[special articiI~1MMBBBMBBe^^

Women and Perceptions

Workers of the National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act

REETIKA KHERA, NANDINI NAYAK

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, which 1 Introduction

entitles ruralhouseholds to 100 days of casual In August 2005, Parliament passed the landmark legislation,
the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (hereafter
employment on public works at the statutory minimum is a national law funded largelyby the
nrega). The nrega
wage, contains special provisions to ensure full central and in all states, which creates
government implemented

participation ofwomen. This paper, based on fieldwork a justiciable "right towork" for all households in rural India.
in six states in2008, examines the socio-economic Under thenrega, ruralhouseholds have a legal rightto get "not
less than" 100days ofunskilledmanual labouron publicworks in
consequences of the nrega forwomen workers. In spite
each financial year.
of thedrawbacks inthe implementation
of the The enactment of the nrega in 2005 came about as a
partly
legislation, significant benefits have already started result of a sustained campaign by academics and activists across

India. Significantefforts were made by campaign groups tohigh

accruing towomen through better access to local
lightthe crisis of food and work availability being faced by large
employment, at minimum wages, with relativelydecent
numbers of the rural poor in India. The nrega, as finally enacted,
and safework conditions. The paper also discusses was a diluted version of the "citizen's draft".1 Nevertheless it sig
barriers towomen's participation. nifieda huge step forwardas a social securitymechanism forthe
rural poor.
This paper attempts to understand the perceptions of this leg
islationas reportedbywomen workers currently
working under
the Act. The nrega's potential in empowering women by provid
ing themwork opportunities has been commented on by others
as well (see Dreze and Oldiges 2007; 2009; Instituteof Social
Studies Trust 2006; Jandu 2008).2 Looking at all India participa
tion rates in the first two years of its implementation, Dreze and

Oldiges (2009) point to themarginal increase in theparticipation

ofwomen (from 40% in 2006-07 to 44% in 2007-08). Large inter
state variations in the participation of women have been ob
served: women constitute more than two-thirds of nrega work
ers inKerala (71%),Rajasthan (69%) and Tamil Nadu (82%) and
less than the stipulated one-third inAssam (31%), Bihar (27%),
West Bengal (17%), Uttar Pradesh (15%), Himachal Pradesh
(30%) and Jharkhand (27%). Other research on nrega has high
We would like to thank Ritambara Mehta who did much of the research lighted the various benefits accruing towomen from nrega. This
on the qualitative data used in this paper. She was also helped by Mary paper explores this further.Itspurpose is twofold:one, tohigh
Abraham, Ankita Agarwal, Kartika Bhatia, Ketaki Jaywant, Megha lightthe importanceof thenrega, as perceived bywomen work
Kalia, Bharat Rastogi and Eklavya Vasudev. Besides this,we would like
ers, and two, to show that the fullpotential of this legislation is
to thank all the enumerators who worked in a
voluntary capacity and farfrombeing realised.
tookmeticulous notes. We would also like to thank all the
participants at
a workshop on "Gender and Rural
Employment" organised by
FAO-ILO-IFAD, where an earlier version of this paper was presented.
1.1 NREGA: Main Provisions of the Act3
We would also like to thank Jean Dreze and Subir Sinha for comments some weaknesses,
Despite the nrega is a remarkable legislation
and discussions which helped us write this paper.
underwhich local administrations are legallybound to provide
Reetika Khera (reetika.khera@gmail.com) is affiliated to the Centre for work on demand to any worker or group of workers who for
apply
Development Economics, Delhi School of Economics and Nandini Nayak work, within 15days of receiptof a work application4on public
(ndndini@soas.ac.uk) is a research scholar at the School of Oriental and
works operated under the nrega. Though the listof permissible
African Studies, London.
works under the nrega is quite restricted, there is ample scope
Economic& Politicalweekly CQ53 October 24, 2.009 vol xliv no 43 49

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SPECIAL ARTICLE eeeeeeeeeeeeee^^^

forundertakingprojects thatprovide economicallyuseful assets. 2 Women's Access to Casual Wage Work

In the event that the local administration fails to providework, Using qualitative and quantitative data from the survey, this sec
an unemployment allowance is to be paid to the workers. The tionhighlightsthe significanceof nrega work in lightof the fact
nrega promises "not less than 100 days" of work to all house that women have limited access to wage work.7
holds in rural India in each financialyear where adults in the It is important -to note that there are large variations in the

household are willing to undertake unskilled manual labour at female participation in the nrega across sample areas. Overall,
the statutory minimum wage. 32% of the sample workers are women (see Table 2 further on). In

There are several provisions of theActwhich are of special in Rajasthan (Dungarpur and Sirohi districts),71% of samplework
terest to women workers. First, the Act mandates that at least ers were women. In Madhya Pradesh (Badwani and Sidhi dis

one-thirdof theworkers should be women. This, combinedwith tricts), the proportion ofwomen among sample workers was 44%.
the fact that theAct places no restrictionon how each house However, the corresponding figures forChhattisgarh (25% in
holds' quota of 100 days is sharedwithin the household,means Surguja district),Jharkhand (18% inPalamau and Koderma dis
that there is ample scope for women's participation in nrega tricts),Bihar (13% in Araria and Kaimur districts) and Uttar
works. Second, the wage earned is equal for both men and Pradesh (5% inSitapur district)are very lowand lower than the
women. Besides this, the nrega also provides for childcare femaleparticipation rateprescribed by the law (33%).
facilitiesat theworksitewhen more than fivechildrenunder six It is interesting to note that the figures on women's share in

years of age are present at the worksite. This is an important nrega employment according to our survey, are broadly in line

provision given that, in large parts of the country,there are no with the official data (available on www.nrega.nic.in) for

childcare arrangements (e g, functional anganwadis) for 2007-08. For instance, ifwe rank states based on women's parti
women. cipation rates, both sources give us the same ranking with Rajas
working
than and Madhya Pradesh at the top and Uttar Pradesh at the
1.2 NREGA Survey 2008 bottom. Another interesting comparison is with the female

