HISTORY SUMMARY NOTES -2 GLOBAL EMPIRES

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I. Foundations of empire
A. Motives of imperialism
1. Modern imperialism
a. Refers to domination of industrialized countries over subject lands
b. Domination achieved through trade, investment, and business
activities
2. Two types of modern colonialism
a. Colonies ruled and populated by migrants
b. Colonies controlled by imperial powers without significant
settlement
3. Economic motives of imperialism
a. European merchants and entrepreneurs made personal fortunes
b. Overseas expansion for raw materials: rubber, tin, copper,
petroleum
c. Colonies were potential markets for industrial products
4. Political motives
a. Strategic purpose: harbors and supply stations for industrial nations
b. Overseas expansion used to defuse internal tensions
5. Cultural justifications of imperialism
a. Christian missionaries sought converts in Africa and Asia
b. "Civilizing mission" or "white man's burden" was a justification
for expansion
B. Tools of empire
1. Transportation technologies supported imperialism
a. Steam-powered gunboats reached inland waters of Africa and Asia
b. Railroads organized local economies to serve imperial power
2. Western military technologies increasingly powerful
a. Firearms: from muskets to rifles to machines guns
b. In Battle of Omdurman 1898, British troops killed eleven thousand
Sudanese in five hours
3. Communication technologies linked imperial lands with colonies
a. Oceangoing steamships cut travel time from Britain to India from
years to weeks
b. Telegraph invented in 1830s, global reach by 1900
II. European imperialism
A. The British empire in India
1. Company rule under the English East India Company
a. EIC took advantage of Mughal decline in India, began conquest of
India in 1750s
b. Built trading cities and forts at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay
c. Ruled domains with small British force and Indian troops called
sepoys
d. Sepoy mutiny, 1857: attacks on British civilians led to swift British
reprisals
2. British imperial rule replaced the EIC, 1858

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a. British viceroy and high-level British civil service ruled India

b. British officials appointed a viceroy and formulated all domestic
and foreign policy
c. Indians held low-level bureaucratic positions
3. Economic restructuring of India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
a. Introduction of commercial crops: tea in Ceylon, also coffee and
opium
b. Built railroads and telegraph lines, new canals, harbors, and
irrigation methods
4. British rule did not interfere with Indian culture or Hindu religion
a. Established English-style schools for Indian elites
b. Outlawed Indian customs considered offensive, such as the sati
B. Imperialism in central Asia and southeast Asia
1. "The Great Game" refers to competition between Britain and Russia in
central Asia
a. By 1860s Russian expansion reached northern frontiers of British
India
b. Russian and British explorers mapped, scouted, but never
colonized Afghanistan
c. Russian dominance of central Asia lasted until 1991
2. Dutch East India Company held tight control of Indonesia (Dutch East
India)
3. British colonies in southeast Asia
a. Established colonial authority in Burma, 1880s
b. Port of Singapore founded 1824; was base for conquest of Malaya,
1870s
4. French Indochina created, 1859-1893
a. Consisted of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos--former tribute states of
Qing dynasty
b. French encouraged conversion to Christianity, established western-
style schools
5. Kingdom of Siam (Thailand) left in place as buffer between Burma and
Indochina
C. The scramble for Africa
1. Between 1875 and 1900, European powers seized almost the entire
continent
a. Early explorers charted the waters, gathered information on
resources
b. Missionaries like David Livingstone set up mission posts
c. Henry Stanley sent by Leopold II of Belgium to create colony in
Congo, 1870s
d. To protect their investments and Suez Canal, Britain occupied
Egypt, 1882
2. South Africa settled first by Dutch farmers (Afrikaners) in seventeenth
century

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a. By 1800 was a European settler colony with enslaved black

