain times or set up for
rain. There may be fewer particle sources, but flow-proportional sampling. An example of
this type of sampler is shown in Figure 6.
This sampler can be used with different types
of containers, either for bulk sampling or for
sampling at pre-set intervals.
A type of passive sampler is shown in
Clip
Figure 7. This particular type is placed in
gully pots or similar places and fills to a
Wire hanger
pre-defined volume during the rainfall. A
Upper grated cover prevents leaves and large objects from
end-cap obstructing the bottles. Once full, it closes
automatically using a floating ball and no
more water is collected. For this reason, it
Debris- is known as a first-flush sampler, but it is
shedding also used to sample during an entire rain
dome event. However, it is usually made of plastic,
meaning that there is a risk of contamination
Push-out if used for microplastic sampling.
hanger Another type of passive sampler uses
buttons a series of filter cloths with gradually
Sample decreasing pore size. A further type, a gravity
collection flow sampler, is a type of first-flush sampler
bottle
which closes automatically once it is full. A
number of different versions of the gravity
type are available; one is mounted on the
carriageway and another model is combined
with pipes used to collect runoff water
directly by the roadside.
The Swedish road research facility Test
Figure 7 Site E18 (Figure 8) has a structure designed
to collect runoff water. It consists of curbs
ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 15
MICROPLASTICS
Eight sensors for
temperature, water content
and electrical conductivity
Temperature
sensors on
different
depths
Data-collection
building
Air quality
Four weather station
Figure 8 masts for evaluation
of sensors
along a 100m stretch of road where water
is collected and transported to a drain.
The outlet of the drain is equipped with a
flowmeter.
CONCLUSIONS
Standardised methods for sampling are often
not available and there are no standardised
methods for sampling microplastics. The
choice of sampling method depends upon
the medium to be sampled. The subject of
the analysis determines the sample volume
required, how samples should be prepared
before analysis and which analytical methods
to consider.
A variety of issues must be taken into
account to ensure the collected samples are
relevant and representative. For example,
different densities of microplastics mean that
they spread by different dispersal pathways
and accumulate in different environments.
Some microplastics accumulate in surface
water and along beaches, while others,
such as tyre rubber, accumulate in bottom
sediment. Q
16 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
Meteorology including
temperature, wind,
percipitation, moist levels,
Traffic radiation, turbulence and
sensors heat flows
Sensors for electrical conductivity.
Collection of percolating
precipitation and melt water from
road and ditches
Sensors for temperature,
relative humidity and vehicle
acceleration (three levels)
THE VTI REPORT
Microplastics from Tyre and Road Wear: a literature review; by Yvonne Andersson-Sköld, Mikael
Johannesson, Mats Gustafsson et al; published by VTI, Sweden’s National Road and Transport
Research Institute 2020. Full references to the research are given in the 146-page publication
which is available as a free download on the VTI website: www.vti.se/en.
The Swedish government commissioned VTI in 2018 to develop and disseminate what little
knowledge exists about microplastics from road traffic and the road surface. VTI’s report notes
that the vast majority of microplastics from road traffic are tyre wear particles. Particles also come
from other sources such as the wear of road-marking paint and from road re-surfacing which may
contain polymer modified bitumen. Based on the available knowledge and mapping of microplastic
sources in Sweden, it can be assumed that at least half of the Swedish microplastic emissions are
tyre wear particles. Other unrelated sources - crashed vehicles, general littering, wear from brake
pads - are not included in the report.
TYRE INDUSTRY PROJECT
The Tyre Industry Project (TIP) started in 2005 and operates under the umbrella of the World
Business Council for Sustainable Development, a non-governmental organisation based in Geneva,
Switzerland. Three tyre companies - Bridgestone (Japan), Goodyear (US) and Michelin (France)
– lead the project on behalf of the TIP members, all global tyre makers. Research involves the
complete lifecycle of tyres, from production chemicals to use and eventually recycling and disposal.
Recent work includes the use of nanomaterials to improve product performance and reduce
environmental impact. Results are available to the public via the WBCSD’s website and published
in a number of scientific journals.
www.worldhighways.com

PROJECT-LEVEL
PAVEMENT
DESIGN USING
NETWORK-
LEVEL DATA
The efficiency of using a network survey
vehicle to capture road condition can be
improved upon by operating an iPAVe, as
recent case studies in South Africa
have shown, notes Simon Tetley*
n order for all of South Africa’s
I road agencies – national,
provincial and municipal –
to maintain their respective
road networks, the collection and analysis
of network-level road condition data
for pavement management is essential.
It enables the development of effective
maintenance and rehabilitation strategies for
project-level design and implementation (see
box at end of article).
Indeed, systematic road-condition data
collection has been carried out by South
African road authorities for the past 40
years. The determination of road pavement
condition – both surface and structural
– based primarily on information from
a physical visual assessment of the road
www.worldhighways.com
surface is done in accordance with South
Africa’s Draft TMH9 Visual Assessment
Manual.
Occasionally the visual assessment is
augmented with functional data in the form
of riding quality, using a vehicle equipped
with a linear displacement indicator and
structural measurements from a falling
weight deflectometer (FWD) or similar
device.
The capture of degree (of a problem’s
severity) and extent (frequency of
occurrence) of road condition assessment
ratings onto a TMH9 assessment form
has been the norm for more than 30
years (Figure 1). Some road agencies have
now migrated to completing the form on
electronic data-capture devices.
iPAVe
TOP: Figure 1 - The TMH9 Assessment Form
ABOVE: Figure 2 - Network Survey Vehicle
The vast majority of South Africa’s road
network-level condition data remains
dependent on undertaking physical visual
assessments. The South African National
Roads Agency and most of the provincial
and metropolitan road authorities also
undertake profiling and falling weight
deflectometer measurements. It should
be noted that falling weight deflectometer
measurements are done on only higher
order roads and so are seldom used at the
municipal level where these roads are not
within the authority’s remit.
Two provincial road authorities in South
Africa have routinely been undertaking
ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 17
iPAVe
Figure 3a and 3b -The post-rating technique means each assessor can visually rate around 150km of road per day
semi-automated full-spectrum road surface
surveys of their road network – paved and
unpaved - using a Network Survey Vehicle
(NSV), as seen in Figure 2.
18 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
NETWORK SURVEY VEHICLE
Unlike the majority of South African road
authorities, these provinces use the post-
rating technique to evaluate and assess
road conditions. With this method, digital
images and cracking data collected by an
NSV are assessed in terms of the TMH9
manual, as would be the case for a physical
field assessment. However, the difference
is that the defects are rated in the comfort
and safety of an office environment by
experienced visual assessors (Figures 3a and
3b).
This process is obviously much safer
than undertaking physical field surveys,
especially during this time of the COVID-19
pandemic. It is also significantly more
LEFT: Figure 4 - A road condition survey van
with a falling weight deflectometer system
inside BELOW: Figure 5 - The iPAVe has been
monitoring South African roads since 2017
productive and less fatiguing. Each assessor
can visually rate around 150km of road per
day.
The method does have an element
of subjectivity to it but this is much
reduced in comparison to physical field
assessments. Quality assurance is done
through exception/validation algorithms
incorporated into the data-capture software.
Meanwhile, quality control is managed
through independent double rating of
random road sections and panel inspection.
Pavement structural data is provided
by pavement deflection. This is typically
measured using a falling weight
deflectometer (Figure 4). For network-
level surveys, these deflections are usually
measured at 100m to 200m intervals in the
outer wheel path of each slow lane.
In summary, the methodology for
undertaking network-level road condition
assessments in South Africa can be
described as discrete, non-synchronised
and semi-automated at best. At worst, it is
outdated when compared to global norms.
iPAVe SINCE 2017
In an initiative aiming to provide a more
technically appropriate and objective
method of road-condition data collection,
ARRB Systems Africa has been operating
the intelligent Pavement Assessment
Vehicle – iPAVe - in South Africa since
2017. This is considered to be a significant
advancement in road asset management; the
vehicle collects simultaneously surface and
structural pavement condition data at road
speeds of up to 80kph (see Road Surface
Technology 2019, page 30).
www.worldhighways.com
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iPAVe

ABOVE: Figure 6 - Behavioural state comparison of falling weight deflectometer (FWD) and iPAVe maximum deflection over 36.5km
BELOW: Figure 7 - Condition-rating comparison of falling weight deflectometer (FWD) and iPAVe - maximum deflection over 36.5km

The iPAVe, as shown in Figure 5, integrates
a traffic speed deflectometer developed by
Greenwood Engineering with the Automated
Road Rehabilitation Business (ARRB)
Systems’ Hawkeye 2000 platform. There are
six such iPAVe units operating around the
world.
Greenwood’s traffic speed deflectometer
uses high-precision Doppler lasers to
measure the pavement deflection velocity/
slope from which the deflection bowl is
calculated. The Hawkeye platform measures
road surface characteristics such as cracking,
potholes and failures, roughness, rutting,
texture and geometry, together with spatial

20 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 www.worldhighways.com

 iPAVe

information and digital imaging. uniform sections in terms of structural kilometre 20.25 and kilometre 25.25, was in a
The iPAVe is seen as the future of road condition. The first, between kilometre 1 warning-to-severe distressed condition.
condition assessment. It offers a continuous and kilometre 20.25, and the third, from In addition, the 90th percentile
(down to a 1m processing interval) and kilometre 25.25 to 36.5, were, based on the representative limit for each uniform section
fully integrated and synchronised data benchmarking indices, in sound structural was plotted, as would be done during an
collection option. It generates all the condition. The middle section, between evaluation and design for a Class B road.
information required for network-level
screening at much improved production
rates and at a significantly reduced risk
when compared to traditional discrete
methods.