This some related to women nrega labour/workforce participation rate (based on 2000-01 and
paper presents findings
workers from a field survey (hereafter "nrega Survey 2008") 2004-05 nsso data) where Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan (in
conducted in May-June 2008 in six north Indian states: Bihar, outperformBihar and Uttar Pradesh (see
thatorder) significantly
Chhattisgarh,Jharkhand,Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Table 1).
Pradesh.5 The 10 districts were: Araria and Kaimur
sample Table 1:Women's Share of Employment
(Bihar); Surguja (Chhattisgarh); Palamau and Koderma Women's ShareinNREGA to
according
Employment ShareintheRural
Women's
NREGASurvey,2008 NREGA
Official Data, LabourForce Workforce
(Jharkhand);Badwani and Sidhi (Madhya Pradesh); Dungarpur Only) 2007-08(AII_Districts)
Districts
(Sample _J000-01_2004-05
and Sirohi (Rajasthan); Sitapur (UttarPradesh). The nrega was
Bihar
_ 27__123_13.8
12_
rolled out in threephases: startingwith 200 districts in2006-07 42_
Chhattisgarh _25_ _447
("Phase 1" districts), 130 districts were added in 2007-08, and
Jharkhand _ 18 2724.6 31.3
nrega was extended to the entirecountry inApril 2008. Districts 44 4237.0 36.6
Madhya Pradesh
included in the "nrega Survey 2008" are all "Phase 1" districts, 71 32.5
69 40.7
Rajasthan
where the Act came into force in February 2006. Uttar 17.9 .
15 24.0
Pra_desh_ _5 _
to a random Sources:Dreze andOldiges (2009) forofficialNRFGAfigures, 200/ 08. Female LabourForce
The survey involved unannounced visits sample of
Rateand FemaleWorkforceParticipation
Participation Ratesarefrom www.indiastat.com
98 worksites, over the 10 sample districts. Interviews were
spread
conducted with a random of 1,060 nrega workers Possible reasons for the low participation rates of women in
sample
at these worksites. The random of these states related problems) are ex
currently employed sample (including implementation
workers was drawn from the muster roll6 of a currently ongoing plored in the last section.8

worksite under the nrega.

at understanding the impact nrega has 2.1 LowWorkforce Participation Rates
The survey was aimed

had in the livesofworkerswho are currently

working under the In the study areas, the nrega has provided income-earning

programme. The survey was not focused on women specifically, opportunities towomen where hardly any existed before. The
but of sample workers were women. The interviews with reasons for the unavailability of wage labour for women are
32%
women workers provided insightsinto the significanceof nrega complex and vary
across regions. Women are primary providers

work for these women and highlighted the "transformative" of care roles for the sick and the elderly.Outside of unpaid
of the nrega in enhancing economic and social secu housework, women have some opportunities for paid agricul
potential

rity.Though the potential of this programme is substantial, of a

tural work. The combination labour surplus economy and

implementation varies across states. In a mosaic of chequered sharp gender divisions of labour, implythat these opportunities
narratives from women workers tend to be seasonal in nature.9 There are even fewer opportuni
implementation however, many
tella significantstoryabout thebenefitsof thenrega. We high ties for non-agricultural wage work in these areas where the

light this significanceof nrega work forwomen workers and rural economy is predominantly The limited access
agricultural.
make the case that attentionmust be paid by the government to wage work for women in these areas is captured by the fact
towards effective implementation to ensure that these important that in the threemonths preceding the survey,only 30% of the
benefits are not scuttled. female earning a cash income other than
respondents reported

50octobfr 24, 2009 vol xliv no 43 EEd Economic& Politicalweekly

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nrega In fact, even Tabic 2: Profileof Sample
(see Table 2). among men just over half Workers_
Women Men
(55%) said that theyhad earned cash from sources other than
the nrega. Proportion of NREGAworkers who are_32 _68
Proportion of NREGAworkers who are
The women who reportedwage work other thannrega were (SCJAcheduled tribes (SJ)_ 75 71
_ScheduJedjas^es
performingagricultural labour in theirown village or in other Illiterate_ _ _82 52_
villages,working in theconstructionindustryin townsand cities, Proportion ofNREGAworkers who
Had other sources of cash income inthe past three 55
working at stone quarries and collecting and selling forest months_30
Collect theirown wages 78 92
produce such as tendu leaves, mohua flowers, grass and wood.
Keep theirown wages __69 _5_1_
These employment opportunities, however, are not without
Preferpayments through
banks_ 53_ _ 44_
problems. The earnings from them were limited or seasonal or
Average wage (Rs/day)
insecure.Much of thiswork is irregular (e g, agriculturalwork, Statutoryminimum wage (Rs/day) 88*_88*_
collection of tendu leaves and mohua flowersare all seasonal in Agriculturalwork _53_
__47
Other casual labour __58_
nature) and consequently women find themselves in a vulnerable _71
NREGAwage _ 85_85_
position.Migration forwork in the constructionindustryexposes *
Unweightedaverageof stateminimumwages inthesixsurveystates.
workers to a range ofvulnerabilities (e g, exploitation, illness) to
add towhich genderbiases are consistentlyfaced in theavailabil The Act stipulates thatwork be provided locally,within five
ity of work.10 Many of these occupations (construction, factory, km of the residence. This makes participation in nrega work
mining work and stone crushing) are repletewith hazards and logisticallyfeasible forwomen. Since they continue to bear the
thepossibilityof injury. main responsibilityof household work, travellingany distance
Half of thewomen in the sample said thathad theynotworked forpaid work makes this taskmore difficultfor them.Apart
on the nrega worksites, they would have worked at home or from the fact thatnrega work is provided in thevillage itself,
would have remained unemployed. This could be eitherbecause the fact thatwomen work in groups and thatwork is provided
women do not have many other employment opportunities by the government helps to make nrega work
"socially
(locally and even otherwise in some cases) or women workers acceptable".13
are, "as a rule", paid less than their male counterparts in rural Other reasons nrega work was are
why regarded "acceptable"
and urban casual wage work (see Table 2).11When women have nrega the statutory minimum Even in
pertinent, promises wage.
other employment opportunities, they often face "invisible" cases where theminimum wage isnot paid (as isoften the case,
social constraints: some women
might have considered working especially inRajasthan),14nrega wages implya substantialjump
only on the fieldsowned by farmersfromtheirown community in the earning potential forwomen (see Table 2). As per survey
or at a where other from their are the average
place persons community data, wage earned by women in the private labour

