[SH – PR2 / Practical Research 2]

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[Research Instruments]

Research Instruments

Generally, there are various procedures of collecting data. The main

instruments used in the mixed method researches consist of closed-ended,
open-ended questionnaires, interviews and classroom observations. These
different ways of gathering information can supplement each other and
hence boost the validity and dependability of the data. In the main, the
quantitative data are obtained through closed-ended questionnaires and the
qualitative data through open-ended questionnaires, interviews and
classroom observations. The items of the questionnaires are mainly
developed based on the research objectives and research questions.
At the end of the topic the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the instrument development;
2. Discuss the measurement of scales;
3. Discuss the nominal scale;
4. Discuss the ordinal scale;
5. Discuss the interval scale;
6. Discuss the ratio scale; and
7. Discuss the data collection and analysis procedures such as survey,
interview, and observation.

The Instrument Development

How to develop research instruments
Before the group can collect any data, the young researchers will need to
design research instruments (the tools they will use to collect the data).
If the group is planning to carry out interviews or focus groups, the young
researchers will need to design an interview schedule or topic guide. This is a
list of questions or topic areas that all the interviewers will use. Asking
everyone the same questions means that the data you collect will be much
more focused and easier to analyse.
If the group wants to carry out a survey, the young researchers will need to
design a questionnaire. This could be on paper or online (using free software
such as Survey Monkey). Both approaches have advantages and
disadvantages.
If the group is collecting data from more than one ‘type’ of person (such as
young people and teachers, for example), it may well need to design more
than one interview schedule or questionnaire. This should not be too difficult
as the young researchers can adapt additional schedules or questionnaires
from the original.
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 When designing the research instruments ensure that:
They start with a statement about:
1. The focus and aims of the research project
2. How the person’s data will be used (to feed into a report?)
3. Confidentiality – will the report name them or will their data be
anonymised? Who will have access to their data (the research team
only?)
4. How long the interview or survey will take to complete.
They use age-appropriate language
Every question helps the group to answer its research question – take out
those that don’t
Any questionnaires use appropriate scales. For young people ‘smiley face’
scales can work well
Any questionnaires ask people for any relevant information about
themselves, such as their gender or age, if relevant. Don’t ask for so much
detail that it would be possible to identify individuals though, if you have said
that the survey will be anonymous.
If the young researchers are planning to carry out observations, they will
need to agree what to look for. You could consider designing
an observation form.
If the group if planning to use photographs, drawings or video, they will need
to specify the activity for research participants. For example, the group might
want primary school children to take up to five photographs showing the
things they like most about school, or to draw a picture of how they feel
when they a) come to school, b) are on lunch break, and c) are doing their
homework.

The Measurement of Scale

The level of measurement refers to the relationship among the values that
are assigned to the attributes for a variable. What does that mean? Begin
with the idea of the variable “party affiliation” Let ‟assume in a particular
election context the only relevant attributes are republican, democrat and
independent”. For purpose of analyzing the results of this variable we
arbitrarily assign the values 1, 2 and 3 to the three attributes.
(http://www.academia.edu/6616569/Research_Proposal_Measurement_Sca
les)

The Nominal, Ordinal, interval and Ratio Scale

There are four measurement scales (or types of data): nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio. These are simply ways to categorize different types of
variables. This topic is usually discussed in the context of academic teaching
and less often in the “real world.” If you are brushing up on this concept for a
statistics test, thank a psychologist researcher named Stanley Stevens for
coming up with these terms.
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[Research Instruments]

Nominal

Let’s start with the easiest one to understand. Nominal scales are used for
labeling variables, without any quantitative value. “Nominal” scales could
simply be called “labels.” Here are some examples, below. Notice that all of
these scales are mutually exclusive (no overlap) and none of them have any
numerical significance. A good way to remember all of this is that “nominal”
sounds a lot like “name” and nominal scales are kind of like “names” or
labels.
Ordinal

With ordinal scales, it is the order of the values is what’s important and
significant, but the differences between each one is not really known. Take a
look at the example below. In each case, we know that a #4 is better than a
#3 or #2, but we don’t know–and cannot quantify–how much better it is. For
example, is the difference between “OK” and “Unhappy” the same as the
difference between “Very Happy” and “Happy?” We can’t say.
Ordinal scales are typically measures of non-numeric concepts like
satisfaction, happiness, discomfort, etc.
“Ordinal” is easy to remember because is sounds like “order” and that’s the
key to remember with “ordinal scales”–it is the order that matters, but that’s
all you really get from these.
Interval

Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only the order, but
also the exact differences between the values. The classic example of an
interval scale is Celsius temperature because the difference between each
value is the same. For example, the difference between 60 and 50 degrees is
a measurable 10 degrees, as is the difference between 80 and 70
degrees. Time is another good example of an interval scale in which
the increments are known, consistent, and measurable.
Interval scales are nice because the realm of statistical analysis on these data
sets opens up. For example, central tendency can be measured by mode,
median, or mean; standard deviation can also be calculated.
Like the others, you can remember the key points of an “interval scale” pretty
easily. “Interval” itself means “space in between,” which is the important
thing to remember–interval scales not only tell us about order, but also about
the value between each item.

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 Ratio
Ratio scales are the ultimate nirvana when it comes to measurement scales
because they tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value between
units, AND they also have an absolute zero–which allows for a wide range of
both descriptive and inferential statistics to be applied. At the risk of
repeating myself, everything above about interval data applies to ratio scales
+ ratio scales have a clear definition of zero. Good examples of ratio variables
include height and weight.
Ratio scales provide a wealth of possibilities when it comes to statistical
analysis. These variables can be meaningfully added, subtracted, multiplied,
divided (ratios). Central tendency can be measured by mode, median, or
mean; measures of dispersion, such as standard deviation and coefficient of
variation can also be calculated from ratio scales.
(http://www.mymarketresearchmethods.com/types-of-data-nominal-
ordinal-interval-ratio/)

Data Collection
How to collect data
Once the group has designed the research instruments, it can move on to
collecting the data.
Here are some tips to share with the young researchers during this stage of
the project:
1. People are doing you a favor by helping you with your research – thank
them for their time and tell them that you value their input.
2. Invite more people to take part than you actually want to collect data
from, as some people may not want to participate. People have the right
to refuse to take part in your research and to withdraw from the research
at any point - you must respect this, as part of research ethics.
3. Keep an eye on how many people have responded to your survey or
agreed to take part in your project. You may need to send reminders to
some people.
4. It is very easy to introduce your own views but your job is to find out
what other people think and do. Ask interviewees more probing
questions, if you’re not quite sure what they mean, and reflect their views
back to them to check that you’ve understood them correctly.
5. Be organized and ethical - keep all your data responses in one, secure,
place.
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[Research Instruments]

Glossary
Interval - measurement the distance between attributes does have meaning
Nominal - measurement the numerical values just "name" the attribute
uniquely
Ordinal - measurement the attributes can be rank-ordered.
Ratio - measurement there is always an absolute zero that is meaningful.

References
Baraceros, Esther L. (2017), Practical Research 2, Rex Book Store, Inc., First
Edition
Baraceros, Esther L. (2017), Practical Research 1, Rex Book Store, Inc., First
Edition
Sarno, Emerlita G. (2010), Tips and Techniques in Writing Research, Rex
Book Store, Inc.

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