Krzysztof Baszczyński Modeling the Performance of Horizontal
Anchor Lines during Fall Arrest
Central Institute for Labour Protection
– National Research Institute,
Department of Personal Protective Equipment,
Wierzbowa 48, 90-133 Łódź
E-mail: krbas@ciop.lodz.p
Introduction
On many elevated work sites, e.g., in the
construction, mining, and energy indus-
tries, workers must be able to move hori-
zontally to perform their tasks. Examples
of such work sites and tasks include ren-
ovation of walls and roofs, the erection
and maintenance of steel structures, the
servicing of industrial installations, etc.
Workers carrying out such activity should
be protected against falls in a way that
would not compromise their comfort. If
collective protection measures cannot be
implemented for technical or econom-
ic reasons, then one should consider the
use of individual fall protection systems.
Given existing knowledge [1-3] and rel-
evant OSH regulations [4-6], in the case
of temporary works the best solution is to
deploy a protection system consisting of
the following:
n a horizontal anchor line,
n a  connecting and shock-absorbing
assembly (e.g., lanyard with an ener-
gy absorber, self-locking arrester on
a flexible line),
n a full body harness.
Figure 1 shows an example of a fall pro-
tection system incorporating a horizontal
anchor line.
If the worker needs to move horizontal-
ly up to a distance of several meters, the
anchor line is usually attached only to
two extremity anchor points (2) in a sin-
Baszczyński K. Modeling the Performance of Horizontal Anchor Lines during Fall Arrest.
FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2017; 25, 5(125): 95-103. DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.4634
DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.4634
Abstract
The basic materials used for the construction of anchor lines for personal equipment
protection against falls from a height are ropes and textile webbing. During fall arrest,
horizontal anchor lines significantly affect the forces acting on the worker and the work site
elements, as well as the fall arrest distance. Manufacturers of the equipment are required
to estimate those parameters for various conditions of use by numerical simulations with
a validated model. The model discussed in this paper reflects the mechanical structure of the
line (whether singles-span or multi-span) taking into account Maxwell’s and Kelvin–Voigt’s
non-linear rheological models for viscoelastic materials. The model consists of a system of
seven non-linear differential equations with the parameters describing static load-elongation
characteristics and time-courses of dynamic loading forces for selected ropes and textile
webbing. The numerical model developed was used to simulate the performance of horizontal
anchor lines of different constructions. The model was validated by comparing the numerical
calculations with laboratory test results and was shown to be sufficiently accurate to be used
for designing fall protection equipment.
Key words: protective equipment, falls from a height, horizontal anchor lines, webbing,
fibre rope, elongation, performance test.
gle-span system. In the case of longer The parameters discussed above have
distances, intermediate anchor points a direct effect on user safety. For this
are used (3) to enable a greater range of reason, according to the requirements of
movement while still ensuring fall pro- standard EN 795:2012 [5] and directive
tection. Among the above-mentioned ele- 89/686/EEC [7], the determination of the
ments, of particular note is the horizontal maximum deflection of the anchor line
anchor line because during fall arrest it and the forces acting in it is the condition
exerts a significant influence on: for starting the use of the equipment. This
n the fall arrest distance, problem is solved in laboratories by con-
n the force acting on the human body ducting an assessment of the equipment
through the safety harness, and preparing new constructions.
n the force acting on elements of the
work site through the anchor points. Miura and Sulowski [8] presented a com-
prehensive work on the mechanical factors
Examples of anchor lines are given in involved in the performance of horizontal
Figure 2 (see page 96). anchor lines. They used catenary methods
Figure 1. Fall protection system enabling workers to move horizontally: 1 – horizontal
anchor line, 2 – extremity anchor point, 3 – intermediate anchor point, 4 – lanyard, 5 – full
body harness.
95

