Fluid Mechanics

Topic 2.1: Hydrostatics – Fluids Pressure

Overview

2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Concepts of pressure
2.1.3 Pressure measurement
2.1.4 Hydrostatic forces on plane surface
2.1.5 Hydrostatic thrust on curved surface
2.1.6 Pressure diagram

2
Learning Outcomes
• Explain the concepts of pressure and pressure difference in
static fluid.
• Determine pressure head, pressure gauge and absolute
pressure.
• Apply the concept of pressure with pressure measurements.
• Identify and illustrate the forces acting on a hydraulic
structure
• Formulate and apply the concept of hydrostatic pressure to
solve problems when the hydrostatic force is exerted on
plane and curved surfaces under static condition.
• Apply pressure diagram method to solve hydrostatic related
problems.
3
Recall your knowledge
in physics

4
5
6
 F
p
To measure pressure of a A
liquid at a particular depth,
Weight of the liquid column
consider the liquid column p
below. Surface area of the base
  g V
p
A
 g l bh
p
l b
p   g h
Where,
p  pressure
  density of liquid
h  depth/elev ation
7
Try this
The figure given shows three
non-mixing liquids placed in an
enclosed tank.
a) Calculate the pressure due
to the liquid at point X.
b) Calculate the pressure due
to the liquids at point Y.
c) Calculate the pressure due
to the liquids at point Z.
d) Sketch a graph of pressure,
p against depth, h for h = 0
to 16 m in the tank.

8
2.1.1 Introduction
Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a
fluid at rest.

The normal stress and shear stress at

the surface of a fluid element. For
fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
and pressure is the only normal stress.
9
 140 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted 70 kg

by a fluid per unit area

Afeet=343 cm2

P = 20 kPa P = 40 kPa

P = (709.81/1000) kN / 0.0343 m2 = 20 kPa

The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the

feet of a chubby person is much greater
than on the feet of a slim person.
Some
basic
pressure
gages. 10
• Statics rules apply to fluids at rest, hence, there will
be no shearing forces acting.
• Therefore, all forces exerted between the fluid and
a solid boundary must act at right angles
(normal/perpendicular) to the boundary.

11
 2.1.1 Pascal’s Law for pressure at a point
By considering the equilibrium of a small fluid element below a
relationship can be established between the pressures px in the
x-direction, py in the y-direction and pϴ normal to any plane
inclined at any angle θ to the horizontal at this point.

12
Taking summation of the forces in z direction,

F z 0
1
0  p z .b.x  p .b.s.Cos  .x.z.b. .g
2
Substituting,
x
Cos  x, z , b : Are very small quantities,
s
therefore, the 3rd term
x 1 is negligible compared to the
p z .x  p .s.  .x.z.b. .g  0
s 2 other 2 terms

p z  p

13
Taking summation of the forces in x direction,

F x 0
p x .b.z  p .b.s.Sin  0
Since pz = px = pϴ , this
p x .z  p .s.Sin  0
concluded that the pressure
at a point is the same in all
z direction
Substituting, Sin 
s
Pascal’s Law:
z
p x .z  p .s. 0 ‘The pressure, p, at any given point in a fluid is
s independent of its direction’
Blaise Pascal
p x  p

14
2.1.2 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest

• Figure shows a
cylindrical fluid
element of constant
cross sectional area A,
inclined at angle ϴ
from the vertical.
There is no shear
acting because the
fluid is at rest.

15
Summing up all forces along the axis: (1) pressure force in the
direction of the flow, (2) pressure force in the opposite direction of
flow and (3) weight of the element
pA   p  dp A  gAdsCos  0
dp   gdsCos

When element is horizontal When element is vertical

Given,
Given,
  90   0, cos  dz
ds
dp   gds cos  dp   gds cos 
dp   gds cos 90 dz
dp   g cos 0
dp  0 cos 0
dp   gdz
Meaning:
Anywhere in a static fluid, Meaning:
at a given depth the pressure Pressure varies with respect
is constant (the same) to elevation
16
The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid
regardless of geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the
same fluid.