working. Similar constraints and limitations prevail when market ranged between Rs 47 and 58 per day, foragricultural
migrating forwork to cities.12On top of this, the harsh work and other casual labour, respectively. On nrega, the average
conditions in the private labour market may also deter women wage earned was Rs 85, clearly a huge increase over other wage
fromparticipating in it. opportunities. Some women stated theydid not engage them
To summarise, employment opportunities for women in the selves in agricultural wage labour earlier because theywould
private labourmarket are limited, irregular,poorlypaid and can have been paid too littleand itwas notworth theirwhile to go
be hazardous. It often involvesmigration which raises a whole out and work fora pittance. The prospect of earning a substan
range of issues of its own. In additional to "invisible" social barri tial wage within the village in some cases might swing "accept
ers, working conditions in the private labour market are often in favour of women.
ability"
very demanding and exploitative. The fact thatnrega work is offeredby the local government
rather than by a private employer in someways freespotential
2.2 Attractiveness of NREGA Employment forWomen women workers caste
from and community-based strictures
nrega workers (men and women to the most disad towho
alike) belong related they can and cannot work with.15

vantaged groups. As Table 2 above shows, a large (over the hours of work are clearly
majority Further, being government work,
70%) were fromthe scheduled castes (scs) and scheduled tribes statedand are limitedto eighthours in a day (in the case ofdaily
(sts) and most nrega labourerswere illiterate(82% in the case wage work). Fixedworking hours oftencannotbe expected in the
of women). case of otherwork. This is of special concern forwomen who
Many female respondents said thework provided under the combine any paid work with household work, nrega employ
nrega opened up a new for them. The wider ment is therefore
opportunity considered relatively "safe" in the sense that it
of nrega work derives from is thoughtthat there are some checks and balances in
place to
acceptability several factors: it is

locally available, being governmentwork there is regularity prevent harassment of workers.

and predictabilityofworking hours, less chance ofwork condi Moreover, nrega offers a new sense of independ
employment
tionsbeing exploitative and work is considered socially accept ence: forinstance,Gita (Sirohidistrict,Rajasthan) said shewould
able and "dignified".Last (but not the least), it is better paid have stayedat home orworked on her own fieldshad nrega work
than other work. These attractive features of nrega forwomen not been available. She on
considered working the nrega
are discussed below.
(government)worksite because she did not have to go througha
Economic& Politicalweekly HJE3 October 24, 2009 vol xliv no 43
51

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potentially embarrassing and humiliating conversation to ask in the sample.Of the total sample,more than two-thirds(69%) of
anyone in thevillage forwork. the sampleworkers stated thenrega had helped themavoid hun
ger,while 57% stated the nrega had helped them avoidmigra
3 Social and Economic Benefits tion and equal proportion ofworkers also said theyhad used
This section focuseson the impactofnrega earnings as reported nrega wages to buy medicines in the last 12months.17

by femaleworkers inour sample.We begin by lookingat the scale A largemajority (79%) ofwomen workers collect theirown
of nrega employment. The average days of nrega employment, wages, and generally theykeep theirwages. In fact,as Table 3
forthe sample states,has been reported inTable 3. Again, Rajas shows, the proportion of workers who keep their own wages is

than tops the chartwith an average of46 days per femaleworker. higher for femaleworkers (69%) than formale workers (51%).
Apart fromRajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, the days of nrega One may argue thatwhat reallymatters isnot onlywho keeps the
employmentreported in the other states are very low (less than money, but also who has control over it. Interviews with women

20 days in the remaining sample states). suggest that ina largenumber of cases, theyhave substantial say
in deciding how themoney is
Table 3: Participation ofWomen in
NREGA__
BiharChhattisgarh
Jharkhand PradeshRajasthan
Madhya PradeshAllSurvey
Uttar States spent.18

Number ofwomen inthe

Two-thirds of the female
sample__
28
_23_ 37_90 _ _ 154 6 _ 338

Participationofwomen (%) _ 13 _ 25 _ 18 44 71 5 32 respondents reported having

to face less as a
Days of NREGAemployment inthe past JI2months_ 15__16_14_23 _46_18
_30 hunger
Proportionofwomen workers who result of nrega employment
Collect theirown wages__ _
_75_74___63__71_100 0_78 (Table 4). These earnings
Keep theirown wages __ 67 74 71 _ 69_
bring improved food security
_59 _74_0
Had other sourcesof cash income inthe past threemonths 61 22 30
22_4J__29__ 83__ in a variety ofways: cash in
Preferpayments throughbanks 56 _ 73 13 _ 39_ _ 64 67 53
hand allows households to
Yet, in the overall sample, nrega was considered "very impor buy food in larger quantities which is generally cheaper than
This figureincreases to 81% in
tant"by 68% of the respondents.16 buying on a daily basis; women reported easier access to credit
thehouseholds thathaveworked forat least 60 days in the last 12 fromlocalmoneylenders tomeet food expenditures; therewere
months (here responses formale and femaleworkers are taken some indications from the interviews with women of a
together). Looking at the response fromwidows separately, diversificationof diets, even if>onlyvery marginally, from a
nrega was also considered "very important"by 82% ofwidows cereal-dominated diet.