PROJECT-LEVEL DESIGN
The technology for fully automated
road-condition data acquisition is readily
available in South Africa, although this
is not perhaps fully appreciated by the
roads sector. The capability to undertake
continuous integrated road structure
and surface measurements also presents
the opportunity to use the network data
for project-level pavement design. An MAKE THE DIFFERENCE
investigation has been undertaken to assess
the viability of the process.
In order to simulate a real project, a
36km section of provincial main road was
selected where the pavement structure and
traffic loading was known. Continuous
pavement structural and surfacing data was
collected by the iPAVe in approximately
60 minutes. Meanwhile, a falling weight
deflectometer was used to measure
comparative deflections at 50m intervals –
this taking four days.
Following the data-collection exercise,
the testing locations of the deflectometer
and iPAVe were synchronised, with the
iPAVe data being processed at 50m intervals
to match the individual position of the
falling weight deflections.
The aim of this practical application was
to undertake data analysis of the iPAVe and
FWD results using pavement evaluation
and mechanistic empirical design
principles, as would be done in practice for FAE GROUP is turning the page to its newest chapter.
project-level pavement design. We are celebrating our past but with a clear vision towards the future
The first step was to plot and compare by renewing our logo and corporate image.
the maximum deflection and the respective The new slogan, “Make the Difference” conveys our commitment
cumulative sum for the iPAVe and falling to do our utmost to make a difference in every area
weight deflectometer measurements. This and at every level extending
was done by using the behavioural state from product quality, technology, company procedures,
limits and structural condition rating as and in the workplace.
set out in South African Pavement Design
Method (SAPEM), Chapter 10, Table 43 and
Table 44 respectively. This is illustrated by FAE Group S.p.A.
Figures 6 and 7. Zona Produttiva 18 - 38013 Fondo - Borgo d’Anaunia (TN) - Italy
The cumulative sum of difference Ph. +39.0463.840.000
segmentation for the iPAVe and falling www.fae-group.com
weight deflectometer measurements
resulted in three clear and correlating

www.worldhighways.com ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 21

iPAVe
Figure 8a
ABOVE: Comparison of the 90th percentile FWD and iPAVe deflection bowls for each uniform section
As can be seen, the individual and 90th
percentile maximum deflections and the
CUSUM- (cumulative sum control chart)
derived uniform sections for iPAVe and
FWD show good correlation. Base layer
index (BLI), middle layer index (MLI)
and lower layer index (LLI) values were
also compared and again showed good
comparative data fits.
The 90th percentile deflection bowls for
each uniform section are plotted in Figures
8a, 8b and 8c to illustrate the comparison
between the iPAVe and FWD measurements.
RESULTS
The FWD- and iPAVe-generated deflection
bowls, together with the pavement profiles
and traffic data, were used to back calculate
representative pavement-layer-stiffness
moduli and for the subsequent forward
calculation of bearing capacity for each
uniform section using commercial computer
software developed to analyse FWD
deflections. The results of the analysis are
shown in Table 1.
It can be seen from Table 1 that there is
very little difference between the mechanistic
empirical analysis results as derived from
iPAVe and FWD measurements, with
this being applicable to both sound and
distressed pavement sections. From this
BELOW: Table 1. Comparison of iPAVe- and FWD-derived layer-stiffness moduli and estimated structural capacity
Uniform section
Layer 1
FWD KM 1 TO KM 20.05 6000
iPAVe KM 1 TO KM 20.05 5900
FWD KM 20.05 TO 25.45 750
iPAVe KM 20.05 TO 25.45 700
FWD KM 25.45 TO 36.50 6900
iPAVe KM 25.45 TO 36.50 6500
22 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
Figure 8b
limited study, it is therefore evident that
iPAVe technology can, in fact, be used for
project-level design as well as in network-
level surveys.
In addition to the deflection data,
integrated rut depth, riding quality and
automated crack detection and crack type,
identification is also available for analysis.
This gives pavement engineers a holistic
insight into possible failure mechanisms
and additional data with which to identify
optimal remedial interventions.
The obvious technical and economic
advantages of using equipment, such as
iPAVe and multi-speed deflectometers,
will no doubt see this technology replacing
current pavement-deflection testing
methods. This will happen at not only
network-screening level but also, as
illustrated by the above study, at project
level. Q
*Simon is a transportation engineer and
director of ARRB Systems Africa and manages
the company’s Cape Town office. With over 30
years as a consulting engineer, he specialises
in the fields of pavement and materials
engineering, road asset management,
economic evaluation, forensic investigations
and construction management of road and
airport infrastructure.
Back-calculated stiffness’s (MPa)
Layer 2 Layer 3 Upper S-grade
960 70 120
980 80 120
160 40 100
140 140 100
990 80 100
980 120 110
Figure 8c
PAVEMENT-
MANAGEMENT LEVELS
Pavement management broadly covers
planning, programming, budgeting, analysis,
design and construction of a highway system.
Within this broad term there is network-level
management and project-level management.
Data collected at the project-level – for
example, details of a particular section of the
larger highway – are often useful, when used
with similar data from other sections, to help
decisions that affect the entire road network,
that is to say, network-level management.
However, not all data needed for project-
level decision-making is required to support
network-level decisions. Generally, network-
level decisions can be made using less
complete data than required for section-
specific project-level decisions.
For a fuller discussion of pavement
management levels and data collection, see
Pavement Management Levels and Staged
Data Collection; Roger E. Smith, Department
of Civil Engineering, Texas Transportation
Institute at Texas A&M University College
Station; paper presented at the 4th
International Conference on Managing
Pavements (1998).
Capacity (MESA)
Sub-stratum
210 8.5
160 8.6
120 0.1
90 0.1
130 9.1
150 9.7
www.worldhighways.com

DAS technology converts
standard communications
fibre into a linear array of
discrete vibration sensors
DATA COLLECTION
USING DISTRIBUTED
ACOUSTIC SENSING
Good data concerning stresses upon, as well as
movements over and on a road surface, are essential in
the battle against traffic congestion. Distributed acoustic
sensing is one weapon available to city authorities,
explains Stuart Large*
mooth traffic flow is crucial for
S the economy of any city anywhere
in the world. Meanwhile,
reliable traffic tracking and data,
preferably real-time data, is essential for a
city to effectively plan its transport network
and optimise traffic flow. However, existing
traffic tracking technology is fraught with
shortcomings.
For example, point sensors and cameras
have limited and fixed fields of view. In-
vehicle sensors that track location data lack
the granular detail for concise traffic-flow
tracking. Floating-point data can give average
waiting times at a junction, but lacks the
expediency to effectively change traffic lights
in real time and directly improve vehicle flow.
Meanwhile, GPS can be affected by
disrupted signal in tunnels or rural areas,
or simply because tracking technology is
available within only a minority of vehicles.
What current traffic-monitoring
technology lacks is real-time transparency
and data feeds that can be monitored
remotely and swiftly acted upon.
Distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) is a
photonic sensing technology. Essentially, it
upgrades a city’s existing fibre-optic cable
network to contain thousands of vibration
sensors — akin to placing an army of
microphones along a road.
DAS technology converts standard
communications fibre into a linear array of
discrete vibration sensors. Activities such as
www.worldhighways.com
people hot-tapping pipelines, leaks, perimeter
intrusions, moving vehicles, industrial
operations, failing mechanical components,
and so many more, all generate vibrations
with distinct acoustic characteristics. DAS
technology monitors these vibrations. If
supported by the right software it accurately
detects, classifies and reports on the vibration
events – locating the position of each event to
within a few metres.
Lasers shoot thousands of pulses of
light down a cable every second. A minor
proportion of this is reflected back to the
DAS system and any disturbances will
be picked up by the sensor. Each kind of
disturbance has its own signature, allowing
the DAS system to tell an operator in real
time what happened, exactly where it
happened and when it happened.
By equipping the fibre cable laid alongside
a road with DAS technology, it becomes
possible to track vehicle movements,
determine the size of vehicles using the roads,
work out where congestion forms and its
type, assess the state of the infrastructure and
also identify unexpected works.
Armed with those insights, local
authorities can improve journey times
through congestion management methods,
be alerted to dangerous traffic queues on
slip roads, get information on infrastructure
usage, where motorists are jumping red lights
or trespassing, as well as protecting pipes and
cables from harm.
ACOUSTIC SENSING
By ‘tapping in’ to the vast fibre-optic
cabling infrastructure that exists in
abundance in cities across the globe,
DAS provides greater coverage of city
infrastructure than any other technology.
And there’s no need to carry out extensive
construction work, dig up the streets or
install new fixed-point sensors or cameras.
SPANISH TRIAL
In February this year Fotech worked with
Spanish infrastructure and engineering
company COMSA on an immersive field
trial. The objective was to determine how
DAS could manage traffic at roundabouts
and whether it could help to change the
sequencing of traffic lights to improve
congestion.
A trial of DAS was set up along 5kms of
road passing through open countryside,
a light industrial area and the Catalonian
town of La Bisbal d’Empordà, near Girona,
which has a population of approximately
11,000. DAS tapped into roadside fibre in a
micro-trench and then into fibre underneath
the roadside pavement in the town. The test
aimed to thoroughly test DAS capabilities for
a traffic management system and determine
the limits of its sensitivity.
Throughout the day, Fotech and COMSA
measured regular traffic flows through a
combination of DAS and video cameras to
cross-validate the findings at specific points
along the route. The trial also measured the
movements of pedestrians, cyclists and the
vibrations of an old stone bridge along the
route.
At night, a 500m stretch of road between
two roundabouts was closed so that the team
could run a series of tests. These ranged from
tracking different methods of braking and
accelerating, as well as running simulated
traffic queues. Each of the parameters was
changed one by one in order to understand
how much the sensors were able to measure.
While analysis of the data is still ongoing, it
is already clear that DAS can be used to track
the movement of vehicles in both directions
without interruption along the stretch of
an entire road, as well as deliver sufficient
information for a sophisticated traffic
management system. The test has proved
the ability of DAS to determine the size of
vehicles and the speed at which they travel, in
addition to identifying points of congestion
and the length and growth rate of queues.
ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 23
ACOUSTIC SENSING
Fotech is using fibre-optic cables to detect vibrations
from vehicles in order to analyse traffic volume
Fotech is now working to build an
integrated solution that can control traffic
throughout a road network, with the
additional benefit of reducing emissions and
increasing air quality.
In addition to the trial in La Bisbal
d’Empordà, Fotech is taking part in an
ongoing programme in the UK called
SIMULATE - Smart, Infrastructure and
Mobility Urban Laboratory and Test
Environment. The project involves testing
DAS at a four-way junction in the English
county of Staffordshire, using the system to
monitor and detect the types and speed of
incoming traffic in order to dynamically alter
the signals to keep traffic flowing as smoothly
as possible. Fotech’s DAS system is syncing
with the other sensors being deployed to
create an integrated solution. More detail on
the results of this trial will be released in the
coming months.
LAS VEGAS
There are also numerous other opportunities
where DAS could offer existing smart-city
projects a crucial extra layer of detail. One
project is NTT DATA’s “safe city” work in Las
Vegas, in the US state of Nevada.
One of the project’s prime use cases so
far has been wrong-way driver detection in
downtown one-way roadway segments. By
gathering before-and-after data it has been
possible to measure the effectiveness of
roadway improvements.
A stated future goal of the project is to
explore additional ways to improve traffic
management and signal timing. The reality is
that DAS can play a massive role in the real-
time dynamic management of traffic systems.
For example, if someone jumps a red
light at an intersection, DAS would be
able to detect this. The system could then
immediately change the traffic lights in real
time to hold traffic and pedestrians at other
points of the intersection on a longer red light
to minimise the risk of an incident caused by
the car jumping the lights.
Integrating DAS with NTT Data’s “safe
city” solution would quickly demonstrate
the impact of various traffic management
strategies. It could provide clear evidence on
which to base real-time traffic management
decisions at a citywide level.
In the UK, some attempts to tackle
congestion have revolved around a strategy
focused on what are called smart motorways
24 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
SMART MOTORWAYS
Smart motorways are most prevalent in
the UK but are also found in Australia and
New Zealand, as well as in Switzerland.
Sometimes still called managed motorways,
they use active traffic management systems
to increase vehicle capacity while improving
safety for drivers. Techniques can include
variable speed limits and hard-shoulder
running during the busiest times daily.
By implementing these, other benefits
accrue, such as more reliable journey times,
reduced noise and fewer harmful vehicle
emissions.
(see box). Although these smart motorways
currently account for just 320km - or less
than 9% of the UK’s 3,700km motorway
network - analysis shows that capacity in
the busiest of those areas has increased
by up to a third. However, a recent report
published by the UK Department for
Transport raised concerns about the safety of
smart motorways. The document suggested
technology inadequacies are directly
contributing to road incidents.
Again, the problem with the technical
implementation of smart motorways is the
reliance on point sensors. Even in a best-
case scenario where you may have loops or
cameras every 400m, you won’t have full
continuous monitoring. Any gaps in coverage
are an open invitation for delays and errors
to creep in.
In this scenario DAS could provide full
continuous monitoring of its entire length,
closing the gaps in the sensor infrastructure.
This would increase the efficacy and accuracy
of identifying incidents as well as boosting
the speed of response through the real-time
detection of incidents anywhere along the
motorway.
More importantly, DAS fundamentally
alters the economics of smart motorways.
Because it can make use of fibre that is
already installed, DAS makes it commercially
viable to extend smart-motorway systems,
not just to more of the motorway network,
but also to the UK’s other major A-class
roads and B-class secondary but still busy
roads, without major disruption. In this way
DAS could truly enable a network of smart
highways, not just smart motorways.
No single technology will be a panacea for
overcoming traffic congestion and thereby
boosting the efficiency of traffic management.
Yet, it is clear that DAS offers city and local
authorities a big step forward in doing so for
transport infrastructure and along their road
networks, not least because it builds upon the
existing fibre-cabling infrastructure in cities.
Trials such as the one in La Bisbal
d’Empordà show that DAS can make a
practical difference to alleviate the strain on
transport networks and provide better insight
on road congestion. Q
*Stuart Large is product line director and head
of business development at Fotech Solutions,
based in the UK with offices in Canada and
the US. Its fibre-enabled asset management
platforms provide a suite of dynamic and
adaptable solutions for a diverse range of
applications.
Stuart Large
www.worldhighways.com