1 3
4 tics, with the test results obtained being
1 ing the performance of connecting and
3 shock-absorbing assemblies during fall
4
2 protection equipment was investigated in
3 in that report was the effect of loading
4 modeled the dynamic performance of
Figure 2. Examples Fig. 2.
of horizontal anchor
lines: 1 – textile rope, 2 – textile webbing,
3 – tensioner, 4 – connector.
as well as potential energy–strain energy
analysis to describe the performance of
textile and steel horizontal lines during
fall arrest and to determine the maximum
deflection and forces in the lines. Publi-
cation [9] examined the performance of
textile horizontal anchor lines, analysing
the non-linear load-elongation character-
istics of a three-strand twisted polyam-
ide rope with a diameter of 14 mm. The
model presented in [9] was simplified in
that it assumed the characteristics of tex-
tile ropes to be independent of elongation
velocity. The paper also presented an ex-
perimental stand for dynamic testing of
horizontal anchor lines and compared the
results of laboratory tests with computer
simulations carried out pursuant to the
model developed. The construction and
use of horizontal anchor lines made of
textile and steel ropes was also addressed
in publications [1, 3]. In addition, those
papers discussed the requirements im-
posed on such lines and problems con-
cerning their installation on work sites.
Table 1. Textile materials used in simulations and for preparation of anchor lines tested.
Symbol Material and construction
Three-strand polyamide fibre rope,
A
12 mm in diameter
Core rope, 12 mm in diameter,
B
aramid core with polyamide mantle
C Polyamide webbing, 45 mm wide
96
The mechanical characteristics of textile
materials, such as ropes and webbing,
used in fall protection equipment were
examined in publications [10, 11], which
focused on load-elongation characteris-
applied in numerical models simulat-
arrest. The models and characteristics
presented in those papers were used in
the development of the horizontal anchor
line model presented herein. The dynam-
ic loading of lanyard webbing used in fall
a British study reported in a Health and
Safety Laboratory (HSL) publication
[12]. The most important issue analysed
velocity on the breaking strength of tex-
tile webbing. Bedogni and Manes [13]
mountaineering ropes under repetitive
loading during fall arrest. The influence
of multiple loading of textile ropes and
webbing on their load-elongation char-
acteristics was discussed by Baszczyński
[14]. The development and identification
of a variety of models (including rheo-
logical ones) for textile structures was
presented in publications [15-21].
Due to the significance of the problem
and previous results, the Central Insti-
tute for Labour Protection – National
Research Institute undertook efforts to
develop a new numerical model of the
performance of textile horizontal anchor
lines during fall arrest. The model was
originally designed for conducting nu-
merical simulations of the performance
of single and multi-span anchor lines
with different construction parameters,
made of different textile materials, and
subjected to a range of dynamic forces.
The nonlinearity of the load-elongation
characteristics of textile ropes and web-
bing and their dependence on the elon-
gation velocity were two of the most im-
portant assumptions for the model. It was
also assumed that the model should allow
to simulate the time courses of the most
important mechanical quantities charac-
Designation (manufacturer)
PA 12-A-Z/KG/200
(Bezalin S.A., Poland)
LB 201 FLR
(Protekt – Grzegorz Łaszkiewicz, Poland)
L1 TS 325/45
(PASAMON” Sp. z o.o., Poland)
terising the performance of horizontal
anchor lines.
This paper discusses the results of those
efforts, that is, the numerical model de-
veloped, simulations of single-span and
three-span anchor lines, and validation of
the model through laboratory testing.
Simulation and study
materials
Reusable horizontal anchor lines com-
mercially available in Europe are made
of a variety of textile materials. In terms
of construction, most of them are fabri-
cated from twisted or woven ropes with
or without cores, or from polyamide,
polyester, or aramid webbing. Therefore
for the purposes of horizontal anchor
line modeling, some of those typical ma-
terials which behave differently under
dynamic conditions (during fall arrest)
were selected based on the characteristics
of textile ropes and webbing provided in
papers [10, 11]. The materials studied are
described in Table 1.
The materials were used to make an-
chor lines for laboratory tests validating
the models developed. The anchor lines
were 2.5 m to 15 m long and terminated
in loops for attachment to the fall arrest
experimental stand. Depending on the
material, the loops were sewn or spliced.
A typical connector made from a 10 mm
diameter metal bar was put through each
loop.
Horizontal anchor line model
A horizontal anchor line model was de-
veloped for the system presented in Fig-
ure 3.
The following assumptions were adopted
for the purposes of determining the struc-
ture and parameters of the horizontal an-
chor line model [15-21]:
n the model describes the movement of
a rigid test mass whose fall is arrested
by a horizontal anchor line, from the
end of the free fall phase to the point
when the maximum elongation is
reached (the test mass is in the lowest
position);
n the basic parameters describing the
fall arrest process are as follows: the
test mass displacement, fall arrest
force, and the force acting on the
points in which the line is anchored to
fixed work site elements;
FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2017, Vol. 25, 5(125)
 extremity anchor