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 - - ~
- ~ ":=? ?
_--?-? ---=- -=?-^? ^SPECIAL ARTICLE

-
Table 4: Social and EconomicBenef itsto
Women_ earning daughterwho ismarried because of the number of
(%)ofFemaleNREGA WhoSaidThatNREGA
Workers Helped
people dependent on her daughter,Keyomight not have had the
Proportion Them_
Hunger AvoidIllness
Migration Hazardous
WorkRepay DebtsWithChild's
Schooling
option earlier to treatthemedical problem and subsequentlyseek
Bihar_74_14__57__7_7_25_ but money earned under the nrega allowed her to do this.
work,
Chhattisgarh_78_39___35__39_39 _26_ a also from Sirohi
Santosh, 22-year-old respondent (Rajasthan)
Jharkhand 57 40 _
_31_45_ T7_ _12_ said she is happy to have money she can spend. Since she is earn
57 39 33
Madhya P?adesh_ 17_24_27_
Rajasthan _ 69 26 56 30 3929 ingmoney herself,she does not feelanswerable toherhusband or
parents-in-law as to how she spends her money and she can now
Uttar Pradesh 100 17 20 50 67
17_
All sample states 67 31 46 27 31 26 travel to her parents house when she wants. In a society with strict
normsof patrilocality
where oftensignificantexclusion fromnatal
nrega also seems to be functioning as a "healthline" formany homes prevails, this is a remarkable statement in itself.

rural households. Across the states, nrega workers (men and

women alike) reportedusing theirwages to treatan illness inthe 3.1 Significance for Single Women
familyor for their own medical expenses. Nearly half of the We have seen thatnrega offersthe relativelyhigh (compared to
female respondents said thatnrega helped them cope with an the private market) statutory minimum wage and women work
illness in the family (see Table 4). Much of the economic ers are paid the same as men. Work conditions on nrega work

uncertaintywhich afflictsthe lives of the rural poor stems from sites are better and there is perceived dignity in doing nrega
sudden illnesses and chronic ailments. To that extent, nrega work. Social barriers in the case of nrega are lower.
employment
seems tobe fulfillingitsrole of enhancing economic security. In the case of singlewomen, thesebenefitsaremagnified. In this
Interviewafter interviewprovides insights intohow nrega short section we use testimonies gathered during the survey to
is
employment helping women take charge of their lives, in little highlight thebenefits to some singlewomen in the sample.
(and not so little)ways. Where thenrega is implemented well, it The extremely vulnerable position of widows isbroughtout by
has provided predictable and regular employmenttowomen. In the case of Timmo Kuwar, a 40-year old widow from Palamu dis
their fragileexistence, the nrega has brought respite fromthe trict,Jharkhand.She has hardly any land (only 0.05 acres) and
anxieties associated with fulfillingtheirbasic needs. These signs even that, she said, her brother was trying to usurp, nrega work
of relief peep through their statements regarding "improved was very important for her because earlier she had to migrate out
creditworthiness";fromknowing that theywill not have to sleep in search ofwork,whereas now she gotwork locally.Earlier she
hungry; from not to
having migrate in search ofwork which they worked at breaking stones,which she saidwas verydangerousand
are not sure of from not having to spend money on trav if she does not get nrega she would have to go back to that.
getting; work,
elling in cases where they work in nearby
labourers; In Sitapur (Uttar Pradesh), Takdiri, a widow said thatnrega
areas as

from the assurance that there will be some money to pay for small had "changed her lifebecause earlier shewas able to getwork at
and largemedical bills should someone in the familyfall ill; from Rs 35 per day,whereas now she earns Rs 100 per day. Bejni Devi
being protected fromvery strenuousand poorly paid work (e g, (Araria district,Bihar) said that shewas glad to have access to
collecting forest produce and bringing it to the market for nrega employment since the wage she can now earn in the
amounts as littleas Rs 10 per day) and being protected fromex village has increased significantly. The wage shewould get for
ploitativework conditions including sexual exploitation in some locally available work was Rs 15per day,whereas she getsRs 75
cases and conditions where there is no clear demarcation of fornrega work (as opposed to the statutory minimumwage of
working hours or tasks. In this sense, the nrega has made a sig Rs 82/day inBihar). Ifshe had not got thiswork, shewould have
nificant contribution to improving the
wellbeing of women. Some had tomigratewith her four-monthold child, since she had not
examples are highlighted below: got any other local employment in the past three months.19
In Rajasthan, where the scale of nrega has been nrega work allows some measure of protection from having to
employment
substantial, women reported assets with in search of work, or, given the small amount of work
purchasing productive migrate
theirearnings:Leela Ajma (Sirohidistrict,Rajasthan) spentsome currently available, at least allows them to postpone migration.

money buying agricultural inputs; Sumiri Jogira (Sirohidistrict, This protection frommigration implies a significantimprove
Rajasthan) said she and her familywere able to hire a tractor ment in the quality of lifebecause of the costs and risksassoci
for their fields; Sita said she bought a sewing machine with atedwith migration. Tejki Dhira's (awidow fromSirohi district,
her earnings.
Rajasthan) case illustratesthis: she is 61 years old and migrating
For some women, nrega work has allowed them to spend toAmbaji to sellwood isvery difficultforher. This iswhat Tejki
money on theirown needs,while earlier theymight not have been would have done ifnrega employmenthad not been available.
at the libertyto do so. Keyo, a 45-yearold widow (Sirohidistrict, The money she earned
byworking under thenrega helped her
Rajasthan) states shehas been able to take care ofmedical bills to repay the loan she took to treather husband's illnessand to per
treat a that was contracted due to work she form the death ceremonies.
respiratory problem
earlier did in a stone quarry, which later prevented her from work Access towork in thevillage isalso criticallyimportantforthose
ing. Had nrega work not been available to her, she would have who are copingwith illnessof a familymember. Kali Bai (from
been unemployed, since other wage work is hazardous and too Sirohi district, Rajasthan) had a constant source of income when
strenuous for her to undertake. She was also dependent on a wage her husband was alive. Now, it is her nrega that allow her
wages