INTELLIGENT COMPACTION
Recent years have seen huge gains in performance for asphalt compaction
technology, explains Mike Woof, editor of World Highways
hen road surfaces suffer problems
W such as rutting, ravelling and
moisture damage, these issues
can often be linked to inadequate
compaction during construction. Where
specified mat densities have not been
achieved, early failures can occur and may
require resurfacing before the design life of
the road has been reached.
A number of factors influence the
compaction process, including ambient
temperature, compaction effect (frequency,
amplitude, forces, forward speed) delivered
by each roller and also the interaction
between the individual compaction
machines. Other factors are haulage
distance, the asphalt grade and the material
temperatures at production and delivery
stages.
Intelligent compaction was developed
in the 1980s for use in soil compaction
and further developed in the 1990s for the
more complex asphalt compaction. This
technology was originally intended to
monitor compaction operations and record
data in real time, presenting information on
a display for the machine operator. As the
technology developed over the years, users
have been able to download the data for later
analysis, first by using removable data cards
and in more recent times by using wireless
technology.
RIGHT: BOMAG’s prototype autonomous
compactor shows the shape of
things to come
www.worldhighways.com
The latest rollers feature
intelligent compaction and offer
high-performance compaction
WIRELESS
Using wireless technology means that the
compaction data can be embedded into
a model of the entire project as part of a
building information modelling (BIM)
process for later use. This compaction
information can also be analysed remotely
in real time to highlight any potential
shortcomings and areas that may need
further remediation or may be likely to
suffer problems before the design life of the
pavement has been reached.
To deliver intelligent compaction,
compactors need to be equipped
COMPACTION TECHNOLOGY
with systems that measure, record and
display the compaction effort. Different
manufacturers use different technologies for
measuring the compaction. However, most
of these systems use accelerometers mounted
on the compactor to monitor the response of
the drums to the compaction effort exerted
on the asphalt surface. Another, although less
common, technology uses lasers mounted on
the compactor to determine the effect exerted
by the drum and the density achieved in the
asphalt mat.
No direct comparisons have been carried
out to determine which system delivers
the more accurate measurement so it has
to be assumed that the results they display
are broadly the same. Some manufacturers
have claimed that the accuracy of their
monitoring systems for determining
compaction density is within 1.5%
of the figure that can be attained
by coring – the analysis of core
samples.
It is worth bearing in mind,
though, that because hot asphalt
displays many liquid properties,
ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 25
COMPACTION TECHNOLOGY
RIGHT: A number of manufacturers now offer
compactors with oscillation, including Ammann,
Bomag, Caterpillar, Dynapac, Hamm, Sakai, Volvo
CE and XCMG BOTTOM: Amman ARX 45-2C
Light Tandem Roller-6
assessing the degree of compaction that has
been achieved is less straightforward than
for the much less complex soil compaction
process.
In addition, an intelligent compaction
system uses GPS (global positioning system)
equipment to correlate location data with the
information gathered about the compaction
work.
Infrared temperature sensors are fitted to
the front and the rear of the roller chassis
components. These log and map the heat
variance around the compactor, cross-
referencing it with information recorded
on compaction effect and the position
data. The roller operator can monitor the
passes and amend compaction patterns as
required. Most of the latest systems feature
colour-coding maps that show the real-time
surface temperature, compaction pattern and
compaction measurement achieved.
Within the compaction machine,
processing software combines the recorded
information on heat, positioning and
compaction effect and displays this to the
operator. The screens show the operator what
areas of the asphalt surface behind the paver
have been compacted so far and to what
degree. They also show what areas need to be
prioritised for compaction due to dropping
temperatures, allowing the machine operator
to schedule the work more efficiently.
The technology also allows the rollers to
communicate wirelessly with each other.
Operators can see on the display in the cab
all the passes that have been made by all the
rollers working on the asphalt mat behind the
paver.
HAULAGE DISTANCE
The temperature of the mix, the interaction
between the rollers and the haulage distance
from the asphalt plant are all important
factors for effective compaction. This is
because compaction of a conventional hot
mix has to be carried out in a timely fashion
before the temperature drops below a critical
point. Below this point, the asphalt binder
will become too stiff to respond to more
compaction that is intended to further reduce
air voids within the asphalt. Any attempt to
continue compaction after this point may
crush the aggregate.
Using this type of intelligent compaction
system ensures that compaction is carried out
where needed and to the degree required. It
prevents over-compaction which can result
in the aggregate bound in the asphalt being
crushed. Furthermore, it eliminates problems
caused by cooling, as an operator can address
26 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
these colder spots before the temperature
drops too low for effective compaction to
take place.
However, even though intelligent
compaction systems provide efficient density
measurement on site and correlate this
information with position and temperature
data, there are some potential shortcomings.
The compaction forces delivered to the
mat will travel deeper than the layer that
is actually being compacted. But the data
recorded by the system from the mat will
show the response of the whole depth of the
area being compacted. The measurement
systems therefore need to be able to take into
account the fact that they are also recording
the response of these lower layers. If they
are asphalt layers, they will already have
been compacted. If they are base layers, their
response will be different. This issue could
be a particular problem when paving thin
layered wearing courses.
With this in mind, there is still
no substitute for the use of accurate
measurement of mat density such as coring,
nuclear gauge or non-nuclear capacitive
electromagnetic methods. These can be
employed to back up the data recovered
from roller-mounted intelligent compaction
equipment. Coring, though, is time-
consuming and leaves holes in the road
surface, so it is carried out only periodically.
NUCLEAR
Nuclear density gauges are non-destructive
and highly accurate but their use on a
construction site may be limited due to
restrictions on radioactive emissions. For this
reason, electromagnetic equipment may offer
a more convenient method for comparison
with data recovered by intelligent compaction
systems on rollers.
Meanwhile, visualisation of data has
become much easier for operators in
recent years. Not only do the displays
show the working of all the rollers at the
site, the recovered data is used along with
information from other steps in the paving
process. Every step in this process can be
logged comprehensively. This starts with
production of the asphalt at the plant and
the type of mix employed and temperatures
at discharge into the trucks, the logistics
operation to transport the material to site, the
times required and the material temperatures
at delivery onsite.
It also includes the paving operation with
an evaluation of material segregation, as well
as density behind the screed (if a tamper bar
type is used in this latter case) and infra-
red scanning to show the heat distribution
across the mat. Finally, it includes the
compaction operation combining
temperature, position and mat density
data recovered from the compaction
systems in the roller fleet.
This information is stored at the
site office and can be viewed remotely,
analysed and logged into the BIM
process for the entire road project. Some
road machinery manufacturers, such as
BOMAG or the Wirtgen Group, have their
own packages for this data management
www.worldhighways.com
 COMPACTION TECHNOLOGY

RIGHT: Hamm’s hydraulic hybrid compactor

is available with oscillation BELOW: The first
powered compactors were deadweight rollers

process. Machine control technology

specialist companies including Leica
Geosystems, Topcon and Trimble also offer
software with this capability.
Looking at future advances in compaction,
BOMAG and Hamm have been trialling
autonomous compaction technology,
although it will be some time before such
technology is on the market. Regulation
covering their use will have to be developed
before such technology can be used on site.