17
Recall your knowledge
in physics

18
Atmospheric
pressure is the
pressure exerted
by the
atmosphere on
the surface of the
Earth

Patm = 1 atm
= 101kPa

19
Fortin Barometer

20
2.1.3 Pressure
• In liquid, the elevation is usually in terms of depth h and is
measured from the free surface (downwards).
• Pressure on fluids is measured in 2 different system:
absolute pressure & gauge pressure.
• Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position.
It is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute
zero pressure).
• Gauge pressure: The difference between the absolute
pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. Most
pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in
the atmosphere, and so they indicate gauge pressure.
• Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
21
22
 Pressures

Absolute Gauge Vacuum

pressure pressure pressure

pabs  pgauge  patm p gauge  gh pvacuum  patm  pabs

* Patm = 0 (datum)

23
Pressure in a liquid at rest
increases linearly with
distance from the free
surface.

24
Pressure head
pressure p
• Pressure head, h  
density  gravity g 7.112 m

• Pressure head is the vertical

height of a column of a given
fluid of mass density ρ which Pressure head, h
would be necessary to
produce pressure, p.
• Units: m
• Stated with the density of
given fluid. E.g. 10 m of Hg

25
Example
What is the pressure gauge, absolute pressure and
the pressure head in terms of mercury at location (2)
the tank shown?
1

10 m

26
 p  gh
 1000  9.81 10
 98.1kPa

pabs  pgauge  patm

 98.1kPa  101kPa
 199.1kPa

p
h
g
 98.110 3 Pa
13600 kg 3 9.81m 2
m s

 7.213m of Hg

27
Try yourself
A mountain lake has an average temperature of 100C
and a maximum depth of 40 m. The barometric
pressure is 598 mm Hg. Determine the absolute
pressure at the deepest part of the lake.

28
29
Try yourself
What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure
at a point 3 m below the free surface of a liquid
having a density of 1.53 x 103 kg/m3 if the
atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750 mm of
mercury? The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and
density of water is 1000 kg/m3.

30
31
2.1.4 Pressure measurement
• Fluid pressures can be determined by various
means and devices depending on the types of
fluids.
• Some of the common devices used are barometers,
piezometers and manometers.

32
Barometers
• Atmospheric pressure is measured
by a device called a barometer;
thus patm is often referred to as the
barometric pressure.
• The pressure at point B is equal to
the atmospheric pressure, and the
pressure at A can be taken as zero
since there is only Hg vapor above
point A and the pressure is
relatively low to patm and can be
neglected.
Simple manometers
• A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having
one of its ends connected to a point where
pressure is to be measured and other end remains
open to atmosphere.
• Common types:
• Piezometer
• U-tube manometer
• Single column manometer

34
Piezometers
• One end is connected
to the point where
pressure to be
measured and other is
open to the
atmosphere.
• The rise of liquid gives
the pressure head at
point A, PA  gh

35
U-tube manometers
• It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is
connected to a point where the pressure is to be measured and
the other end remains open to atmosphere.
• The tube normally contains Hg or any other liquid whose SG is
greater than the SG of the liquid whose pressure is to be
measured.

36
U-tube manometer – gauge
pressure
Pressure above A - A in the left column
 p  1  g  h1 
B
Pressure above A - A in the right column
h2
  2  g  h2
h1
Equating both pressures,
A A
p  1gh1    2 gh2
p   2 gh2   1gh1 

37
U-tube manometer – gauge
pressure
Pressure above A - A in the left column
 p  1  g  h1    2  g  h2 

Pressure above A - A in the right column

0

Equating both pressures,

p  1gh1    2 gh2   0
p   2 gh2  1gh1 

38
Example
The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer
containing mercury is open to the atmosphere while
the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of
specific gravity 0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe
is 12 cm below the level of mercury in the right limb.
Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference
of mercury level in the two limbs is 20 cm.

39
40
Example
A simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is
connected to a pipe in which a fluid of specific
gravity 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing.
The other end of the manometer is open to
atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in the pipe, if
the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 40
cm and the height of the fluid in the left from the
centre of pipe is 15 cm below.

41
42
 U-tube differential manometers –
pipes at different levels, different
liquid density
Pressure above X - X in the left limb
 1g h  x   pA

Pressure above X - X in the right limb

 
 Hggh   2 gy   pB

Equating both pressures

1g h  x   pA  Hggh    2gy   pB

pA  pB  Hggh    2 gy   1g h  x 
 
 gh Hg  1   2 gy  1gx

43
 U-tube differential manometers –
pipes at same levels, same liquid
density
Pressure above X - X in the left limb
 1g h  x   pA

Pressure above X - X in the right limb

 
 Hggh   2 gx   pB

Equating both pressures

1g h  x   pA  Hggh   1gy   pB
pA  pB  Hggh   1gy   1g h  x 

 gh Hg  1 
44
Example
A pipe contains an oil of specific gravity of 0.9. A
differential manometer connected at the two points
A and B along the pipe shows a difference in mercury
level as 15 cm. Find the difference of pressure at the
two points.