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 to sustainherselfand her sonwho has a mental health problem. In remain. Second, there has been a thrust (from the government)
the same district,another widow, Jamnabai Galbaji said that towards payment of wages through banks. Some issues related to
nrega wages were crucial for her child's heart treatment. bank are discussed here. the low rates of
payments Finally,
For those widows who are not widow of women in gram sabhas are discussed.
getting pensions,20 participation
nrega employmentoffersreliefand confidence.Keshi (a Rajput
widow21 from Sirohi, Rajasthan) is one such woman. While ear 4.1 Barriers toWomen's Participation
lier therewas uncertaintyas towhether shewould have enough We beginwith a detailed discussion of the persistentbarriers to
food toeat, she isnow ina position to contributeto the familypot women's participation in nrega works. The low participation

by paying forher grandchildren's education. Likemany others, rates in four out of six sample states bear witness to the existence
she reports improved credit-worthiness.. Importantly, for some of such barriers.
women and especially forwomen households, the nrega First, there are, in many areas, tenacious social norms
heading against
has made loansmore easily available (earlier lenderswondered women working outside the home. In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, we
whether theywould get theirmoney back, now thereseems tobe met women who said that theyhad not been able to registeras
easier availability of credit) and in some cases, women say they workers under the nrega22 and were told that this programme was
have been able to repay at least part of their loan. "not for them". In Sitapur district (Uttar Pradesh), there was a sig
The "dignity"associated with doing governmentwork and not nificantamount ofhostilityto femaleparticipationinnrega, both
having to seekwork fromprivate landlordsor contractorsisalso a from gram panchayat functionaries and male relatives. Names of

very significantbenefit forwomen workers. Baby Pusaji Rawal adultwomen were excluded fromjob cards and itwas commonly
Rajasthan) said thatnrega employmentsuitedher
(Sirohidistrict, stated that women "cannot" work on worksites, that they are "too
because she does not have to go out and findwork, and she does weak", and that it is "socially unacceptable" for them to undertake
not need to wait for work. Government work opened under the thiswork. The widespread prevalence of these opinions related to
nrega has allowed her to leavework with private landlordsand female labourwas reflectedinthefactthatonly5% of therandomly
contractors which is often replete with an underlying threat or pos in Sitapur district, Uttar Pradesh were women.
sampled workers
sibility of sexual abuse and exploitation. These very same issues The reason forthisbias seems tobe partlyrelated to thediffer
are highlightedby Herring and Edwards (1983) in theirstudyof ence in the statutory minimum wage earned under the nrega,
theEmploymentGuarantee Scheme implementedsince the 1970s and the local market wage rate (especially forwomen). This com

inMaharashtra.Women heads of households who Herring and bined with the fact that men and women earn the same wage has
Edwards spokewith stated that they consider governmentwork created resistance to the participation of women by men who want
under theMaharashtra egs "safer"and thategs work providedby tomaintain privilegedaccess to this (relativelyhigh paid) work.
the governmenthas led to a reduction in subtle formsof coercion Takdiri (Sitapur district,Uttar Pradesh) pointed out that she
-
and overtsexual exploitationfacedbywomen workers (1983: 583). had been turned away from several worksites and that when

Many widows also spoke of theharshworking condition in the there is an "excess of workers" women are the ones who are turned

private labourmarket. Aansi Bai (Sirohidistrict,Rajasthan) said away. be pointed out that problems
Itmay in accessing work high
that at the private contractors to get Rs 50 for are in themselves - in
worksite she used lighted by Takdiri "illegal" that all workers
12 hours of work, nrega pays her more (Rs 100/day) for eight who seekwork have a righttowork andmust be providedwork by
hours of work. the government as per law. Moreover, as against the legal provi
Several respondents (27% ) stated thatwork provided under sions of the nrega, work inmost places is not "demand driven".
the nrega .has allowed them to stop doing hazardous work or Instead, inmost places work is started at the initiative of the local

work theydid notwant to do (e g,working at quarries, going to government23 and can be in limited supply at any given time.
-
the forest to cut wood, etc) see Table 4. Rina Devi (Koderma This is also the case formany respondents to the current survey.

district,Jharkhand) said she no longerneeds to go the jungle to For many people facing difficult economic circumstances the cer

cut wood where wild animals were a constant threat. Several taintyof accessingwork when sought is criticalas is regularityof
female respondents in Palamu district (Jharkhand) and Sirohi payment.24 However, women being turned away from work, espe
district (Rajasthan) said that nrega employmenthas allowed cially in these circumstances is a matter of concern.

them to avoid working at a stone quarry, which was hazardous. Second, the continued illegal presence of contractors is a sig

Beforemoving on, it isworth noting that thoughwe have fo nificantnegative factoraffectingthe availabilityofwork and its
cussed only on widows in this section, the category of single benefits for women. On worksites where contractors were invol

women is not restricted to widows. Further, many women in the ved, 35% of women workers said they were harassed, as compared

earners (i e, not necessarily sin to only 8% on contractor-free worksites.25 as mentioned

sample who were primary wage Besides,
found themselves the same vulnerabilities as above, the conditions of work at worksites run by contractors tend
gle women) facing

single women and presented very similar testimonies. to be more exploitative (Table 5). It is quite likelythat the com
plete absence of contractors is one of the factors that contributes
4 AreasofConcern to thehigh participationofwomen inRajasthan.
This section focuses on three areas of concern with respect to In Raj pur block (Badwani district,Madhya Pradesh), for in
women and their access to work under nrega. First, in spite of stance, work was being implemented by contractors in four out of

the relative of nrega for women, barriers five works visited. Women workers who the survey team spoke
accessibility major