African population
b. British seized Cape Colony in early nineteenth century, abolished
slavery in 1833
c. British-Dutch tensions led to Great Trek of Afrikaners inland to
claim new lands
d. Mid-nineteenth century, they established Orange Free State in
1854, Transvaal in 1860
e. Discovery of gold and diamonds in Afrikaner lands; influx of
British settlers
f. Boer War, 1899-1902: British defeated Afrikaners, Union of South
Africa
3. The Berlin Conference, 1884-1885
a. European powers set rules for carving Africa into colonies
b. Occupation, supported by European armies, established colonial
rule in Africa
c. By 1900 all of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was controlled
by European powers
4. Colonial rule challenging and expensive
a. "Concessionary companies": granted considerable authority to
private companies
i. empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads
ii. made use of forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian Congo
iii. unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule
b. Direct rule: replacing local rulers with Europeans--French model
i. justified by "civilizing mission"
ii. hard to find enough European personnel
c. Indirect rule: control over subjects through local institutions--
British model
i. worked best in African societies that were highly organized
ii. assumed firm tribal boundaries where often none existed
D. European imperialism in the Pacific
1. Settler colonies in the Pacific
a. 1770, Captain James Cook reached Australia, reported it suitable
for settlement
b. 1788, one thousand settlers established colony of New South
Wales
c. 1851, gold discovered; surge of European migration to Australia
d. Fertile soil and timber of New Zealand attracted European settlers
e. Europeans diseases dramatically reduced aboriginal populations
f. Large settler societies forced indigenous peoples onto marginal
lands
2. Imperialists in paradise: delayed colonization of Pacific Islands until late
nineteenth century

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a. Early visitors to the Pacific were mostly whalers, merchants, some

missionaries
b. Late nineteenth century, European states sought coaling stations
and naval ports
c. By 1900, all islands but Tonga claimed by France, Britain,
Germany and United States.
d. Island plantations produced sugarcane, copra, guano
III. The emergence of new imperial powers
A. U.S. imperialism in Latin America and the Pacific
1. The Monroe Doctrine, 1823: proclamation by U.S. president James
Monroe
a. Opposed European imperialism in the Americas; justified U.S.
intervention
b. United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867
c. Hawaii became a protectorate in 1875, formally annexed in 1898
2. The Spanish-American War (1898-99)
a. United States defeated Spain and took over Cuba, Puerto Rico,
Guam, and Philippines
b. United States backed Filipino revolt against Spain, purchased and
took over the colony
c. 1902-1904, bitter civil war killed two hundred thousand Filipinos,
ended in U.S. victory
3. The Panama Canal, 1903-1914
a. Colombian government refused U.S. request to build canal at
Panama isthmus
b. United States helped rebels establish the state of Panama for the
right to build a canal
c. Completed in 1914; gave United States access to Atlantic and
Pacific
B. Imperial Japan
1. Japanese resented unequal treaties of 1860s, resolved to become imperial
power
2. Early Japanese expansion in nearby islands
a. 1870s, to the north: Hokkaido, Kurile islands
b. By 1879, to the south: Okinawa and Ryukyu Islands
3. Meiji government bought British warships, built up navy, established
military academies
a. 1876, imposed unequal treaties on Korea at gunpoint
b. Made plans to invade China
4. The Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)
a. Rebellion in Korea: Chinese army sent to restore order, reassert
authority
b. Meiji leaders declared war against China, demolished Chinese fleet
c. China forced to cede Korea, Taiwan, Pescadores Islands, Liaodong
peninsula

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5. The Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)

a. Russia also had territorial ambitions in Liaodong peninsula, Korea,
Manchuria
b. Japanese navy destroyed local Russian forces; Baltic fleet sent as
reinforcements
c. Japan now a major imperial power
IV. Legacies of imperialism
A. Empire and economy: two patterns of changes
1. Colonial rule transformed traditional production of crops and commodities
a. Indian cotton grown to serve British textile industry
b. Inexpensive imported textiles undermined Indian production
2. New crops transformed landscape and society
a. Rain forests of Ceylon converted to tea plantations
b. Ceylonese women recruited to harvest tea
c. Rubber plantations transformed Malaya and Sumatra
B. Labor migrations
1. European migration
a. Fifty million Europeans migrated 1800-1914, over half to the
United States
b. Other settler colonies in Canada, Argentina, Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa
c. Most European migrants became cultivators, herders, or skilled
laborers
2. Indentured labor migration more typical from Asia, Africa, and Pacific
islands
a. About 2.5 million indentured laborers globally during 1820-1914
b. Indentured migrants tended to work on tropical and subtropical
plantations
c. Example: Indian laborers to Pacific island and Caribbean
plantations
d. Japanese laborers to Hawaiian sugar plantations
3. Large-scale migrations reflected global influence of imperialism
C. Empire and society
1. Colonial conflict not uncommon in nineteenth century
a. In India, numerous insurrections, such as the sepoy rebellion of
1857
b. 1905, Maji Maji rebellion in east Africa thought traditional magic
would defeat the Germans
c. Resistance included boycotts, political parties, anticolonial
publications
d. Conflict among different groups united under colonial rule, for
example, Hawaii
2. "Scientific racism" popular in nineteenth century
a. Race became the measure of human potential; Europeans
considered superior