RESONANCE
Compacting the road surfacing material
is crucial for ensuring its long-term
performance. At first deadweight rollers were
used for this purpose but in the 1930s the
first vibrating rollers were developed. Using
vibration to compact the road surfacing
material boosted working efficiency and
productivity considerably, allowing lighter
compaction equipment to reach design
densities more quickly and even using
smaller pieces of machinery.
In the 1980s, Hamm started working on
a system for compaction using oscillation
instead of vibration. Oscillation compaction
was intended to boost working efficiency
further, while eliminating some of the
shortcomings of vibration technology.
Industry interest in the system was minimal
and for many years Hamm was the only
manufacturer to offer oscillation technology,
although it continued to offer vibration
technology for the majority of its models.
But over time, the benefits of compaction
by oscillation started to become apparent.
Instead of delivering an impact load in a
vertical direction as with vibration, oscillation
is a kneading action to compact a surface.
While the vertical impact of a vibration
system results in energy unused from each
blow being transmitted through the surface,
the kneading action of an oscillation system
means that there is almost no wasted energy.
While compactors featuring vibration
cause vibrations to travel some distance, this
is not the case for oscillation rollers. As a
result, one of the first widespread duties for
oscillation compactors was on bridge decks
where there was the risk of damage to the
structure because of resonances. Similarly,
these machines could be used in urban areas
without risk of damaging historic buildings
or affecting sensitive computing equipment
or electronics.
Another benefit is that it is almost
impossible to over-compact a surface. With
vibrating rollers, too many passes can result
in over-compaction and breaking up of
the aggregates in the surface material. This
cracking of aggregates simply does not occur
using oscillation as a machine will achieve full
density and then not have any further effect
on the surface, even if it continues working.
Although Hamm pioneered compaction
by oscillation, BOMAG also now offers
a wide range of machines. Other roller
manufacturers offering compactors featuring
oscillation-type compaction include
Ammann, Caterpillar, Dynapac, Sakai, Volvo
CE and XCMG.
HYBRID SYSTEMS
With regard to hybrid rollers, it does beg
the question why these were not developed
earlier. The operation of a compactor, with its
forward and backward motion, lends itself to
the use of energy-recovery systems - perhaps
more so than most types of construction
machinery.
Nor is it that hybrid technology is
particularly new, having been used
successfully in the earthmoving equipment
sector for some years. Komatsu has had
particular success with its diesel-electric
system, a configuration also now used by a
number of other manufacturers. Caterpillar,
meanwhile, opted to use a hydraulic system
for recovering energy for its hybrid crawler
excavator.
BOMAG first exhibited a prototype asphalt
compactor featuring a diesel- electric hybrid
system some years ago. But the cost of the
diesel-electric drive technology was thought
prohibitive. It was not until more recent
times that Hamm unveiled its pre-production
hybrid compactor featuring a hydraulic
system. BOMAG followed soon after using a
similar technology. Now in series production,
these machines use a hydraulic hybrid system
to recover energy and store this in a hydraulic
accumulator.
The hydraulic hybrid system recirculates
stored energy from the accumulator at the
point of peak energy demand from the
compactor’s drive system. This peak comes as
the compactor’s vibration system starts at the
beginning of a roller pass.
Because the machine has the hydraulic
hybrid package, it can operate with a
smaller diesel engine than would otherwise
be required. This provides a significant
reduction in operating costs, not just because
of lower fuel consumption, but also from less
maintenance as it features a simpler exhaust
after-treatment package. Q
Ammann
www.ammann.com
BOMAG
www.bomag.com
Caterpillar
www.cat.com
Dynapac
www.dynapac.com
Hamm
www.hamm.eu
Leica Geosystems
www.leica-geosystems.com
Sakai
www.sakaiamerica.com
Topcon Positioning
www.topconpositioning.com
Trimble
www.trimble.com
Volvo CE
www.volvoce.com
XCMG
www.xcmg.com

www.worldhighways.com ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 27

COMMAND PERFORMNCE

By keeping compaction
parameters consistent,
Command can improve
compaction coverage by up
to 60% compared with a
novice operator

COMMAND
PERFORMANCE
Caterpillar sets out the case for using automated compaction systems, such
as its Cat Command for Compaction

at Command for Compaction to commonly used base stations with no site

C is an operator-assisted, semi-
autonomous technology that
automates the compaction process
design files or back-office work necessary. The
operator tells the system where to compact
by physically defining the boundary of an
based on operator inputs. area with the machine, or loads a previously
It controls the speed, direction, steering recorded and saved area from the display.
and vibration system of the vibratory soil The operator then tells the system how to
compactor to promote consistency in compact through three simple inputs:
compaction - one of the most important O the number of passes to make at each

aspects of construction to ensure a good road amplitude setting;

surface. O the ground speed;

The heart of the system is dual real-time O the amount of overlap.

kinematic positioning (RTK) which helps to After verifying that the area is safe and
achieve up to 60% better area coverage (see ABOVE: The operator tells the system how to clear, the operator engages Command and the
box RTK positioning). The system connects compact through three simple inputs system executes compaction. However – and

FROM LEFT TO RIGHT: Radar sensor mounted to the front bumper. Radar sensor mounted to the rear engine enclosure. Icon on display alerts the operator

28 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 www.worldhighways.com


RIGHT: Command includes a detection system
that alerts the operator if something is in front or
behind the machine
importantly - the operator can intervene at
any time to control the vibration system or
stop the machine.
Also, for added safety, Command includes
an integrated object detection system that
alerts the operator if something is in front or
behind the machine.
SKILLS GAP
A major advantage of such systems as Cat
Command is that they can eliminate a skills
gap. They allow inexperienced operators to
reach a high level of efficiency in both quality
of workmanship and use of time.
For example, Command performs at a
constant speed with the correct number of
passes at the correct vibration setting and
with the correct amount of overlap, no matter
who is in the driver’s seat.
Command ensures a uniform compaction
process even on jobsites where multiple
MACHINE NEEDS
Positioning
GPS antennas and receivers
RTK software keys
RTK corrections radio
Non-positioning
Command display
Operator presence system
Electro-hydraulic steering system
Inertial measurement unit
Object detection
Radar sensor package
SITE NEEDS
Base station for RTK corrections
X = Included in dealer-installed Command Kit
O = Provided by dealer
www.worldhighways.com
operators run a single machine during the
day. Quality control in these situations can be
maintained at the highest levels.
By keeping compaction parameters
consistent, Command can improve
compaction coverage by up to 60% compared
with a novice operator. Increased process
control and precise overlap help promote
more consistent and predictable compaction
results. This is especially important when
attempting to hit compaction targets more
frequently.
Users of such systems are commonly found
to be concerned over the complexity of the
Command for Compaction is available for
use on select Cat vibratory soil compactors
as a dealer-installed kit on both new and
existing B-Series Cat machines
New machine Customer-owned machine
X O
X O
O O
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
O O
COMMAND PERFORMNCE
products. However, Command is simple to set
up. The intuitive, touchscreen interface with
its three simple inputs is all that is needed
after the compaction area is defined. Recent
jobs are saved in the system and can be
accessed via the interface.
The jobsite safety aspect of Command
cannot be overstated. As noted, the system’s
integrated object detection system alerts the
operator to objects in the path of the machine.
This safety feature is functional whether the
operator is in automatic use or manual use
where he is in direct control of the machine.
Furthermore, there are several system
interlocks to help promote safe operation by
preventing the machine from entering auto
mode. If any interlock is triggered while the
machine has already been placed in auto, the
system automatically stops the machine and
releases it from auto operation. Q
RTK POSITIONING
Real-time kinematic, or RTK, positioning
is a satellite navigation technique used
to enhance the precision of position data
derived from satellite-based positioning
systems, called global navigation satellite
systems or GNSS. Examples of GNSS include
GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, NavIC and BeiDou.
With reference to GPS in particular, the
system is commonly referred to as carrier-
phase enhancement, or CPGPS. It has
applications in land survey, hydrographic
survey and in unmanned aerial vehicle
navigation.
ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 29
ROADBOTICS
DATA-DRIVEN PAVEMENT
DECISIONS IN SAVANNAH
The US city found major savings in time and money using an artificial
intelligence-based system for pavement condition management, explains
Benjamin Schmidt, president and co-founder of RoadBotics
ondition assessments are an
C essential precursor to pavement
rehabilitation and planning.
However, there are many
approaches as to how these assessments can
be completed.
From manual inspections to the use of
laser vans, each option has its benefits and
drawbacks in terms of time saved and costs
as well as the quality and breadth of data.
When evaluating pavement assessment
options, municipalities and contractors must
also consider centreline mileage, budget and
manpower.
For years, the US city of Savannah, in
the eastern state of Georgia, used a team of
interns to complete a manual inspection of
the road network. Frustrated by the long,
costly and subjective process, city officials
adopted RoadBotics’ artificial intelligence-
based automated pavement assessment.
RoadBotics’ technology gave Savannah clear,
objective and actionable data which it used to
develop a sustainable pavement management
plan.
Savannah, on the northern coast of
Georgia, is the fourth largest port in the
US. It is also the largest terminal container
facility in North America, processing 33.4
million tonnes of cargo annually. Located
between the I-95 and I-16 interstate highway
ABOVE LEFT: Figure 2 - City of Savannah on RoadWay RIGHT: Figure 3 - Road Segment Ratings in Downtown Savannah
30 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
RATING 1. No or minor surface distress
RATING 2. Minor surface damage, no critical issues
RATING 3. Appearance of pervasive distresses
RATING 4. Significant damage or emerging
critical failures
RATING 5. Major surface damage and/or
critical fatigue issues
Figure 1 - RoadBotics Pavement Condition Ratings
corridor, infrastructure is the backbone of
the city. With such significant commercial
and industrial demands on roads, proper
assessment and maintenance is paramount.
However, the city’s previous assessment
approach of the network did not provide
the level of accuracy that the city authority
wanted. Each summer, the city would recruit
and train a team of interns to complete
pavement assessments for one-third of
the 730-mile (1,175km) road network.
The process involved one week of training
followed by manual assessments of the roads
using the PCI Index scale*. The collected data
was transferred from the interns’ paper notes
into a database.
UNRELIABLE
A full network assessment was incredibly
resource-intensive, taking three years and
around US$130,000 to complete. Due
to the short training time and multiple
individual assessors, the data was subjective,
inconsistent and sometimes inaccurate.
The city authority was making city-wide
pavement planning decisions based on
outdated and unreliable data.
Heath Lloyd, Savannah’s chief
infrastructure and development officer, and
Joe Shearouse, assistant to the city manager,
sought an alternative to the inefficient
process. After learning about RoadBotics’
automated pavement assessments, Lloyd
secured city council funding to test the
technology on half of the network. Satisfied
with the results, they agreed to move
forward with RoadBotics to complete the full
assessment.
RoadBotics’ system collects data, analyses
it and then displays it through a mapping
software platform. The actual assessment
begins with data collection through one
of today’s most ubiquitous devices - the
www.worldhighways.com