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 ? = -
=Z-TzZ^5-~=^ ^^J^E2^^-^-^-^-? SPECIALARTICLE

Table 5: Barriers toWomen's Participation_ difficultforsinglewomen, who cannot affordtowait forwork and
(%)of
Proportion Proportion Workers
(%)ofFemale Reporting
aFthe Contractor-ManagedDelaysin
WorkersHarassment
Female wages as theyare the sole earners in thefamily.
When thewages do
inthe not come on time, they are often forced to return to previous, less
Sample__Worksite__Worksites_PaymentofWag?]_
Bihar _ _13__J5_15_ _12_ preferredformsofemployment.Forexample,ShantiDevi (Koderma,
Chhattisgarh_25_35_ _
0_
JO_7 Jharkhand),said thatat themine where sheworked before,shewas
38
Jharkhan_d_ _18__3_ _20_ paid on a daily basis whereas she has towait fora month forher
Madhya Pradesh 28 _ 46
_44 _7_ nrega wages. As Table 5 shows, inUttar Pradesh, where only 5% of
Rajasthan_71__5_ 0_7_ the sample workers were all of them reported that wages
women,
Uttar
Pradesh_ J>_0_ 0_100_
All sample 1916 had notbeen paidwithin the stipulated15-dayperiod.
states_32_J4_
1 Proportion
who reported wages were notpaidwithin 15daysamongthosewomen
that
workerswho had been paid atthe sampleworksite.
4.2 Bank Payments of NREGAWages
with said the contractorwould come to the village and ask for Another area of concern relates to the en masse switch over to

names ofable-bodiedmen towork on the site. Ifwomen asked for bank payments of nrega wages since September 2008. This is a

work, theirpleas were ignored. Importantly,since the legal enti relatively recent "administrative innovation", which is*perceived

tlementto getwork on demand isnot understood bymany, this by thegovernmentas a "magic pill" forending corruption.30
turningaway ofwomen workers does notmeet with opposition Respondentswere asked whether theypreferredtobe paid in
fromthevillage community~ in fact,male workers engaged by cash, or throughbanks or post offices.In the survey,roughly53%
thecontractorsthoughtthe turningaway ofwomen was perfectly ofwomen in the samplewanted payments throughbanks and/or
justified. In Udajpur block (Surguja district, Chhattisgarh), post offices.31The introductionof bank payment could benefit
Bodhsai fromMarya Panchayat said women and girls are women in several ways. The main reasons in favour of bank pay

subjected to verbal abuse by the contractor ments include the perception that payment throughbanks will
and women workers
are often told they do not work fast enough. increase the possibilityof saving and a reduction in thepossibil
Third, another big hurdle inhibiting the participation of ityof being cheated by thosewho distributewages in thevillage
women is the lack of childcare facilities.The Act requires that (even inRajasthan, where recordkeeping is on thewhole better
when there are more than five children under the age of six than in the other statesvisited). Other reasonswhy people want
present at a worksite, a female worker be
appointed to take care bank payments include the perception that thiswill lead to a re
of them.We did not findchildcare facilitiesbeing provided any duction indelays (in payments), thata lump sum ofmoney will
where. (Only 3% of theworksites had childcare facilities,and be available inone instalment (statedby respondentsespecially
these need to be takenwith a pinch of salt because at least two in up and Bihar). Interestingly, for women, it is also seen as an
were cases of "window dressing".26) The lack of these facilities effective tool for increasing their control over the use of this
can be cripplingforwomen, especially forthosewith breastfeed money (e g, some women said when wages are paid in cash, it is

ing infantswho cannot be leftbehind for long hours.27Most easier for husbands to take control over it).
women who have childrendo not bring them to theworksite as it However, ifpayments throughbanks are introducedwithout
is not seen as a safe place for them: apart from the dangers of be consciously into account women's concerns, this change
taking
ing left untended in the open, women are also worried about the could end up hurting them.For instance, in theeventwhen bank
heat and sometimes they are harassed when they spend time accounts are opened in the name of one job card holder (as has
with thechild (e g, tobreastfeed the child). However, leaving the ,
happened inmany of the surveyareas), women might be denied
child at home isnotwithout itsproblems: sometimes the child is rightful direct access to their own earnings. The case for cash
leftunsupervised,breastfedchildrenare fedonce in themorning payments is sometimes made on the grounds that banks are often
and left alone until evening when the mother returns which has a at a distance from the place of residence, in some cases in distant

significant adverse impact on the health of the child. Meanwhile, (larger) villages or towns and getting there involvesadditional
themothers spend theirday inanxietyworrying about the child's costs,and that itwould lead to some loss of liquidity.
safety at home. What is encouraging is that four out of every five What has emerged fromthe survey is that ifbanks are close to
women said that if some childcare facilities afe provided they the workers residence, women have their own accounts and they
would bring theirchild to theworksite.28 are able to operate these accounts, then the introduction of wage

Fourth, in some states productivity norms are too exacting, be payments throughbanks/post officesmay turnout tobe a good
cause the "schedule of rates" is yet to be revised in linewith development forwomen.
nrega norms. To illustrate, in Jharkhand the standard task for a

day'swork at the timeof the surveywas diggingno cubic feet (in 5 NREGA and Gender Equality
soft soil),which is far toomuch.29 Certain types of nrega work As noted at the beginning of this paper, the nrega has several
also limittheparticipation ofwomen. This applies, for instance, provisions that are aimed at improving the
participation of
to the constructionofwells on private land. The nature of this women. We have seen that these have met with
varying degrees
work is such thatwomen stopbeing employed as soon as digging of success indifferentparts of the country.In the case ofwomen,
has reached a certain
depth. it is importantto note thateven relativelysmall levelsof nrega
Fifth,delayed paymentsalso come in theway of participationof employmenthave resulted in significantperceived benefitsfrom
poor women. Delays in wage payments make things particularly the programme. Serious problems remain in implementation