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b. Gobineau divided humanity into four main racial groups, each with
peculiar traits
c. Social Darwinism: "survival of fittest" used to justify European
domination
3. Colonial experience only reinforced popular racism
a. Assumed moral superiority of Europeans
b. Racist views in U.S. treatment of Filipinos, Japanese treatment of
Koreans
D. Nationalism and anticolonial movements
1. Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), "father of modern India"
a. Sought an Indian society based on European science and
traditional Hinduism
b. Used press to mobilize educated Hindus and advance reform
2. The Indian National Congress, founded 1885
a. Educated Indians met, with British approval, to discuss public
affairs
b. Congress aired grievances about colonial rule, sought Indian self-
rule
c. 1906, All-India Muslim League formed to advance interests of
Indian Muslims
3. Limited reform, 1909; wealthy Indians could elect representatives to local
councils
a. Indian nationalism a powerful movement, achieved independence
in 1947
b. India served as a model for anticolonial campaigns in other lands

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The following is from another source: Worlds

Together & Worlds Apart, Tignor et.al.
Nations and Empires, 1850–1914
As Cuban and Puerto Rican nationalists discovered, by the latter half of the nineteenth century
new world powers embraced the nation-state model and sought to expand their empires. But
imperial expansion did not go unchallenged. Using the ideals of popular sovereignty, capitalism,
industrialization, and the new visions of social ordering that these nations championed,
revolutionaries began to resist the power of nations and empires. Nevertheless, European powers
and the United States gained new positions of dominance in world affairs.

Consolidating Nations and Constructing Empires

Nation-state advocates asserted that the globe was divided into peoples or nations of common
heritage and territory that required a state.

BUILDING NATIONALISM

Often the state and ruling elites had to create the nation by imposing standardized laws, time,
administration, language, etc., on a diverse population to create a common identity. The
Americas, Japan, and parts of Europe provide the best examples. Sometimes national leaders
used education to combat strong regional identities. In Europe, states appeared as revolutionaries
broke away from multinational empires unable to keep their lands intact. Territorial expansion,
however, complicated the needs of the nation-state by introducing a new “people” outside the
people defined by the nation. Nevertheless, the alleged benefits were asserted to outweigh the
costs.

EXPANDING THE EMPIRES

In many new nation-states, imperialism went hand in hand with nation building. The conquest of
new territory became one way to show national strength. By century’s end, nation-state
competition for colonies led to a “scramble” for land that consumed the entire globe. At the same
time, empire made it easier for people, goods, and information to move around the world.

Expansion and Nation Building in the Americas

In the Americas, elites moved to build strong nation-states based on inclusive government and
territorial expansion. Expansion in the Americas involved the conquest and incorporation of
frontier territory and indigenous people into the nation-state. This was often done by way of
treaties with Indian groups, which the U.S. government would then break.

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THE UNITED STATES

Despite distinct lines of fracture—such as slavery—people in the United States successfully

carved out a strong nation-state. Territorial expansion provided a means of unifying the country
as well as bringing prosperity to the white farmer. “Manifest Destiny” ideals also required,
however, the suppression of Amerindians and conflict with Britain and Mexico (1846–1848).

Civil War and States’ Rights Despite the unity of territory, divisions over who constituted the
“people” ultimately generated the Civil War. The war led to the abolition of slavery and began
efforts to extend citizenship rights to people of African descent in the United States. It also
brought about the increased power of the national government.

Economic and Industrial Development Economic growth exploded after the Civil War with new
technology greatly accelerating agricultural and industrial output. Growth also led to social
stratification that compounded tensions as overproduction in the 1890s led to unemployment and
calls to restructure the American economic system.