BELOW LEFT: Figure 4 - Road Report Analysis RIGHT: Figure 5 - Point Level Data
smartphone. The smartphone is mounted
in the windscreen of a vehicle and collects
video footage of the road as a user drives the
network.
The footage is fed through a vision-based
machine-learning model; an application
of artificial intelligence where the model
is trained to analyse specific patterns and
present the data in a picture. RoadBotics’
model specifically identifies road distresses
and assigns condition ratings on a 1-5
scale, as shown in Figure 1. In addition,
RoadBotics’ technology can locate every
pothole and surface distress within the road
network
RoadBotics’ software automatically divides
road network footage into image-based data
points at 3m intervals. The model analyses
each image, building up from pixels to the
entire image in order to identify pavement
distresses. For Savannah’s road network,
RoadBotics’ AI analysed almost 400,000 road
images.
After the analysis is complete, data points
and their images are plotted on a colour-
coded GIS-enabled map called RoadWay.
Users can view, assess and analyse road
conditions at an office desk or in the field.
OBJECTIVE SOLUTION
Compared to Savannah’s previous method
of pavement assessments, the adoption of
RoadBotics’ technology resulted in significant
resource savings for the city. The entire
process - from two data collection rounds
to the final delivery of the whole network -
took six months and cost $50,000. This was
a fraction of the time and money spent on
previous assessments.
Upon delivery, Lloyd and Shearouse gained
full access to Savannah’s assessment map on
RoadWay, shown in Figure 2. Key features of
the pavement assessment are colour-coding,
point level images and ratings and the Road
Report Analysis. For the first time, they had
an objective, up-to-date and holistic view of
the city’s road conditions.
The RoadWay system is, according to
Lloyd, a “simple, yet all-inclusive tool” for
assessing the condition of Savannah’s roads.
The colour-coding on the map, which
correlates to the condition rating assigned
to point level imagery, is then extrapolated
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into segments. Figure 3 illustrates the road
segment ratings in downtown Savannah.
Green points and segments equate to good
road conditions and red equates to poor
conditions or pavement failure.
When developing pavement management
plans or addressing a concern in the
community, the team in Savannah first
looks at the overall system before analysing
neighbourhood-specific or point level
imagery. The Road Report Analysis, shown in
Figure 4, is a vital tool for understanding the
overall condition of the network. Point level
pavement condition rating data is aggregated
to form the overall network score, road
classification score and the percentage of
roads at each rating.
With an overall network score of 2.36,
Savannah’s network is in “good” condition,
as noted by the RoadBotics’ rating. Over 60%
of roads are rated a q1 or 233 - exhibiting
no or minor surface distressing. Conversely,
however, nearly 40% of the roads are in
need of rehabilitation to prevent further
deterioration.
To better understand why a road is rated a
3, 4 or 5, Lloyd and his team view and assess
the point level data. Point level data, as shown
in Figure 5, is a powerful diagnostic tool. By
understanding the prevalence and severity
of pavement distresses, they can determine
the rehabilitative method best suited for
prolonging the life of the road.
The granularity of point level data, in
combination with segment, road and overall
ratings, provided Lloyd and Shearouse
with the necessary information to develop
a data-driven and sustainable pavement
management strategy.
SUSTAINABLE
For Lloyd and Shearouse, the purpose
of adopting RoadBotics’ automated road
assessment was to use the data to develop a
sustainable pavement plan for Savannah. One
goal of Lloyd’s plan is developing a strategy
to address not only the worst roads but, more
importantly, prevent the roads with pervasive
distressing from deteriorating further.
“So, what we’re looking at is certainly a
mix of roads from 3, 4 and 5,” explains Lloyd.
“We want to get some of the worst roads
ROADBOTICS
obviously, but then we want to stop roads that
may be assessed at a 3 from getting worse. We
don’t want them to get to a 4.”
Additionally, the city found tremendous
value in using the data to determine the
rate of deterioration for each roadway, notes
Shearouse. “If you continue to get annual
or bi-annual scans, you can predict the
rate of deterioration and more accurately
keep roads in good condition to extend the
infrastructure investment.”
The second goal of the sustainable plan
is to prioritise infrastructure spending to
make the investment stretch further. Recently
the city used the data to secure the funding
required for road improvements. The Special
Purpose Local Option Sales Tax – SPLOST
– finances capital projects and requires
a majority vote by county residents. By
leveraging RoadBotics’ assessment data, the
city received voter approval and was given
$26 million to fund the plan.
Of the SPLOST funding, 80% was
allocated for repairs to roads rated 3, 4 and 5,
reserving the remaining 20% for unforeseen
expenditures. Because the strategic focus is
sustainability, Lloyd is allocating the majority
of funds to preventative maintenance to
extend the life of existing pavement instead
of focusing on repaving the worst roads.
Therefore, they allotted around 20% for
repaving 5-rated roads and 60% to repairing
3- and 4-rated roads.
Savannah is only in the early stages of
using RoadBotics’ road assessment data. The
city plans to use this and future assessment
data to develop prediction models to more
accurately determine the rate of pavement
deterioration and forecast the use of scarce
resources.
“As a government, budgets get tight and we
have to really prioritise where our resources
go,” Lloyd explains. “Tools like RoadBotics
allow us to make data-driven decisions.” Q
*The Pavement Condition Index (PCI), a
numerical index between 0 and 100, is used to
indicate the general condition of a pavement
section. It was originally developed by the
US Army Corps of Engineers but was later
standardised by the ASTM – American Society
for Testing and Materials - for both roads and
airport pavements.
ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 31
MICROSURFACING
Figure 1a
SLURRY SURFACING:
DEFINITIONS, DESCRIPTIONS,
PRACTICES
This paper - an international cooperation - focuses on the definition, description and
application method for bituminous slurry surfacings, including microsurfacings*
itumen emulsions play a key role
B in the development of sustainable
and durable pavements. The
bitumen/water emulsification
process reduces the binder viscosity, allowing
production of paving mixtures at ambient
temperature and, in most cases, even without
aggregate drying and heating. Cold bitumen
emulsion (CBE) mixtures allow important
energy savings and reduction of emissions,
effectively helping to reduce the impact
of the road construction industry, while
maintaining high standards of performance
and safety of the infrastructure.
CBE technologies are used for both non‐
structural (cold surface treatments such
as chip seals or slurry seals) and structural
(cold bituminous mixtures, cold recycled
bituminous mixtures, grave emulsion)
paving applications. However, the lack of
fundamental knowledge on how to merge the
mechanical behaviour of CBE mixtures and
the in-service evidence of their long‐term
performance seems to hinder the broad
use of CBE technologies which are often
associated with higher technical risks with
respect to traditional hot‐mix or warm‐mix
technologies.
In this context, the RILEM Technical
Committee 280‐CBE Task Group 2 (TG2)
“Multiphase characterisation of cold bitumen
emulsion materials” was formed with the
*This article was originally published in RILEM Technical
Letters, November 2019; see box at end of article.
32 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
Figure 1b
aim of improving fundamental knowledge
of CBE materials and suggesting worldwide
harmonisation of existing standards and
practices. The activities of the Task Group 2
focus on non‐structural applications of CBE
technologies and specifically on bituminous
slurry surfacings (BSS). A thorough literature
review was initiated to collect worldwide
theoretical knowledge and field experiences
on BSS.
The objective of this paper is to summarise
the first results of this review and propose
harmonised definitions and descriptions for
BSS. Typical applications of BSS are reviewed
and two examples are presented to illustrate
current practices.
BACKGROUND
Surface treatment is a broad term embracing
several superficial application methods of
bituminous binder or engineered additive
with or without aggregate. Surface treatments
are used to extend the pavement’s life
and thus, generally, are part of the road
maintenance process. They are applied on
the aged and distressed pavement surface to
restore its structural integrity, evenness, skid
resistance and impermeability.
The most common binder used in surface
treatments is bitumen emulsion, which
may be modified with polymers. Recently,
bitumen‐extended epoxy resins, epoxy resin
or translucent synthetic binder have been
used with satisfactory results in terms of
setting and adhesion to most surfaces and
aesthetics.
Three main types of emulsion‐based
surface treatment can be distinguished:
spray‐applied seal, surface dressing (or chip
seal) and BSS. In spray‐applied seals only
bitumen emulsion is applied on the road
surface in order to seal cracks, to reduce
ravelling and to repair weathered surfaces.
Chip seals (Figure 1a) are characterised by
at least one layer of bitumen emulsion and
one layer of chippings (single‐size aggregate
fraction). These are applied in sequence,
without mixing, over the road surface to
restore its surface evenness, to seal cracks,
to reduce ravelling and to improve skid
resistance. BSS (Figure 1b) are mixtures
of aggregates, binder and additives which
are applied on the road surface to improve
traffic lane visibility, to seal cracks, to fill
minor depressions and to provide high skid
resistance.
Currently, selection of constituent
materials, mix design, application and
quality control procedures for BSS are based
mainly on experience‐related empirical or
practical rules. The comparisons of practical
knowledge adopted in different countries and
the gradual understanding of the mechanical
properties should enable the combination of
scientific and field-based approaches for a
more effective and diffuse application.
Table 1 shows the list of the collected
public documents such as standards,
best practices and specifications. The
use of an incomplete standards list and
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different methods or parameters for the
characterisation of the constituent materials
or products have been the main difficulties
in the analysis and comparison of the
requirements and procedures among the
participating countries.
DEFINITION
The general definition of slurry surfacing
is not univocally shared worldwide. Often,
slurry surfacings are simply described by
road agencies or technical associations, giving
a list of constituent materials.
In the guidelines AP‐T26 from Austroads
(an advisory body consisting of Australian
and New Zealand transport agencies), the
term “slurry” is used to indicate “stable
suspension of aggregate and filler in a less
dense, liquid bituminous emulsion”. In its
fresh state, the liquid consistence makes
BSS self‐levelling. Taking this remark as a
starting point and analysing the terminology
used, slurry surfacings represent a family of
mixtures which generally share consistency
(slurry) and applications (surfacing) with no
specific indication on the binder or aggregate
to be used.
A slurry surfacing can be defined as a
mixture that is characterised by a slurry state,
meaning free-flowing with a definite volume
but no fixed shape, having higher density
and consistence than a liquid. After laying, it
evolves into a solid state during curing that
takes generally from half an hour to 12 hours.
This evolutive behaviour distinguishes slurry
surfacing from other surface treatments such
as spray‐applied seals and surface dressing.
As the name implies, the use of bitumen
emulsion as a binder identifies BSS.
Among BSS products, slurry seals and
microsurfacings can be distinguished and
selected for specific performance and uses
based on their maximum aggregate size and
the bituminous binder type.
As stated by the Arizona Chapter,
Associated General Contractors, “although
microsurfacing and slurry seals are generally
similar, microsurfacing is designed to facilitate
a quicker return to traffic, heavier application
rate, rut filling and support higher traffic
volume”. Accordingly, the International
Slurry Surfacing Association (ISSA) asserts
that “microsurfacing is a quick‐traffic system
that allows traffic to return shortly after
placement”.
The Austroads guidelines AP‐T26 defines
microsurfacing as a “bituminous slurry
surfacing, usually containing polymer, which
is capable of being spread in variably thick
layers for rut filling and correction courses,
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MICROSURFACING
Table 1. List of the considered documents
Country National/ Best practice/ Construction Specification
International Guideline
Standard
Australia ‐ Austroads [19] Austroads [19]
Brazil DNIT [10] Instituto Pavimentar [18] ‐
Canada, USA ASTM [8] ISSA [13,14], AZAGC [15] ‐
China ‐ ‐ JTG [24]
Czech Republic CEN [7], ýSN [11] ‐ Ministerstvo Dopravy [24]
France CEN [7] CEREMA [5] ‐
Italy CEN [7] SITEB [12] CIRS [20], ANAS [21],
Autostrade per l’Italia [22]
Portugal CEN [7] ‐ Estradas de Portugal [23]
Spain CEN [7] ATEB, [16,17] ‐
Switzerland CEN [7], VSS [9] ‐ ‐
Table 2. Typical dosage ranges for BSS components
Material Typical values Recommendation
Bitumen [% by aggregate weight] 6 ‐ 16 The finer the aggregate size, the higher
the bitumen dosage
Filler [% by aggregate weight] 0‐3 Depending on bituminous emulsion
properties, mechanical behaviour and
climate
Mixture application rate [kg/m2] 4 ‐ 30 The finer the aggregate size, the lower
the application rate
Figure 2
pavements. In Brazil and Czech Republic,
slurry seals are now limited to use by small
towns on low-volume roads and for fast,
temporary maintenance.
DESCRIPTION
BSS is a bituminous mixture consisting
of a well‐graded aggregate blend, water,
bituminous emulsion (which may be
modified) and filler (which may include
Portland cement, hydrated lime, limestone
dust, fly ash or a combination of these).
Specific additives and fibres may also be
included to improve affinity with aggregates,
consistency or setting time. Because different
expertise and application methods exist
around the world, the constituent materials of
and for wearing course applications requiring BSS can be proportioned considering a wide
good surface texture”. A slurry seal, instead, range of dosages (Table 2).
is defined as a “thin layer of bituminous BSS is proportioned, mixed and uniformly
slurry surfacing, usually without a polymer laid in‐place at ambient temperature over
modifier”. a properly prepared surface. It is applied as
Considering the technology development a homogeneous mat, adheres firmly to the
over time, slurry seal can be identified as pavement and has a skid‐resistant texture
the first generation of BSS, aimed to seal old throughout its service life (Figure 2). BSS
pavement surfaces. Microsurfacing can be may consist of one or two layers, each usually
considered as the second generation of BSS, with the thickness of the largest aggregate
following on from the development of more size in the gradation.
advanced construction equipment and the As stated before, some differences arise
improvement of binder performance. when comparing the descriptions of slurry
Microsurfacing is characterised by higher seals and microsurfacings from different
performance, faster setting and curing countries, even if their general design
time. Therefore, it allows more durable is globally consistent. Microsurfacing
applications, heavier traffic volume and is commonly considered different from
quicker opening of the road to traffic. This is slurry seal for the use of polymer‐modified
probably the reason why, in many countries emulsion and superior aggregate quality.
such as Italy, Brazil and Czech Republic, Moreover, the nominal maximum size
the use of slurry seals has been replaced by for microsurfacing is often larger than
microsurfacing, especially on heavily used that in slurry seal. It is worth noting that
ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 33
MICROSURFACING