45
Example
A differential manometer is
connected at the two points
A and B of two pipes as
shown in figure. The pipe A
contains a liquid of specific
gravity 1.5 while pipe B
contains a liquid of specific
gravity 0.9. The pressure at A
and B are 9.81 x 104 Pa and
17.658 x 104 Pa respectively.
Find the difference in
mercury level in the
differential manometer.

46
Inverted U-tube differential
manometer
Consists of U-tube containing a light liquid.
Typically used to measure low pressures.
Pressure in the left limb below X - X
 p A  1gh1

Pressure in the right limb below X - X

 pB   2 gh2   S gh

Equating,

p A  1gh1  pB   2 gh2   S gh
p A  pB  1gh1   2 gh2   S gh

47
Example
Water is flowing through two
different pipes to which an
inverted differential
manometer having an oil
specific gravity 0.8 is
connected. The pressure head
in the pipe A is 2 m of water,
find the pressure in the pipe
B for the manometer readings
as shown in figure.

48
49
Try yourself
Determine the pressure
difference if the
conduits are filled with
water.

50
Try yourself
Find the
pressure
difference
between A and
B.

51
2.1.4 Hydrostatic forces on plane
surface
• For plane horizontal
surface, the pressure is
given by:
p  gh

• The associated
F  pA
resultant force would
be:  gAh

52
Example
• A rectangular tank 6 m and 3 m wide contains
water up to a depth of 2.5 m. Calculate the
pressure and resultant hydrostatic force on the
base of the tank. p  gh
 9810  2.5
 24525 Pa
2.5
m F  p A
3  24525  6  3
6 m  441.45kN
m

53
Hydrostatic forces on inclined
surface
• A plane surface is immersed in a liquid, inclined at
an angle ϴ as shown below

54
• Consider an The resultant force F
elemental strips will act at a single point
where the pressure p known as the centre of
is constant and the pressure CP. The
elemental
dF  pdA force dF location of this point is
can be written as: determined by
 ghdA consideration of
moment equilibrium,
taking moment about
• The resultant O. h
M  F P
hydrostatic force F is Momentsindue to
obtained
F  g  hdA by Distance from free resultant force:
hP
integrating dF over  gAhG 
A
water surface to the centroid sin 
the
F  entire
gAhG immersed
of the immersed area gAhG hP
surface: 
sin 

55
• Summation of Using parallel axis theorem:
moments due to  hG 
2

A    
2
M   sdF
elemental forces: s dA I A

G
A
 sin 
2
Ah
  sghdA  I G  2G
A
sin 

  sg sin dA Rewriting,

A

 g sin   sdA sin 2   AhG 

2
hP  IG  2 
A
AhG  sin  

gAhG I G sin 2 
 g sin   s 2 dA hP   hG
• sin 
Equating: A
AhG

AhG hP  sin 2   s 2 dA
A Second moment of area
sin 2  2 of the immersed area taken
hP 
AhG A  s dA about O
56
57
 Example
• An inclined rectangular
gate, 1.5 m by 1.0 m
with water on one side
is shown in Figure.
Determine the total
A  1 .5  1 .0  1 . 5 m 2
resultant force acting
hG  2  0.5 sin 60  2.433m
on the gate and locate
F  1000  9.811.5  2.433  35.8kN
its centre of pressure.
1 .5  1 .0 3
IG   0.125m 4
12
0.125  sin 2 60
hP   2.433  2.46m from free surface
1.5  2.433 58
 Example
• A circular butterfly gate pivoted
about a horizontal axis passing
through its centroid is subjected
to hydrostatic thrust on one side
and counterbalanced by a force F,
applied at the bottom as shown
in Fig. If the diameter of the gate
is 4 m and the water depth is 2 m
Vertically immersed,  90 above12the .57 gate, determine the
hP  F required
force  4  4.25m from
to free
keepsurfacethe gate
A    22  12.566m 2 12.56  4
in Mposition.
hG  4m  0
FR  1000  9.81 4  4  493.1kN 2 F  FR hP  4
  44 493.1 4.25  4
IG   12.57m 4 F  61.638kN
64 2
2.1.5 Hydrostatic thrust on curved
surface
• Water pressure will
act normal on an
immersed curved
surface. The total
thrust acting on the
surface can be
resolved into two
components i.e.
horizontal and
vertical components.
• Elemental force: Vertical component of the
dF  ghdA total force on the curved
surfaceA area:
FV   ghdA sin 
• Horizontal 0
dFH  ghdA cos 
component: A Volume of water
FV  g  dV prism (real or
0
virtual) over the
elemental area
dFV  ghdA sin
• Vertical 
component: FV  gV  W