CANADA

Though it obtained independence from England peacefully, Canada too had to construct a nation
from a diverse parts.

Building a Nation Canada’s French-speaking population wanted to preserve its cultural integrity
without being absorbed into the English world.

Territorial Expansion Anxious to preserve unity, the Canadian state used territorial expansion as
a means of offering opportunity to Canadians. Canada also thus kept its western territories from
falling into the hands of the United States. The government encouraged the construction of
westward railways and established treaties—many of which the Canadian government broke—
with the Native Americans. These changes strengthened the state, but the concept of nation
among Canadians remained weak into the twentieth century.

LATIN AMERICA

In Spanish America and Brazil, expansion into the frontier went not to small farmers but to
landed elites with huge plantation estates. Wealth and political influence thus remained limited to
a few. Although nation-states generally sought to build economic prosperity and unity among
citizens, some struggled to reach their ideals. All states in the Americas used territorial expansion
to assure prosperity, but this also introduced new peoples who were not included in the nation.

Consolidation versus Fragmentation Fear of rebellion led elites to jealously guard their
economic dominance and political power by curbing the rights of the poor and nonpropertied.
The nation-state thus excluded large segments of society from both the nation and the state.

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Brazil: An “Exclusive” Nation-State The creation of the Brazilian republic demonstrates how
Latin American elites built nations while excluding much of “the people.” Brazilian elites
suffered when the slave trade was banned but managed to keep their plantations intact until the
1880s. After the abolition of slavery in 1888 exclusive suffrage laws kept voting rights from the
vast population of freed slaves, as well as other impoverished Brazilians.

Brazil: Expansion and Economic Development At the same time, the Brazilian government
pursued territorial expansion, creating railways to foster economic development. Much of this
expansion occurred in the Amazon River basin, where the money earned through rubber
extraction helped build cosmopolitan cities in the middle of the rain forest almost overnight.

Consolidation of Nation-States in Europe

In Europe, there was little agreement as to who comprised “the people.” Over the course of the
century, elites began to share power with a wider group of citizens.

DEFINING THE NATION

The idea of “the nation” comprising solely elites—monarchs, clergy, and nobles—had been
eroding for decades by the middle of the nineteenth century. For some, the nation included those
who worked to enrich it. For others, it included anyone who spoke the same language or those
who were of the same religion. The revolutions that swept Europe in1848 sought to place a
broadened definition of “the people” in power and create unified nation-states. But even they
could not decide who qualified: liberals sought economic opportunity and state strength, while
radicals sought redistribution of resources. As a result, conservatives and liberals united around a
nationalism that undercut the radical message.

UNIFICATION IN GERMANY AND IN ITALY

German and Italian leaders seized on radical and liberal nationalist sentiment to form their
respective nations.

Building Unified States From nationalist movements arose unified states able to compete with
the military and economic might of the great monarchical powers. Both Italy and Germany,
however, emerged as aristocratic bureaucracies, not republics.

States’ Internal Conflicts Divisions continually hampered integration. Southern Italian elites
resisted northern political objectives, and Germany struggled to integrate ethnic minorities
through Germanization programs. Despite difficulties, Germany prospered economically and
politically.

NATION BUILDING AND ETHNIC CONFLICT IN THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE

As suggested by the name, the Austro-Hungarian state suffered from fragmentation in the form
of ethnic division. Slavs, Czechs, Poles, and others sought representation and voice in the new

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system. As various interests competed for influence, ethnic nationalist sentiment competed with
the multinationalism of the state, leading to political paralysis. France and Britain also struggled
with division, both class and national, as demonstrated by troubles with France’s Socialist
Commune and England’s struggle with the Irish.

DOMESTIC DISCONTENTS IN FRANCE AND BRITAIN

Even in already established nation-states, new difficulties emerged as different groups agitated to
be considered “people.”

Destabilization in France Loss against Germany in the Franco-Prussian War destabilized France
and led to the Paris Commune—a socialist takeover of the city.

Irish Nationalism in Great Britain In Great Britain—England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland—the
state found itself challenged by Irish nationalists. In response, voting rights were extended to all
men. Yet Irish nationalists continued to agitate for home rule.