Table 3. Difference between slurry seal and microsurfacing from Brazilian experiences
Slurry seal Microsurfacing
Smooth‐textured aggregate can be used Crushed and high‐quality aggregate must be
used. Generally larger in size
Slow-setting bituminous emulsion Modified (elastomeric) bituminous emulsion
with controlled setting
Climatic conditions have a paramount impact Chemical process, along with climatic
on curing evolution conditions, controls curing evolution
the European Norm EN 12273 makes a
Mainly used for sealing and rejuvenating road Mainly used for improving skid resistance and
distinction between microsurfacing and pavements subjected to low or medium traffic levelling road pavements subjected to any
slurry seal only on the basis of aggregate volume traffic level
size (“slurry surfacing made with larger size
Service life of about 3‐5 years Service life of about 5‐8 years
aggregates is often known as microsurfacing
and when made with smaller aggregates is Closing time to traffic of about 4 hours Closing time to traffic of about 1 hour
sometimes called slurry seal”). Could require a tack coat Good adhesion to existing pavement
According to ISSA guidelines slurry seal Average cost: 0.90 €/m2 Average cost: 2.00 €/m2
and microsurfacing share two aggregate
bands, type II (Dmax = 4.75mm) and type III
(Dmax = 6.7mm), whereas type I (Dmax = ‐ to restore or to improve skid resistance of preventive maintenance – it helps reduce the
2.36mm) is used only for slurry seal (where aged pavement; risk of coarse aggregate being plucked out of
Dmax is maximum particle size). ‐ to restore weathered surfaces, giving new the surface to be hit by airplane propellers
The Portuguese specifications adopt slurry life to oxidized and ravelled pavements; or ingested into jet engines. Moreover,
seal and microsurfacing with the same ‐ to fill surface voids and microcracking; Austroads reports that slurry seal can be
aggregate band when applied in a single - to improve the aesthetics of a pavement applied as an alternative to sprayed sealing,
layer (Dmax = 5.6mm). On the other hand, by providing a distinctive colour to the for example, within urban areas where traffic
when they are applied in a double layer, they road surface, a more uniform appearance noise from a sprayed seal would not be
share only the aggregate band for the first to a patched road as well as to aid in acceptable.
layer (Dmax = 2mm). For the second layer, contrasting road marking and lending a Meanwhile, microsurfacing offers a wider
microsurfacing requires larger aggregates homogeneous surface appearance to help range of possible applications. In some cases,
(Dmax = 8mm) than slurry seal (Dmax = drivers select a lane or route. it is considered an alternative to traditional
5.6mm). Table 3 summarises the differences hot or warm bituminous mixtures. For
between slurry seal and microsurfacing based Slurry seal also has the following additional instance, in Italy, microsurfacing applications
on the Brazilian experience. specific uses (Table 4): over new pavement have been carried out
‐ to provide temporary cover at low cost; to provide a cost‐effective and time-saving
CURRENT PRACTICE ‐ to provide smooth surfaces for pedestrian alternative to a traditional wearing course.
BSS is used to maintain and extend the areas, car parking lots, school yards and Similarly, in Australia, microsurfacing can be
service life of existing bituminous pavements bicycle tracks. used where a non‐structural wearing course
through resistance to abrasion by traffic and is required, where the increase of the average
providing a waterproof cover over an old Whereas, microsurfacing is specifically pavement surface level must be minimised or
pavement surface. Moreover, according to the chosen: where a dense-graded bituminous surface is
French technical guidelines, BSS can also be ‐ to provide shape correction and desirable at low cost.
used in new construction when traffic levels reprofiling rutted wheel paths;
are less than 300 vehicles/day. ‐ to achieve longer durability and faster APPLICATION EXAMPLES
Table 4 summarises the main applications traffic opening. Because of its vast territories and long
of slurry seal and microsurfacing in different hauling distances, Brazil has a strong
countries. As can be observed, they are Slurry seals are mainly used in urban areas or tradition in the use of BSS and a consistent
normally adopted: in low‐volume roads. However, in Australia number of companies own machineries for
‐ to prevent surface water from penetrating and France, they are used also in airfields slurries. The advantages of microsurfacing
underlying pavements; to restore skid resistance and to serve as have made it prevail over slurry seals in most

Table 4. Main functions of slurry seal (SS) and microsurfacing (MS) in different countries

Country
USA & Portugal Switzerland Spain Czech Australia United Italy & France
Canada Republic Kingdom Brazil
SS and MS main use on pavements

Waterproofing SS+MS SS+MS SS+MS SS+MS SS+MS SS+MS SS+MS MS SS+MS

Improve skid resistance SS+MS SS+MS SS+MS SS+MS SS+MS SS+MS SS+MS MS MS
Prevent ravelling SS+MS ‐ ‐ ‐ SS+MS SS+MS SS+MS ‐ ‐
Fill superficial voids and cracking SS+MS ‐ ‐ ‐ SS+MS SS+MS SS+MS ‐ MS
Improve aesthetics SS+MS MS ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ SS+MS MS SS+MS
Temporary cover at low cost SS ‐ ‐ ‐ SS ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐
Provide smooth surfaces * ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ SS SS ‐ ‐ ‐
Shape correction and reprofiling MS ‐ MS ‐ MS MS MS MS ‐
Durability and fast traffic opening MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS ‐
* for pedestrian areas, car parking lots, school yards and bicycle tracks