extremity point,
anchor 3 – rigid
point, test test
3 – rigid mass, 4 – inextensible
mass, lanyard,
4 – inextensible 5 – intermediate
lanyard, anchor
5 – intermediate anchor
point.point.
n the test mass is perfectly rigid and its
dimensions are ignored;
The The
n the extremity following
and following assumptions
intermediate anchor werewere
assumptions adopted adopted for the
for purposes
the purposes of determining
of determining the thestructure
structureand and
points areparameters
perfectly
parametersrigid;
of the of horizontal
the horizontal anchor anchor line line
model model[15, [15, 16, 17,
16, 18,
17, 19,
18, 20,
19, 21]:
20, 21]:
n the anchor line slides through the inter-
 the model
the
 points model describes the the movement of aofrigid test test
mass whose fall fall
is arrested by aby a
mediate anchor withoutdescribes
friction; movement a rigid mass whose is arrested
horizontal
n the model describes horizontal anchor
single- anchor
and line,
three- fromfrom
line, the endthe end of the of free
the free fall phase to the
fall phase to point when
the point the maximum
when the maximum
span horizontal anchor
elongation
elongation
lines;
is reached
is reached (the (the
test test
mass is inisthe
mass in lowest
the lowest position);
position);
n the anchor line is loaded halfway be-
tween the the
 extremity
 thebasic orparameters
basic parameters
intermediate describing
describing the the fall fall
arrest arrestprocess
process are are
as follows:
as follows: the the
test test
massmass
anchor points;displacement, fall arrest force, and the force acting
displacement, fall arrest force, and the force acting on the points in which the line is on the points in which the line is
n at the beginning
anchoredof thetofall,fixedtheworkanglesite elements;
anchored to fixed work site elements;
between the anchor line and the imag-
 the
inary horizontal test
the
plane mass
test mass
is 0°, is with
perfectlythe rigidrigid
is perfectly and and its dimensions
its dimensions are ignored;
are ignored;
initial tension
 the being negligibly small;
 extremity
the extremity and and intermediate
intermediate anchor anchorpoints are perfectly
points are perfectlyrigid;rigid;
n the rigid test mass is connected to the
 by
anchor line the anchor of line
the anchor
 means slides
line
an inextensi- through
slides through the intermediate
the intermediate anchor points
anchor without
points friction;
without friction;
ble lanyard
 ofthe negligible
model weight;
describes single- and three-span
 the model describes single- and three-span horizontal anchor lines; horizontal anchor lines;
n the model takes into account the
 the  anchor
the anchor line line
is loaded
is loaded halfwayhalfway betweenbetween the extremity
the extremity or intermediate
or intermediate anchor points;
anchor points;
non-linear load-elongation charac-
teristics of at the
 textile beginning
at ropes of the
and webbing
the beginning of fall, the angle
the fall, the angle betweenbetween the anchor
the anchorline line
and andthe imaginary
the imaginary horizontal
horizontal
[10], and it isplane
assumed that
is 0°,iswith those char-
the initial tension being negligibly small;
plane 0°, with the initial tension being negligibly small;
acteristics change with the elongation
velocity; the  rigid test test
the rigid mass massis connected Figureto
is connected 3. theto anchor
Scheme theofanchor line line
loading by means
by means
a horizontal of anofinextensible
anchor an
line:inextensible lanyard
I – single-span of of
lanyard
anchor line, II – three-
n the input variables
negligible are as follows:
weight; m span anchor line, A – test mass position at the beginning of the fall, B – test mass position
negligible weight; after the fall arrest, 1 – rope/webbing, 2 – extremity anchor point, 3 – rigid test mass,
– weight of the test mass, h – free fall 4 – inextensible lanyard, 5 – intermediate anchor point.
 the
distance of the model
 the
test model takes into account
takes into account
mass, load-elon- the non-linear
the non-linear load-elongation
load-elongation characteristics
characteristics of textile ropes
of textile ropes
gation characteristics
and andwebbing of
webbing the textile
[10],[10],and and it is itassumed
is assumed that that
those thosecharacteristics
characteristics changechangewithwiththe elongation
the elongation
material, L0 – span length for the sin-
velocity;
gle-span versionvelocity;
(or L0 and Lb for the
multi-span the
 input
 version),
the inputvariables
variables are as arefollows:
as follows: m –m weight
– weight of the of test mass,
the test mass,h – free fall distance
h – free fall distanceof the
of the
n the model does not
test test
mass, take into account
load-elongation characteristics of the L0 – L0span
mass, load-elongation characteristics of textile material,
the textile material, – spanlength for the
length for the
the phenomena occurring within the
single-span
rope or webbing. single-span versionversion(or L(or 0 and Lb forLbthe
L0 and for multi-span
the multi-span version),
version),
 the  themodel model doesdoes not not taketake into into
account account the the phenomena
phenomena occurring
occurringwithin the the
within roperopeor or
In the first step of model development,
the movement of webbing.
webbing.
a rigid test mass during
fall arrest (as
In shown
the in
first Figure
step
In the first step of 3) ofis model
model de-development,
development, the movement
the movement of aofrigid test test
a rigid mass mass during fall arrest
during fall arrest
scribed by means of the following Equa-
(as shown in Figure 3) is described by means of the following equations:
tions (1), (2): (as shown in Figure 3) is described by means of the following equations:

    (1) (1) (1)

     (2) (2) (2)

where:
where:
where: of the rigid test
x – vertical displacement
mass, x – vertical displacement of the
x – vertical displacement of rigid test test
the rigid mass, mass,
m – weight of them rigid
– test mass,
weight of the rigid Figure
test mass, 4. Horizontal anchor line model: k1 – elastic element with linear characteristics,
m – weight of the rigid test mass,
Q – force of gravity acting on the test k2 – elastic element with non-linear characteristics, η – perfectly viscous element.
mass, Q – force
Q – force of gravity
of gravity actingacting
on the ontest
themass,test mass, 5 5
g – gravitational acceleration,
Fx – fall arrest force generated byacceleration,
the Wzory
g – gravitational
g – gravitational acceleration,
elongation of the anchor line. and thus the movement Equation (5) for model describing textile elements pro-
Fx –arrest
Fx – fall fall arrest
forceforce the
bytest
generated
generated thebymass thetakes the
elongation
elongation ofform of:
theofanchor
the anchor posed in papers [11, 20, 21] was adopted.
line. line.
From the geometric relationships given 2
𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 2∙𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦
It is schematically presented in Figure 4.
in Figure 4,From From the geometric
the geometric 𝑚𝑚
relationships
relationships 𝑚 2given
given + in 2Figure − 0   (5)
𝑄𝑄4,=it follows that: (5)
it follows that: 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 in Figure
𝐿𝐿 0
4, it follows that:
+𝑥𝑥 2
2 The model is based on the assumptions
    (3) This equation (3) the force Fy acting formulated above, as well as on Max-
(3)involves
in the anchor line, which depends on the well’s, Kelvin–Voigt’s and Zener’s rhe-
     (4) load-elongation characteristics
(4) of the tex- ological models of viscoelastic elements
 (4)
tile 𝐹𝐹material.
𝑦𝑦1 = 𝐿𝐿
To 𝑉𝑉calculate that force, the [10, (8) 13, 19-21]. In the model proposed,
0
2∙𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
and
FIBRES & TEXTILES and
thus
in Eastern thus
the
Europe theVol. movement
movement
2017, equation
25, 5(125)equation fortest
for the themass
test mass
takestakes the form
the form of: of: 97

(5) (5)
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 2∙𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦
𝑚𝑚 𝑚 + − 𝑄𝑄 = 0
 a)

m – weight of the rigid test mass,

b) Q – force of gravity acting on the test mass,

g – gravitational acceleration,

Fx – fall arrest force generated by the elongation of the anchor line.

From the geometric relationships given in Figure 4, it follows that:

(3)

(4)
c)

and thus the movement equation for the test mass takes the form of:

(5)

This equation involves the force Fy acting in the anchor line, which depends on the load-
Wzory
elongation characteristics of the textile material. To calculate that force, the model describing
textile elements proposed in papers [11, 20, 21] was adopted. It is schematically presented
in Figure 4. 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 2∙𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦
𝑚𝑚 𝑚 + − 𝑄𝑄 = 0 (5)
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2 𝐿𝐿 0 2
+𝑥𝑥 2
2
Figure 4. Horizontal anchor line model
Figure k5.1 Time courses of
– elastic Fx(t), Fy(t),
element and x(t)
with obtained
linear by numerical simulation
characteristics, of the performance
k2 – elastic of a single-span
element with non-linearhorizontal anchor line.
characteristics,  – perfectly viscous element. 
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦1 = 𝐿𝐿 0 𝑉𝑉 (8)
b0, b1 – coefficients of the power function 2∙𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 describing the Fy2(y) characteristic
elementThe model
k2 with is based
non-linear on the assumptions
characteristics formulatedofabove,
b0, b1 – coefficients the power as well as on Maxwell’s,
function lowing system Kelvin–of equations describing
y – elongation of element k2,
predominantly determines the behaviour describing the F (y) characteristic,
Voigt’s and Zener’s rheological models of viscoelastic elements [10, 13, 19, 20, 21]. In the
y2 the movement of a rigid test mass with
under static loading, while elements k1 y – elongation ofFelement y2 – tensile k2, force. a weight of m during fall arrest:
model proposed,
and η predominantly element
determine k2 withFy2non-linear
that un- characteristics predominantly determines
– tensile force. 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 the
2∙𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦
elastic element k1
 Wzory 𝑚𝑚 𝑚 2 + − 𝑄𝑄 = 0
der dynamic loading.
behaviour under static loading, while elements k1 and  predominantly determine that under 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 0 2
+𝑥𝑥 2
n elastic element k1 2
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦1 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦2
Based dynamic loading.
on conclusions from paper [12],    (7) (7)
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2
elements of theBased
model ongiven in Figure 5from paper [12], elements
conclusions 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 of the
2∙𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 model given in Figure 5 are𝐿𝐿
are described with the following Equa- where: 𝑚𝑚 𝑚 2 + − 𝑄𝑄 = 0 𝑦𝑦(5)
1 = 0 𝑘𝑘1 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦1  (9) (9)
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 0 2
described with the following formulas: k – (6), (7)
linear and (8)
characteristic slope +𝑥𝑥 2
coefficient,
2∙𝐿𝐿𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
tions (6), (7) and (8) 1 where: 2
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑2
y1 – elongation of element k1. 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦1 = 𝐿𝐿 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 elastic element k2 k1 – linear characteristic slope coefficient,
2∙𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
n elastic element k2 𝑏𝑏1
n perfectly viscous element η 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑏𝑏0 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
2∙𝐿𝐿
𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏1
y1 – elongation
of element k 1. 𝐿𝐿0
  (6) (6) 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦1 = 𝐿𝐿 0 𝑉𝑉      (8) The system(8)of Equations (9) proposed
 perfectly viscous element 
2∙𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
where: was solved using the Adams method and
where: η – viscosity coefficient, Backward Differentiation Formula meth-
where:
L0/2 – half of the length of the non-loaded V – elongation velocity for element η. od (BDF) in a  (8)
program developed by
anchor line,L0/2 – half of the length of the non-loaded anchor 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥line, 2∙𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 means of Mathcad software (PTC, USA)
LREF – length 𝑚𝑚 𝑚 2 anchor + − 𝑄𝑄 = 0 [22], adopting the following initial con-
LREFof– the non-loaded
length rope/ Anrope/webbing
of the non-loaded overall horizontal 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
sample 𝐿𝐿 0 line
used 2
in2 model
+𝑥𝑥 static tests,
webbing sample used in static tests, was developed where:
and expressed by the fol- ditions (for t = 0):
2
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦1 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦2
98 6  – viscosity 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦1 coefficient,
+ 𝑦𝑦2 FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2017, Vol. 25, 5(125)
𝐿𝐿0
V – 𝑦𝑦elongation
1 = velocity
𝑘𝑘1 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦1 for element .(9)
2∙𝐿𝐿𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦1horizontal
An overall = 𝐿𝐿 0 anchor line model was developed and expressed by
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 b0, b1 – coefficients of the power function describing the Fy2(y) characteristic,
y – elongation of element k2,
Fy2 – tensile force.