Industry, Science, and Technology

Industry, science, and technology greatly enhanced the strength of the western European,
Japanese, and North American nation-states.

NEW MATERIALS, TECHNOLOGIES, AND BUSINESS PRACTICES

Changes in the late nineteenth century produced the second industrial revolution, which
reordered ties between different parts of the globe. New technologies and materials, such as steel
and electricity, greatly enhanced productivity, as did the wedding of science to technological
development. Banks and joint stock companies made capital widely available, fueling the rise of
huge companies that increased exports overseas.

INTEGRATION OF THE WORLD ECONOMY

Profound appetites for cheap labor and natural materials, especially those unavailable in Europe
such as rubber, led corporations to extend their influence overseas. Military, transportation, and
communication technology favored European dominance by making the globe smaller and
integrating the economies of nations.

Movements of Labor and Technology The more interconnected global economy brought about
massive movements of labor. Indians moved to the Caribbean, South Africa, and Fiji in the
South Pacific. Chinese workers moved to the Caribbean and the Western United States, while
Japanese, Chinese, and Southern Europeans flocked to South America. Technology also moved.
[Words missing?]

Charles Darwin and Natural Selection Scientific understanding expanded as scientists examined
all parts of the globe. Darwin introduced ideas about the theory of evolution and concepts such

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as “survival of the fittest.” Many came to believe these same principles applied to the human
realm and justified Western expansion by claiming that Europeans were simply “fit” to expand
and dominate other peoples. Social Darwinists also asserted that the poor suffered because they
were unfit to do otherwise.

Global Expansion and an Age of Imperialism

The successes of imperialism convinced Europeans that they were indeed “fittest.” By the end of
the nineteenth century, the struggle to compete with other nation-states had driven Europeans to
conquer all over the globe.

INDIA AND THE IMPERIAL MODEL

Noting popular discontent with the Rebellion of 1857, the British moved to implement a system
that capitalized on desires to make India a working colony. Ending East India Company rule, the
British administration moved to modernize India with new infrastructure, irrigation, and public
works. Agriculture flourished and contributed to British financial strength, although peasants
earned diminished returns on their labor. British efforts to unify India laid the foundation for
Indians to create a national identity, particularly when Indians were excluded from full
citizenship in the British system.

DUTCH COLONIAL RULE IN INDONESIA

The Dutch sought even more regimented control, setting prices and rents in Indonesia. Forced to
grow export staples like coffee, the Indonesian peoples suffered from dropping food production.
As starvation ensued, local peoples rebelled, prompting warfare and reform of the government.
The Dutch gained economically, but the native people did not enjoy full status as citizens even in
their own lands.

COLONIZING AFRICA

The division of Africa into colonies took less than thirty-five years.

Partition in the African Landmass British penetration and the discovery of gold and diamonds
stimulated other European powers to rush for colonial holdings. To avoid conflict, Germany
hosted a conference, the participants of which determined to recognize each other’s acquisitions
in Africa. European division of the continent divided tribes and threw diverse peoples together.
Adventurers and missionaries contributed to European interest in Africa as British and German
holdings expanded. King Leopold of Belgium carved out of the Congo his own personal state of
terror and slaughter.

African Resistance African leaders either negotiated to reduce the loss of their land or fought,
although most fought and were crushed. Only Ethiopia emerged strong enough to resist
European expansion by playing the powers off one another and securing arms for its own army.

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Others fell victim to Europe’s superior weaponry and tactics, or, like Samori Touré, were simply
worn down.

Colonial Administrations in Africa

Colonial administrations often relied on military might and terror. Most European leaders sought
to enrich themselves first and thus skimped by arming native supporters to protect European
dominance. With time, European governments intervened to assure more civil administration by
putting down revolts, seeking fiscal independence, and attracting missionaries, settlers, and
merchants. New agricultural products contributed to economic independence of the colonies,
although the producers again got little for their efforts. Mining also produced great profits but
disrupted family life for tens of thousands of miners. European power in Africa, although
appearing strong, depended on African-based armies and thus remained fragile.