34 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 www.worldhighways.com


Figure 4
of the country. Nowadays, BSS are normally
applied on rural roads, which are controlled
by the government, up to highways and
motorways. Microsurfacing is also used on
high-traffic highways.
In Brazil, microsurfacing is used mainly
when no major structural damages are
visible on the pavement, while minor defects
are detected such as ravelling and scuffing.
In this case, microsurfacing is applied to
enhance the texture, hence to improve the
road safety and correct surface defects. On
major highways, microsurfacing is used on a
homogeneous-sections basis to refurbish the
pavement surface and increase overall road
safety. In general, according to the Brazilian
experience, microsurfacings are considered
cost‐effective and advantageous in terms of
road-works duration and traffic disruptions.
Figure 4 and Figure 5 show two examples
of microsurfacing application. The first is on
a low-volume road, the VRS‐804 in southern
Brazil, carrying 975 vehicles daily, of which
12% are trucks and buses. The second is
on a high-traffic highway connecting the
industrial park to the capital city of Rio
Grande do Sul, the BR‐290, and carrying
14,000 vehicles per day, of which 19% are
trucks and buses.
In Italy, microsurfacing has gained more
and more attention in recent years, especially
due to the lack of funds for traditional road
maintenance and for restoring a pavement’s
evenness and skid resistance. In some cases,
it is seen as an aesthetic solution. Yet the
number of companies that have experience
of this technology remains limited. Also, the
predominant use of magmatic rocks, along
with the lack of consistent specifications,
makes it difficult to be accepted on a regular
basis.
But some attempts have been made to
improve the understanding of microsurfacing
and make this technology more widely
used, not simply as a maintenance solution.
Researchers at the University of Bologna
have suggested the incorporation of recycled
crumb rubber and the use of gap-graded
curves for the aggregate in order to provide
a pavement with skid resistance and acoustic
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Figure 5
features (Figure 6).
In Canada, microsurfacing is used mostly
on low- to medium-traffic roads, but has
been used on some heavily used highways
with good results. For example, in the eastern
province of Quebec, between 2007 and 2009,
several sections on heavy-traffic highways -
Highway 10, 30 and 70 - were microsurfaced
with success. The use of BSS is not limited
to highways; it was also used on runways
and aprons at an airport in the neighbouring
province of Ontario in 2007. Microsurfacings
have been used since the early 1990s and they
last normally between four to eight years.
The use of BBS in Canada is an accepted
pavement maintenance technique that
extends pavement service life at lower cost
than conventional rehabilitation techniques
such as milling and paving.
CONCLUSIONS
After a critical analysis of terminology
and use of BSS in 10 countries, this paper
proposes a more comprehensive and
harmonised definition and description of this
family of products.
BSS can be defined as paving mixtures
produced using bitumen emulsion and
characterised by a “slurry” state. After laying,
they evolve into a solid state during a curing
process that takes generally from half an hour
to twelve hours. Among BSS, microsurfacing
and slurry seal can be distinguished.
Microsurfacing has higher performance than
slurry seal and allows quicker traffic opening,
heavier traffic volume and thicker application
layers.
BSS are composed of bitumen emulsion,
well‐graded aggregate blend (including
filler), water and additives (Portland cement,
hydrated lime, fly ash or other). Specific
additives and fibres also may be included.
Microsurfacing is distinguished from
slurry seal by the use of polymer‐modified
emulsion and higher quality aggregate.
Additionally, the nominal maximum size for
microsurfacing is often larger than that for
slurry seal. BSS are proportioned, mixed and
uniformly laid in‐place as a homogeneous
mat over a properly prepared surface at
MICROSURFACING
Figure 6
ambient temperature. They may consist of
one or more layers - usually in a thickness
of the largest aggregate size in the gradation
- that must adhere firmly to the underlying
pavement.
BSS are used generally to prevent surface
water from penetrating the underlying
pavement, to restore or improve skid
resistance, to plug superficial voids and
microcracking, to provide a distinctive
colour to the road surface. Slurry seal is also
employed to provide temporary cover at
low cost and smooth surfaces for pedestrian
areas, parking lots, school yards and bicycle
tracks. Microsurfacing is also employed to
provide shape correction, to reprofile rutted
wheel paths and to obtain a faster traffic
opening. Q
The authors are Andrea Grilli (Università
della Repubblica di San Marino, San Marino),
Andrea Graziani (Università Politecnica delle
Marche, Ancona, Italy), Alan Carter (École de
Technologie Supérieure, Monteral, Canada),
Cesare Sangiorgi and Sergio Copetti Callai
(Università di Bologna, Italy) and Luciano
Pivoto Specht (Universidade Federal de Santa
Maria, Brazil
RILEM TECHNICAL LETTERS
The article is an edited version of an article
that was originally published online 19
November, 2019 as a RILEM Technical
Letter. It was published with open access
and licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International Licence. Full
references are given in the original article.
- A. Grilli et al. “Slurry surfacing: a review
of definitions, descriptions and current
practices”, RILEM Technical Letters, 2019, vol.
4, 103-109. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21809/
rilemtechlett.2019.91
For correspondence about this paper,
please contact Andrea Graziani at
a.graziani@univpm.it Tel: +39 071 2204507
ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 35
MODIFIED WHEEL TRACKER
CONVENTIONAL VERSUS
MODIFIED WHEEL TRACKER
A New Zealand university team has devised a modified wheel tracker for laboratory
testing that, it says, captures all three stages of permanent deformation from
rutting – an improvement on more widely used conventional wheel trackers*
onventional wheel trackers, now in
C use by all test standards, perform
the test under fully confined
conditions. The test is conducted
by placing asphalt slabs or cylindrical cores in
fully confined steel or polyethylene moulds.
The boundary conditions created by the fixed
sides of the steel or polyethylene mould limit
or prevent the asphalt specimen from lateral
(shear) deformation.
In addition, this fully confined condition
creates a very different boundary condition
from those under actual field conditions.
Furthermore, it creates very complex and
variable stress conditions within the asphalt
specimen.
The aim of this paper is to introduce a new
test setup for the wheel tracker test. In the
new test setup both vertical and horizontal
permanent deformations are measured
with the number of loading cycles. In the
modified wheel tracker, the confining stresses
can be controlled which allows for shear
deformations to happen and, therefore, all
three permanent deformation phases can
be captured. This new test method is under
development as a new ASTM (American
Society for Testing and Materials) standard.
Permanent deformation behaviour [from
rutting] can be divided principally into three
mechanisms; one-dimensional densification
which is also called primary phase, creep
deformation which is also commonly called
secondary phase and lateral flow or plastic
movement which is also termed as tertiary
flow phase.
The plastic deformation or tertiary flow
is the major type of permanent deformation
causing high severity rutting due to
inadequate shear strength of the asphalt
mixes.
In the US, the National Cooperative
Highway Research Programme (NCHRP)
Project 9-19 - Superpave Support and
36 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
Performance Models Management -
introduced the flow number as one of three
simple performance tests (SPT) related to the
rutting resistance of HMA (hot mix asphalt)
mixtures. The other two tests are dynamic
modulus and flow time. The SPT accounts
for shear deformation by measuring the flow
number or flow time under the repeated and/
or static creep tests, respectively, which would
occur at the start of the “tertiary phase”.
The permanent deformation curve can
be divided into three major zones: primary,
secondary and tertiary. In the primary zone,
permanent deformation accumulates at
a decreasing rate. In the secondary zone,
permanent deformation accumulates at a
constant rate and, finally, it increases rapidly
at the start of the tertiary zone. The inflection
point between the secondary and tertiary
zones on the deformation versus number of
cycles curve is termed as the flow number
in the dynamic creep test or flow time in the
static creep test.
The flow number N is an empirical way
of characterising the rutting potential of hot
mix asphalt. It is the number of load cycles
at which tertiary flow begins. The higher the
flow number N, the more resistant to rutting
is the asphalt mix.
*This article is an edited version
of the paper ‘Conventional
versus modified wheel trackers’
by Mofreh Saleh which was
presented at the Australian
flexible pavement association’s
18th international conference
in Sydney in August 2019. Full
references are available upon
request. Associate professor
Saleh is director of studies in transportation within the
civil and natural resource engineering department at the
University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
The flow number has two significant
characteristics. First, the permanent
deformation rate undergoes an increase at an
accelerated rate right after this point. Second,
it occurs under a constant volume which
signifies shear-based deformation.
One major shortcoming of the SPT tests
is that they are quite complicated for daily
quality control and quality assurance (QC/
QA) testing. They also require complex
instrumentation and equipment. In addition,
the uniaxial loading used in the simple
performance test is not anywhere close to
actual traffic loading. Thus, the wheel tracker
test setup and its loading pattern were used
as an alternative test to better simulate traffic
wheel loading.
Several types of loaded wheel trackers
were developed and used in testing rutting
resistance. These include the Georgia
Loaded-Wheel Tester, Asphalt Pavement
Analyser, Hamburg Wheel Tracking Device
and the LCPC (French) Wheel Tracker. These
devices use similar principles with minor
differences in the specimen dimensions and
whether or not cylindrical or rectangular
slabs are used, the applied load value and
whether the load is applied via steel wheel,
solid or pneumatic rubber tyre.
The US Federal Highway Administration
conducted full-scale testing using the
Accelerated Linear Facility at the Turner-
Fairbank Highway Research Center in
McLean, Virginia, to evaluate and assess
the accuracy of several rutting devices.
Specimens with the same material used in the
12 pavements tested by Accelerated Linear
Facility were prepared and tested in the
French Pavement Rutting Tester, the Georgia
Loaded-Wheel Tester, the Hamburg Wheel
Tracking Device and the Superpave Shear
Tester - a servo-hydraulic device. The lab
results for each rutting test device were then
compared to the full-scale results provided by
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 MODIFIED WHEEL TRACKER