 elastic element k1
a)

(7)

where:

k1 – linear characteristic slope coefficient,

y1 – elongation of element k1.

b)
 perfectly viscous element 

(8)

where:
 – viscosity coefficient,
V – elongation velocity for element .

An overall horizontal anchor line model was developed and expressed by the following
c)
system of equations describing the movement of a rigid test mass with a weight of m during
fall arrest:

(9)

Figure 6. Maximum values of Fxm, Fym, and xm obtained by numerical simulation of the performance of a single-span horizontal anchor line.
The system of equations proposed (9) was solved using the Adams and backward
differentiation formula methods (BDF) in a program developed by means of Mathcad
n x(0) =software
0 – initial(PTC,
displacement
USA) [22],of the equipment
adopting as determined
the following by laboratory
initial conditions 0):Lo – distance between anchor points
(for t = –
test mass, testing of load-elongation characteristics (span length for single-span anchor
x(0) =
n V(0) –velocity – initial
of0the displacement
test mass at the and of by
thethe
test mass,
identification of characteristic lines),
beginning of fall arrest, calculated parameters. The parameter – Lo and Lc – distance between the ex-
 V(0) – velocity of the test mass at the beginning of fallvalues
arrest,adopt-
calculated from:
from: ed are given in Table 2. tremity and intermediate anchor points,
   (10) (10) where Lc = 2·Lb + Lo (for three-span an-
where: chor lines according to Figure 3),
h – distance travelled by the free-falling Numerical7 simulations – m – weight of the rigid test mass,
test mass – h – distance travelled by the free-fall-
The horizontal anchor line model devel- ing test mass,
n a(0) = g – acceleration of the test mass oped was used in numerical simulations – b0, b1, ƞ, k1 coefficients characterising
at the beginning of fall arrest. of mechanical phenomena accompanying textile ropes/webbing designated as
fall arrest. The input variables included: A, B, and C.
To fully define the model, it was neces-
sary to specify the values of parameters
b0, b1, ƞ, and k1 used in formulas (6) and Table 2. Specification of parameters b0, b1, k1, and η.
(7), which describe the characteristics of
Symbol LREF, m b0 b1 η k1
the textile materials applied. Those val-
A 2.05 1.295·104 1.259 1.100·103 1.902·10-4
ues were taken from paper [11], which
B 1.98 1.581·105 1.610 0.417·103 1.666·10-4
reported the characteristics of textile
C 2.0 2.537·10 4
1.074 0.083·10 3
1.990·10-7
materials used in personal fall protection

FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2017, Vol. 25, 5(125) 99

 a)
b)
c)
Figure 7. Maximum values of Fxm, Fym, and xm obtained by numerical simulation of the performance of a three-span horizontal anchor line.
The initial parameters characterising the
performance of horizontal anchor lines
were:
– Fx – fall arrest force,
– Fy – force acting on the extremity an-
chor points,
– x – deflection of the anchor line at the
point of loading.
Simulation examples are given in Fig-
ures 5, 6 and 7.
Analysis of the results obtained revealed
the following:
n In the time courses of Fx(t), Fy(t), and x(t),
the time to peak (TN) increased with the
increasing weight of the test mass (m).
n In the time courses of Fx(t), Fy(t), and
x(t), the time to peak (TN) was the
100
shortest for rope B, followed by web-
bing C and rope A.
n In the time courses of Fx(t), Fy(t) and
x(t), the time to peak (TN) increased
with the increasing length of span Lo
and decreased with the increasing dis-
tance travelled by the free-falling test
mass (h).
n The highest maximum deflection xm
was found for rope A, followed by
rope B and webbing C.
n The maximum deflection xm increased
with increasing parameters m, Lo & h.
n For h > 0 m, the longer the span Lo,
the lower the fall arrest force Fxm and
the lower the force Fym acting on the
extremity point. Forces Fxm and Fym
decreased most rapidly for Lo < 10 m.
n For h = 0 m, the fall arrest force Fxm
was practically independent of the
span length Lo.
n For low kinetic energy of the test mass
(m = 50 kg and h = 0 m), the maxi-
mum forces acting on it were smaller
than those acting on the anchor points
Fym.
n For m > 50 kg and h > 0 m, this rela-
tionship was reversed (Fxm < Fym).
n For the same kinetic energy of the test
mass, the highest values of Fxm and
Fym were found for rope B, followed
by webbing C and rope A.
n A  comparison of single-span and
three-span anchor lines shows that
for the same kinetic energy of the test
mass, the maximum values of forces
Fxm and Fym were lower for the three-
span line. The differences increased
FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2017, Vol. 25, 5(125)
 with the increasing length of the side
spans Lc.
n Higher deflection xm was found for the
three-span anchor line.

Validation of the model

The model developed was validated by
comparing selected numerical simula-
tions with the results of laboratory tests
conducted on specially prepared horizon-
tal anchor lines made of materials spec-
ified in Table 1. The tests were carried
out on the experimental stand presented
in Figure 8.

The tests measured three parameters:

n the arrest force exerted by the hori-
zontal anchor line on the falling rigid
test mass,
n the force acting on the extremity an-
chor points,
n the deflection of the anchor line at the
point of loading.
For the purpose of measurements, the an-
chor line (6) was attached to anchors on
the rigid frame meeting the requirements
of standard EN 364:1996 [23] in terms of
rigidity and resonance frequency. Load-
ing was applied at the midpoint of the an-
chor line by means of a falling rigid test
mass (4) weighing 100 kg. The test mass
was connected to the anchor line tested
using a 1.5 m long aramid lanyard (5)
and force transducer (8). The lanyard (5)
Figure 8. Stand for testing flexible horizontal anchor lines under dynamic conditions:
1 – rigid frame, 2 – wall crane, 3 – electromagnetic latch, 4 – test mass of 100 kg, 5 – aramid
lanyard, 6 – horizontal anchor line tested, 7, 8 – U9B-20kN force transducers (Hottinger,
Germany), 9 – filters type MS210R (IMD, Germany) and analog amplifiers type AE-101
(Hottinger, Germany), 10 – KUSB 3116 type data acquisition system (DAS) (Keithley,
USA), 11 – MotionBlitz EoSens Cube7 high speed digital camera (Mikrotron, Germany),
12 – computer coupled with the camera.
was characterised by significantly lower Germany), low-pass analog filters type
elongation as compared to the anchor MS210R (IMD, Germany) of suitable
line. The test mass was lifted, lowered characteristics (9), and the KUSB 3116
and dropped by means of a wall crane type data acquisition system (Keithley,
(2) coupled with an electromagnetic USA) (10). The deflection of the horizon-
latch (3). The force measurement appa- tal anchor line, corresponding to the ver-
ratus consisted of force transducers type tical displacement of the point at which
U9B-20kN (Hottinger, Germany) (7) and the transducer (8) was connected to the
(8), amplifiers type AE-101 (Hottinger, anchor line, was recorded using the Mo-

Table 3. Comparison of numerical simulations with the results of laboratory testing.