Economic& Politicalweekly GEES October 24, 2009 vol xliv no 43 55

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across states (such as the lack of availability of creches for because theyare eithernotwelcome at themeetings or that they
mothers of young children and the continued illegal presence of think "it is not a meeting that women can attend". Since decisions
-
contractors). Given the critical gains made by women workers related to the implementation of nrega works are supposed to
in accessing work and an income, food and healthcare for them take place ingram sabhas, it is significantthatmost women look
selves and their families, and in leaving potentiallyhazardous at them as meetings they "should not attend".

work - itneeds to be ensured that the problems in implementa However, there are also heartening departures from this pat
tiondo not derail thegains. tern, which suggest that the nrega presents us with an important
More importantly, nrega has thepotential tohave awider im opportunityfor improvinggender relations in some of themost
pact on gender relations. This can happen in several ways. For remote areas of the country. For instance, in Pati block (Badwani
instance, nrega
employment can enhance district,Madhya Pradesh), women were among themost vocal
women's economic in

dependence by providing them access to cash earnings. Relat members of the vigilance committees and also participated ac
edly, nrega earnings can bring about a sense of equality fostered tively gram sabhas. This also raises the question as towhy
in
by earning, forthe firsttime, the same wage as men.32 There will women have been able to gain somuch out of thenrega inPati
also be an impacton gender relations throughthe effectofnrega block. In this context, it is appropriate tomention the role of the
on gender division of labour.This could happen because women JagrutAdivasi Dalit Sangathan, a small organisation of peasants
are seen tobe contributing"actively" (in the conventional sense) and labourers, working in thearea towardshelpingworkers claim
to the economy and their contribution to economic activity theirentitlementsunder thenrega. The emphasis of thework of
becomes more directlyvisible. Further, in keepingwith similar the Sangathan has been on making the local government answer

provisionsunder panchayati raj legislation,thenrega guidelines able to gram sabhas and to the people. In several pockets inPati
have provisions forfemale participation invigilance committees block, nrega is implemented as a demand-driven
employment
under thenrega. Over time, it ishoped thatwomen will be able programme, as is intended by law. Sangathan members submit
to take advantage of such provisions,making theirown space in applications forwork and work is opened by the government in
public and social life (moreon thisbelow). response to work demanded. Members of the Sangathan, women

However, for effectiveparticipationbywomen, it is important and men, have collectivelyparticipated in nrega planning and
forthe nrega to go beyond the initialgender-relatedprovisions implementationbyway of participation gram sabhas and in su
in
such as fixingtheminimum share of women workers and equal pervision committees for nrega sites, so engagement with the

wages. A more comprehensive perspective on gender equality nrega isnot just in terms of gettingemployment.Rallyingaround
needs tobe built inall aspects of theAct. One of the firststeps in the nrega has also strengthened the Sangathan and encouraged
this direction is tomove from the household entitlementof 100 higher femaleparticipation invigilance committees.
days to individual entitlements,which will assure women 100 To reiterate the benefits from the nrega forwomen: work is,
days ofwork in their own right,without having to negotiate available at the statutory minimum wage, allowing workers to
within the household. In order to ensure direct access to nrega getwork in theirvillage, as a resultofwhich migration and haz
earnings, instead of having joint bank accounts (or worse, ac ardouswork can now be avoided bymany. These benefitsshould
counts in the name of the male member of the household), there be adequately recognised and efforts should be made to

should be separate bank accounts for women. This has already strengthen these gains. Ensuring the establishment of creches for

been done in some states (e g, in Tamil Nadu, men and women women workers, abolition of contractors, effective implementa
have separate job cards and separate bank accounts). Increasing tion of transparency mechanisms and the establishment of a

the share ofwomen innrega staffappointmentswould also go a schedule of ratesmore favourable towomen will go a longway in
longway towards achieving the agenda of gender equality and removing the short-term barriers to women's participation in

One encouraging example of this is themove, inRa

sensitivity. nrega. For the longer termgoals of gender equality to be real
towards trained female mates.33 ised, attention also needs to be paid to ensuring greater partici
jasthan, appointing
That gender equality remains a distant goal is evidentwhen pation ofwomen at all levels (e g, as labourers, innrega worksite
we look at women's participation in gram sabhas. Only 33% .of management and staffappointments) and inall spheres (e g, par
sampleworkers (bothmen andwomen) stated theyhad attended ticipatoryplanning throughparticipation in gram sabhas, social
a gram sabha during the preceding 12months.34A largenumber audits). These measures can simultaneously impact gender rela
ofwomen respondents said that theydo not go to gram sabhas tionsand improvethe implementationof nrega.

NOTES_
1 The term "citizens' Draft" refers to the draft pre
pared by campaign groups, which included
amongst other things,theprovision for individual
entitlements rather than household entitlements.
Dreze (forthcoming), Macauslan (draft) and
Lakin and Ravishankar (2006) track the cam
paign fortheNREGA.
2 Interestingly, even in theMaharashtra Employment
Guarantee Scheme (an Act similar to theNREGA,
enacted inMaharashtra in the 1970s), the impor
tance of theprogramme forwomen had been high
lighted in many studies, to the extent that one
describes itas a "women's programme" (Dev 1995).
See also Dandekar (1983), Sathe (1991) and
Krishnaraj,Pandey and Kanchi (2004a, 2004b).
3 The full version of the NREGA is available at
http://nrega.nic.in. See www.righttofoodindia.
org fora primerwhich presents the basics of the
Act in a user-friendlyformat.
4 Workers have an option tomake advance applica
tions (i e, seek work at a later specified date).
Work applications may be written or oral.
5 Taken together, these states account for40% of
the total population of India.
6 "Muster Rolls" are attendance sheets on the basis
ofwhich payments aremade toworkers. They are
supposed to be available at theworksite forpublic
scrutinyand examination byworkers.
7 The random sample ofworkers was drawn from
lists ofworkers on NREGA sites.As a result, some
categories of "potential workers" such as women
unable to participate in the NREGA for lack of
childcare facilities are actually excluded fromthe
sample. The focus of the surveywas the imple
mentation of theNREGA, and the perceived ben
efits, ifany, to theworker fromwork being imple
mented under theNREGA.
8 Problems in implementationinclude accessingwork