Figure 1: Fully confined specimens in the conventional wheel tracker

Confining stress exerted by the mould edges

305mm
Wheel tracking
Wheel tracking

305mm
Square/rectangular mould Cylindrical mould

the Accelerated Linear Facility. height equal to that of the specimen to fill Figure 3 shows the reactive force measured
Comparisons of results showed that no the air space gaps between the specimen during the confined testset up as recorded
device was clearly better than any other, and the sides of the mounting tray to ensure by the temperature-compensated load cell
not even the Superpave Shear Tester. It was full confinement of the test specimen. This attached to the moveable side plate of the
also concluded that all devices were able to fixed, rigid boundary for such relatively small modified mould design. It is obvious from
separate good from bad mixtures when these specimens - 305mm x 305mm for a slab or Figure 3 that the lateral reactive forces are
mixtures were made with the same aggregate 150mm diameter for a cylindrical specimen - increasing with the increase of loading cycles.
and different binders - ranging from a very will prevent relatively strong specimens from At the start of the loading cycles, the
soft PG 58 to a very stiff PG 78. lateral flow. Most likely only very poor mixes reactive confining force is zero, indicating
might flow over the mould. unconfined condition. As the number of
LIMITATIONS cycles increase, the reactive force increases
However, when mixtures with two different REACTIVE FORCES indicating different confinement condition.
aggregate gradations - nominal maximum To measure reactive forces exerted on the This provides strong evidence that the state
aggregate of 19mm and 37.5mm - were asphalt concrete slab specimen during the of stresses during the conventional wheel
tested, no device was able to distinguish the conventional wheel tracker test, a major tracker test is variable which renders the test
mixtures that performed well from those redesign of the test apparatus was conducted less useful - and fundamentally incorrect.
that did not, even though the testing at at New Zealand’s University of Canterbury. The increase in confining stresses due to
Virginia’s Accelerated Linear Facility showed The mould assembly was redesigned to allow unrealistic boundary conditions will provide
significant differences in performance. This lateral forces to be measured in the confined false increase in shear strength and, therefore,
clearly indicates the limitation of current test setup as shown in Figure 2. false increase in the permanent deformation
conventional wheel trackers.
The common issue between all current Figure 2: Measurement of reactive force
loaded wheel trackers is that specimens exerted by the edge of the mould
are tested fully confined inside the test
mould. This creates very different boundary
conditions from those in the actual field. In
addition, the fully confined conditions create
very complex and variable stresses within the
specimen during the test.
Figure 1 shows the boundary conditions
around the asphalt specimen in the
conventional wheel tracker test setup. As the
asphalt specimen is fully confined by the steel
or polyethylene mould at all sides, reactive
pressure will build up at the boundary as the
specimen tries to flow laterally during loading.
The current test standard methods such
as AG:PT/T231, AASHTO T324 and EN
12697-22 recommend using plaster to a

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MODIFIED WHEEL TRACKER
Reactive force in (N)
resistance of the asphalt mixes. This false
increase in shear strength will hinder
the conventional wheel tracker test from
capturing the true permanent deformation
behaviour of the asphalt mixes.
Therefore, running the wheel tracker
test under the current conventional setup
would merely measure rutting caused by
densification, for example, compaction, as
a result of air void change (explained more
fully in the following sections). This explains
the reason why the majority of the asphalt
mixes tested in the conventional wheel
tracker only show the primary phase and
small portion of the secondary phase.
This was confirmed by researchers Azari
and Houseni* in their investigation into the
precision of the Hamburg wheel track test
in which the authors conducted the wheel
tracker test on several lab and field mixtures.
They concluded that, apart from two outlier
results, all mixtures did not exhibit inflection
point, which means absence of a tertiary
phase.
In addition, the authors attributed the
inflection point, or tertiary failure of the two
outliers, to the loosening of the bolts holding
specimens in test trays which was reported
by the laboratories in which the wheel tracker
test was conducted. In fact, the loosening of
the bolts provided space for lateral flow of
the two specimens and eased the confining
stresses compared to other specimens that
were fully confined and, therefore, the tertiary
failure was mobilised in these two specimens.
CONVENTIONAL VS. MODIFIED
To understand the differences between
the conventional wheel tracker test and
the modified wheel tracker, two identical
replicate AC10 slabs with dimensions 305mm
x 305mm x 50mm were made with bitumen
of PG64-16 performance grade. The two
replicate slabs were compacted using roller
compactor to 6% (±0.5%) air voids. The
air void content was determined according
to ASTM D3203 and ASTM D2726 to
ensure the accuracy of the air void content
measurements. Table 1 shows the volumetric
parameters for each of the two replicate slabs.
*Azari, H. and Mohseni, A.; Precision of Hamburg Wheel
Track Test (AASHTO T 324). Transportation Research
Board Annual Meeting,TRB, Washington, DC, 2015.
TABLE 1: Volumetric properties of AC10 asphalt mix slabs
Specimen Dry mass (g) SSD (g)
AC10_C 10243.5 10307.5
AC10_U 10498.5 10567
38 ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000
ABOVE: Figure 3: Reactive force exerted by the edge of the mould versus number of loading cycles
BELOW: Figure 4: Semi-unconfined test setup
Conventional wheel tracker versus modified wheel tracker
DTI – Recording
horizontal
deformation
The asphalt slab designated AC10_C
was tested at 60°C fully confined using the
conventional wheel tracker test. The asphalt
slab designated AC10_U was tested using
the modified wheel tracker test setup with
two sides of the slab unconfined as shown in
Figure 4.
In the modified wheel tracker test
setup, both permanent vertical and
horizontal deformations were recorded.
In this configuration of the modified test
setup, the slab was restrained at two sides
perpendicular to the travel direction of
the wheel. Meanwhile, the slab was free to
move laterally, parallel to the wheel motion.
With this modified test setup, the artificial
restraints imposed by the steel mould were
removed and the specimen was able to
exhibit a more realistic behaviour.
Figure 5 shows the relationship
between the measured vertical permanent
deformations and the applied load cycles
using the conventional wheel tracker test
submerged (g) Gmb (ASTM D3203)
5857 2.202311
6001 2.257135
AC14 with 60/70 binder
50oC
Number of cycles
LVDT – Recording
vertical deformation
setup. The test was conducted at 60°C for
the AC10_C asphalt mix slabs. As is clear
from Figure 5, the permanent deformation
curve shows only the primary phase and
small portion of the secondary phase of the
permanent deformation curve after 20,000
loading cycles. The absence of the inflection
point and therefore tertiary flow phase is due
to the boundary condition issue created by
the rigid sides of the steel mould.
Figure 6 shows the relationship between
the measured vertical and horizontal
permanent deformations and the applied load
cycles using the modified wheel tracker test
setup. Figure 6 also portrays clearly the three
permanent deformation zones - primary,
secondary and tertiary - for both the vertical
and horizontal permanent deformations after
only 2,000 cycles.
It is obvious that the unrealistic boundary
conditions in the conventional wheel tracker
test caused by the steel mould edges create
high confining stresses. Such stresses will
Gmb (ASTM D2726) Gmm %VTM
2.301651 2.452 6.131668
2.299277 2.452 6.228496
www.worldhighways.com

Permanent vertical deformation (mm)
falsely increase the shear strength of the
asphalt mix and immobilise the tertiary flow
of the asphalt mix.
The fundamental problem with the current
setup of the conventional wheel trackers is
the variable confining stresses, as explained
in Figure 3. These stresses keep increasing
proportionally with the number of loading
cycles to ensure the test is fundamentally
incorrect.
ADVANTAGES OF MODIFIED
Since the confining stresses have considerable
effect on the shear strength and, therefore,
the permanent deformation behaviour of
Vertical permanent deformation (mm)
the asphalt mixes at high temperature, the
modified wheel tracker is designed to have
full control on the confining stresses.
Figure 7 shows an example of one
configuration mould assembly design for the
modified wheel tracker. In this configuration,
confining stresses can be applied via
pneumatic rams at one side of the slab and
the applied pressure remains constant during
the entire duration of the wheel tracker test.
This configuration is capable of applying a
range of confining stresses from 0-50kPa.
The University of Canterbury Pavement
Laboratory is also developing another
configuration capable of applying confining
stresses on two perpendicular sides of the
asphalt specimen. However, the configuration
shown in Figure 7 is adequate for testing
and ranking asphalt mixes for permanent
deformation behaviour.
The method for the modified wheel tracker
is under development as a new ASTM
standard.
The current conventional wheel tracker
tests for asphalt specimens are conducted
fully confined, in either steel rectangular or
square moulds or in cylindrical polyethylene
moulds. Due to the relatively small size of
the tested specimen, the effect of boundary
condition on the shear strength and,
therefore, on the resulting permanent
deformation behaviour is quite significant.
As discussed in this paper, the rigid edges
of the mould in the conventional wheel
trackers create variable states of stress during
the test. As the number of cycles increase
the reactive confining stresses also increase,
thus providing false increase in the shear
strength and the permanent deformation
resistance. In addition, in the conventional
wheel tracker test due to the unrealistic
boundary condition, only the primary phase
and small portion of the secondary phase
of the permanent deformation curve can be
captured.
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MODIFIED WHEEL TRACKER
7
AC10_C
6
3
2
1
0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Number of loading cycles
ABOVE: Figire 5: Conventional wheel tracker test for AC10_C at 60°C
BELOW: Figure 6: Modified wheel tracker test for AC10_U at 60°C
18 18
16 16
Horizontal permanent deformation (mm)
Vertical permanent deformation
14 14
Horizontal permanent deformation
12 12
AC10_C
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 5,000 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500
Number of loading cycles
Moveable plate attached
to pneumatic rams
Fixed plate
Applied pressure =
reactive pressure
Figure 7: Modified mould
assembly to allow confining
Fixed plate
pressure to be applied on two
opposite sides of asphalt specimens
With the modified wheel tracker, the numbers based on vertical and horizontal
confining stresses can be fully controlled permanent deformations can be measured
during the test, capturing the three and quantified for asphalt mixes. Both
permanent deformation zones - primary, Nh (flow number based on horizonal
secondary and tertiary. The horizontal and deformation ) and Nv (flow number based
vertical permanent deformation versus the on vertical deformation) are well correlated
number of loading cycles perfectly fit the and can provide valuable information on
Francken model [for data analysis]. Flow permanent deformation of asphalt mixes. n
ROAD SURFACE TECHNOLOGY 2020 39