• Thus,A horizontal Resultant2 hydrostatic

FR  FH  FV
2
FH   ghdA cos  of the
component force:
total0 force on the
FH  ghG AV
curved surface area:
1  FV 
That acts Fat anToangle:
  tan the horizontal
Vertical projected area of the curved surface  H
61
Example
• An open tank 6m by 1m in
cross-section holds water to a
depth of 5m. Determine the
magnitude, direction and line
of action of the forces exerted
upon the plane surfaces AB
and CD and the curved
surface BC of the tank.
Hydrostatic force on AB: Hydrostatic force on BC:
FAB  9810  3 11.5  44.145kN FH  9810  2 1 3  1  78.48kN
1 33    23 
IG 
12
 2.25m 4 FV  9810   2  3 1  89.68kN
 4 
2.25
hP   2m from free surface
3  1 .5 FBC  78.482  89.682  119.17kN

Hydrostatic force on CD:  89.68 

  tan 1    49
 78.48 
FCD  9810  2 1 5  98.1kN
FBC passes through the origin O
FCD acts vertically at the surface centroid

63
Example
• A radial gate whose face is
part of a circle of radius 3.0 m
holds water at its back as
shown in Figure. The sector of
the circle represented by the
gate has an angle of 30° at its
centre. Water stands to a
depth of 1.5 m above the top
of the gate. The other side of
the gate is open to the
atmosphere. Determine the
total resultant force acting on
the gate and its direction. The
width of the gate is 2m.
 Consider the weight of
water above the surface
tox calculate
3 cos 30  2.6mFV
DE  3.0  2.6  0.4m
30 2
AACE     3  2.356m 2
360
AACD  0.5  2.6 1.5  1.95m 2
AADE  2.356  1.95  0.406m 2
• Project the curved
surface onto a A AEFH  0.406  0.4 1.5  1.006m 2
y  3 sin 30  1.5m Vd  1.006  2  2.012m
vertical plane to
hG  1.5  0.5 1.5  2.25m FV  9810  2.012  19.74kN
calculate2 FH
A  1.5  2  3m
FR  66.222  19.742  69.17kN
FH  9810  2.25  3  66.22kN

 19.74 
  tan 1    16.9
 66.22 
65
2.1.6 Pressure diagram
• The resultant force and centre of pressure can be
found graphically for walls and other surfaces of
constant vertical height for which it is convenient to
calculate the horizontal force exerted per unit
width.
• General principal:
• Hydrostatic force per unit width of immersed surface is
given by the area of the pressure diagram.
• The FR is given by the volume of pressure prism.
• CP is given by the location of the centroid pressure
diagram.
66
• Consider ABC the pressure diagram of a vertical wall
of a tank containing a liquid.

• R will act through the centroid P which is at a depth

of 2/3 H from A

67
If the plane surface is
inclined and submerged
below the surface, the
pressure diagram is drawn
perpendicular to the
immersed surface and will
be a straight line
extending from p = 0 at
the free surface to p = ρgH
at depth H.
As the immersed surface
does not extend to the
free surface, the resultant
force R is represented by
the shaded area, instead
of the whole triangle, and
acts through the centroid
P of this area.
68
Example
• A 2 m x 3 m tank with
vertical sides contains
oil of density 900
kg/m3 to a depth of 0.8
m, which floats on 1.2
m depth of water as
shown in figure.
Calculate the resultant
hydrostatic force and
its location on the 3 m
side of the tank.
FR  Volume of pressure prism
  A1  A2  A3  3
 0.5   o  g  0.8  0.8   o  g  0.8 1.2  0.5   w  g 1.2 1.2 3
 55.1kN

AT yT  A1 yc1  A2 yc 2  A3 yc3
A1 yc1  A2 yc 2  A3 yc3
yT 
AT
 2825.28  2 3  0.8 8475.84  0.8  0.5 1.2  7063.2  0.8  2 3 1.2
18364.32
 1.344m from the free surface

70
End of Topic 2.1

71