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^^^ii^iiEiii^i^^
as per theprovisionsof theNREGA; problemswith
being paid at regular intervalsand the low scale of
- theNREGA is entitled to demand "at least" 100
employmentgenerated on average 30 days in the
past 12months per femaleworker (see Table 3).
9 See for instance Chen (1989), Breman, (1996),
Dreze and Sharma (1998). On this see also
Harriss-White (2.003).
10 See for instanceBreman (1996).
11 See for instance Chen (1989), Olsen and Mehta
(2006), National Commission forEnterprises in
theUnorganised Sector (2007). With regard to ag
riculturalwage work, Chen points out that "gen
erally, across regions, women are paid less
than men for the same agricultural opera
tions"... In all regions, the lower-paid off-peak
season operations (weeding, preservation,
processing) are dominated bywomen."
12 Breman (1996) and Mosse et al (2007), for in
stance,mention the physical and sexual vulnera
bilities faced bywomen migrants.
13 Lungibai (Sirohi district,Rajasthan) said that this
is the firsttime shewas working fora wage and
thather husband had "allowed" her towork since
work was available within the village. Similarly,
Maina (Aant Panchayat, Sitapur district) states
she has neverworked fora wage earlier. Interest
ingly enough she felt that NREGA employment
"has not changed her life substantially" butwent
on to state thatshe has started sending her daugh
ter to school as a resultof thiswork.
14 The NREGA allows wage to be calculated on a
time rate or piece rate basis. Since thewage is
often calculated on a piece rate rather than time
rate basis, as is typically the case inRajasthan,
workers get less than the statutoryminimum
wage. The calculation of wage on a piece rate
basis is dependent on a "schedule of rates" for
specific tasks done byworkers.
15 Barbara Harriss-White(2003:31) for instancestates
"caste ideology ... affectswhether women work at
all,what work theycan do and how farfromhome
theymay move". Also, with regard tomigrant la
bour, Breman (1996) comments on restrictions
faced bywomen migrantworkers - theyare likely
to travelwith male relatives (see pp 45-53).
16 The terms "very important","less important"and
"not important",which were used in the survey
questionnaire are termswhich may be interpreted
broadly However, the use of these terms aims at
emphasising perceived benefits by workers under
theNREGA. Quantification of perceived benefitson
a more elaborate numerical scalewas avoided and
instead, reliancewas placed on discussions with
workers. Supplementary questions on access to
healthcare, nutrition and education, for instance,
were asked but again with emphasis on discussion
ratherthanquantificationon a numerical scale.
17 Preliminary results froma survey of 320 house
holds inone districtofAndhra Pradesh also report
similar results (Ravi and Engler 2009).
18 As Haski, a tribalwoman in Chanar panchayat
(Sirohi district) put it: "Main ghar ki mukhiya
hoon" (I am the head of the household). That
women have some measure of control over sav
ings can also be seen later in this section,where
women state they spent themoney on their per
sonal needs, includingmedical problems and to
travel to theirparents' village.
19 Similarly, Nani Bai (Badwani district, Madhya
Pradesh) said she now earns Rs 85 (theminimum
wage inMadhya Pradesh) instead of Rs 20-25 that
she earned earlier as an agricultural labourer.
20 The government of India has a widow pension
schemewhich pays Rs 200 permonth; some states
supplement this amountwith contributions from
the state budget.
21 The Rajput community is particularly conserva
tive and forwomen, access towage work is diffi
cult and often looked dowu upon.
22 Under theNREGA, work is provided toworkers
who are listedon the job cards issued in the name
of the head of the household. All adults in the
familymay register forwork. One "job card" is
- which
provided per household according to
Economic& Politicalweekly QS53 October 24, 2009
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_ - -=-~~ ~r_ _-_
^ ^
operational guidelines for theAct is supposed to
be a nuclear family.A household registeredunder
days ofwork under theNREGA.
23 The incentive to do this for the state government
is that the funds tobe spentunder theNREGA are
provided by the central (federal) government.
Therefore, the state government is effectively
using central funds for local area development
without dipping into the state exchequer.
See Khera (2006).
24
25 The proportion ofmale NREGA workers reporting
harassment ismuch lower - only 9% and 11%on
worksites where contractorswere involved.
26 In the assessment of the survey team, these are
fake childcare facilitieswhich were put in place
only forthe benefitof the survey team.
27 See Bhatty (2006) and Narayanan (2007) where
these issues are discussed indetail.
28 Itmight be reiterated here that the sample was
drawn from lists of workers at worksites. If any
thing,concerns related to childcare are therefore
underemphasised in the survey findings, since
there are likely to have been many women who
would not have been on themuster rolls because
of the lack of childcare facilities.
29 Note that the Schedule of Rates (SoR) have been
revised downwards in almost all survey states
after the surveyconcluded.
30 See Adhikari and Bhatia (forthcoming), Dreze
and Khera (2008), Kar (2009) and Vanaik and
Siddhartha (2008).
31 Interestinglythe figure forwomen ishigher than
the figureformen (44%) - see Table 1.
32 Though earlier government schemes provided for
the payment of equal wages, itdid not happen in
practice. For NREGA work, women, almost rou
tinely,earn the same as men.
33 Mates are worksite supervisors, selected from
among NREGA labourers. See Khera (2009) for
more details of thisexperiment.
34 It is important to qualify this,however, with the
fact that at the moment inmany places, gram
sabha meetings tendnot tobe held.
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