THE AMERICAN EMPIRE

Extending Manifest Destiny, seeking new markets, and offering to civilize the world, Americans
also turned to empire building. Taking Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, the United States
disregarded earlier promises of freedom and instead produced new colonies. Like the European
powers, the United States had formally entered the realm of imperialism by intervening in the
affairs of other countries.

IMPERIALISM AND CULTURE

Social Darwinist ideas combined with ideals of Europe’s civilizing influence to justify
imperialist expansion. The popularity of these ventures helped unify the people at home by
lifting national pride and creating new images of national triumph. Motherhood was a highly
regarded value, both in its ability to produce strong nationals and in the maternal regard
Europeans held for their colonial charges. The adventurous European lad became a common
image that pitted young men against the enemies of civilization—namely, Africans and
Orientals.

Celebrating Imperialism Europeans and people from the United States celebrated their imperial
triumphs in many popular forms: postcards, coffee tins, tobacco, and tea all carried images of the
colonized world and promoted imperialism. Literature also began to incorporate colonial themes.

Pressures of Expansion in Japan, Russia, and China

Other powers also struggled to unify people and expand influence.

JAPAN’S TRANSFORMATION AND EXPANSION

Facing the unequal treaties imposed by American commodore Matthew Perry, Japan determined
to modernize and adapt. Led by the Meiji emperor, reforms in education, the military, local
administration, and so forth, quickly produced a strong national identity among Japanese.

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Economic Development Economic transformation occurred even as the Meiji government

fashioned a modern constitution. Great corporations, like Mitsubishi, dominated the Japanese
economy and contributed to impressive growth rates.

Expansionism and Conflict with Neighbors. Like other modernizing powers, Japan turned to
territorial expansion. The Ryu¯kyu¯s [please fix diacriticals]were taken first, with ventures in
Korea following shortly thereafter. Competition with China resulted in the Sino-Japanese War
(1895) ,which Japan won handily. For their efforts, the Japanese gained Taiwan and, later, the
annexation of Korea. As in colonies elsewhere, the colonial masters exploited resources and
introduced modernization, but only for their own benefit. Profit from the colonies reverted back
to Meiji modernization programs.

RUSSIAN TRANSFORMATION AND EXPANSION

Expanding southwest and east, the Russians utilized the model of territorial integration employed
in the Americas. Control came by centralized authority as Russia sought to assimilate these
peoples. Ultimately, expansionism and requisite national defense stretched Russian resources
even as Russia sought to keep its external enemies at bay.

Modernization and Internal Reform Defeated in the Crimean War, Russian leaders determined to
embark on a modernization program to ensure against similar fates in the future. Reforms
affected all aspects of Russian life: peasant livelihood, military systems, education, industry, and
so forth. Reforms also brought critics of the autocratic regime, however, and fragmented Russian
society.

Territorial Expansion Expansion helped redeem the regime by earning the respect of Russia’s
people. Conquest was followed by waves of settlers to increase Russia’s influence and prevent
Britain from expanding. In East Asia, expansion into the Amur River basin brought Russians in
contact with the Chinese. Deciding to concentrate its efforts in Asia, Russia sold Alaska to the
United States and proceeded to construct the transcontinental railroad.

Governing a Diverse Nation Expansion helped unify Russians somewhat, but also added over a
hundred new nationalities to the mix. Unlike the United States, which displaced or slaughtered
native populations during its expansion, Russia generally assimilated the new populations.
Russian governments favored autocratic rule to keep control of its population.

CHINA UNDER PRESSURE

Unlike the Japanese or Russians, the Chinese did not view European expansion as a threat.
Worried more about internal conflict, the Qing court repeatedly underestimated the power of
European might.

Adopting Western Learning and Skills The Self-Strengthening Movement sought to arm China
with Europe’s superior weaponry, ships, and technologies but to keep Confucian learning at the

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base. Its efforts did not produce the quality of experts or modernized equipment as first hoped.
Newspapers were one exception.

Internal Reform Efforts China’s defeat in the Sino-Japanese War led many to call for widespread
reforms. The reform movement, however, failed when the emperor’s aunt arrested the young
emperor and executed all reformers taken into custody. China’s system remained too wedded to
the traditional Confucian system to adequately respond to the challenges of Western-style
modernity.

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