Simulation
Symbol Fxmt Fxmp ΔFx Fymt Fymp ΔFy xmt xmp Δx
and test conditions
of material
m, kg Lo, m h, m kN kN % kN kN % m m %
2.8 0.5 5.64 5.50 2.5 5.14 5.11 0.6 0.92 0.98 -6.5
2.8 1.0 7.26 7.31 -0.7 6.25 6.93 -10.9 1.00 1.05 -5.0
2.8 1.5 8.7 9.22 -6.0 7.20 7.80 -8.3 1.06 1.08 -1. 9
2.8 2.0 10.02 10.7 -6.8 8.05 8.61 -7.0 1.12 1.12 0.0
A
2.8 2.5 11.25 12.04 -7.0 8.82 9.83 -11.5 1.16 1.15 0. 9
6.0 0.0 3.75 3.64 2.9 3.80 3.99 -5.1 1.71 1.79 -4.7
6.0 0.5 4.74 5.05 -6.6 4.54 4.87 -7.2 1.84 1.96 -6.5
6.0 1.0 5.64 5.93 -5.6 5.18 5.63 -8.7 1.94 2.04 -5.2
2.5 0.0 5.43 5.51 -1.5 7.66 7.43 3.0 0.47 0.50 -6.4
2.5 1.0 14.40 15.26 -5.9 16.89 15.95 5.6 0.59 0.64 -8.5
100 4.0 0.0 5,42 5.63 -3,9 7.65 6.99 -3.9 0.78 0.75 3,9
B
4.0 1.0 11.34 12.08 -6.5 13.90 13.1 5.8 0.89 0.93 -4.5
6.0 0.0 5.41 5.72 -5.73 7.632 7.24 5.14 1.14 1.09 4.4
6.0 1.0 9.50 9.81 -3.3 12.05 11.52 4.4 1.29 1.18 8.5
2.5 0.0 3.81 3.40 10.7 4.55 4.30 5.5 0.58 0.51 12.0
2.5 1.0 8.45 7.83 7.3 8.09 8.29 -2,5 0.77 0.72 6.5
2.5 1.5 10.23 9.82 4,0 9.31 9.56 -2,7 0.82 0.75 8.5
C 6.0 0.0 3.77 3.32 11.9 4.52 5.12 -13.2 1.37 1.21 11.6
6.0 0.5 4.94 4.00 19,0 5.48 5.44 0.7 1.51 1.47 2.6
6.0 1.0 5.95 5.12 13,9 6.27 6,40 -2.1 1.61 1.57 2.5
6.0 1.5 6.86 6.10 11,1 6.96 7.12 -2.3 1.70 1.61 5.3

FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2017, Vol. 25, 5(125) 101
 testtest conditions [kN]
conditions [kN] [kN]
[kN] [%][%] [kN]
[kN] [kN]
[kN] [%][%] [m][m] [m][m] [%][%]
of of
material m m Lo Lo h h
material
[kg][kg] [m][m] [m][m]
2.82.8 0.50.5 5.64 5.64 5.50 5.50 2.52.5 5.14 5.14 5.11 5.11 0.60.6 0.92 0.98
0.92 0.98 -6.5-6.5
2.82.8 1.01.0 7.26 7.26 7.31 7.31 -0.7-0.7 6.25 6.25 6.93 6.93 -10.9-10.9 1.00 1.05
1.00 1.05 -5.0-5.0
2.82.8 1.51.5 8.78.7 9.22 9.22 -6.0-6.0 7.20 7.20 7.80 7.80 -8.3-8.3 1.06 1.08
1.06 1.08 -1. -1.
9 9
2.82.8 2.02.0 10.0210.02 10.7 10.7 -6.8-6.8 8.05 8.05 8.61 8.61 -7.0-7.0 1.12 1.12
1.12 1.12 0.00.0
A A 2.82.8 2.52.5 11.2511.25 12.0412.04 -7.0-7.0 8.82 8.82 9.83 9.83 -11.5-11.5 1.16 1.15
1.16 1.15 0. 90. 9
tionBlitz EoSens Cube7 high 6.0 speed 0.0
dig- 3.75 parameters
3.64 relevant to
3.80human 3.99safety. The present publication is based on the
6.0 0.0 3.75 3.64 2.92.9 3.80 3.99 -5.1-5.1 1.71 1.79
1.71 1.79 -4.7-4.7
ital camera (Mikrotron, Germany) (11)4.74
6.06.0 0.50.5 The model
4.74 5.05 and
5.05 software
-6.6-6.6 4.54 developed
4.54 4.87 may
4.87 -7.2 -7.2 results
1.84 of
1.84 1.96Phase III-6.5
1.96 -6.5 of the National Pro-
coupled with a computer (12). The imag-
6.06.0 1.01.0 5.64 be used
5.64 in conjunction
5.93
5.93 -5.6-5.6 5.18 with
5.18 laboratory
5.635.63 -8.7-8.7 gramme
1.94 2.04
1.94 “Safety and
2.04 -5.2 -5.2working conditions
es recorded were analysed using
2.52.5 special-
0.00.0 5.43 testing
5.43 to obtain
5.51
5.51 -1.5-1.5 valuable
7.66 information
7.66 7.43 7.43 3.03.0 improvement,”
0.47 0.50
0.47 0.50 funded
-6.4-6.4 in the years 2014-
ized software – Tema Motion 2.5–
2.5Starter
1.01.0 II about
14.40
14.40 15.26 the
15.26 performance
-5.9-5.9 of
16.89 different
16.89 15.95 15.95 con-
5.65.6 2016
0.59in 0.64
0.59 the0.64
area of tasks related to servic-
-8.5-8.5
(Image System, 100
Sweden) 100
[24].
4.04.0 0.00.0 struction
5,42
5,42 5.63
5.63 variants
-3,9-3,9 of
7.65horizontal
7.65 6.996.99anchor
-3.9-3.9 es 0.78
0.78for the State
0.750.75 by3,9the
3,9 Ministry of Labour
B B
4.04.0 1.01.0 11.3411.34 12.08their
lines12.08
and -6.5-6.5 13.90 13.1
13.90
compatibility 13.1
with 5.8 5.8
oth- 0.89
0.89
and 0.93
Social 0.93 -4.5-4.5
Policy. The Programme coor-
6.06.0 0.00.0 5.41 5.41 5.72 5.72 -5.73-5.73 7.632
7.632 7.24 7.24 5.14 5.14 1.14 1.09
1.14 1.09 4.44.4
The results of the tests carried 6.0
out on1.0the 9.50 er types of fall prevention
9.81 -3.3-3.3 12.05
equipment.
12.05 11.52
11.52 4.44.4
dinator is the
1.29 1.18
Central Institute for Labour
1.18 8.58.5
6.0 1.0 9.50 9.81 1.29
experimental stand described 2.5 above0.0are 3.81 The most 3.40 important
10.7 advantages
4.55 4.30of 5.5
the
5.5 Protection–National
0.58 0.51 12.0Research Institute.
2.5 0.0 3.81 3.40 10.7 4.55 4.30 0.58 0.51 12.0
given in Table 3, where: 2.52.5 1.01.0 8.45 model
8.45 7.83designed
7.83 7.37.3include:
8.098.09 8.29 8.29 -2,5-2,5 0.77 0.72
0.77 0.72 6.56.5
Fxmt – maximum fall arrest2.5 force calcu-
2.5 1.5 1.5 10.23 n calculation
10.23 9.82 4,0of
9.82 4,0the9.31
time
9.31courses
9.569.56of-2,7
pa-
-2,7 0.82 0.75
0.82 0.75 8.58.5
lated, C C 6.06.0 0.00.0 3.77 3.77 rameters
3.32 11.9
3.32 11.9 4.52
characterising4.52 the
5.125.12 -13.2
fall arrest
-13.2 1.37 1.21
1.37 1.21 11.6 11.6
Fxmp – maximum fall arrest6.0
6.0
force,0.5
0.5
meas-4.94
4.94 4.00 4.00 19,0
process;
19,0 5.48 5.48 5.44 5.44 0.70.7 References
1.51 1.47
1.51 1.47 2.62.6
6.06.0 1.01.0 5.95 5.95 5.12 5.12 13,9 13,9 6.27 6.27 6,40 6,40 -2.1-2.1 1.61 1.57
1.61 1.57 2.52.5
ured 6.06.0 1.51.5 6.86 n calculation
6.86 6.10 11,1
6.10 of
11,1the6.96
forces
6.96 acting
7.127.12on-2.3
the
-2.3  1. 1.70
1.70
Baszczyński
1.611.61 5.3 K.5.3Construction, basic
Fymt – maximum force acting on the an- worker during fall arrest, enabling the requirements and methods of testing
F
Fxmt xmt – maximum fall arrest force
– maximum fall arrest force calculated, calculated,
chor points horizontal anchor lines which allow em-
FxmpFcalculated,
– maximum
– maximum
xmp fallfall arrest
arrest force,
force, selection of an appropriate connecting
measured
measured ploees to move during work at height
Fymp – maximum force
– maximum acting on
force the an-
acting and shock-absorbing assembly, such
FymtFymt– maximum force acting ononthethe anchor
anchor points
points calculated,
calculated, (Konstrukcja, podstawowe wymagania
chor points measured, as a textile shock-absorbing lanyard
FympFymp – maximum
– maximum force
force acting
acting ononthethe anchor
anchor points
points measured,
measured, i metody badań urządzeń kotwiczących
connecting the full body harness to the umożliwiających przemieszczanie się
  (11) (11) anchor line;
(11) pracownika na stanowiskach pracy na
n calculation of the maximum deflec- wysokości). Occupational Safety. Science
  (12) (12) tion of the horizontal anchor line cor-
(12) and Practice, Warsaw, 2/2016, p. 13-17.
responding to the fall arrest distance  2. Sulowski AC. Fall protection systems –
selection of equipment. In A.C. Sulowski
   (13) (13)(13) [25];
(Ed.), Fundamentals of fall protection
n evaluation of the maximum forces act- (pp. 303-320). Toronto, Canada: Inter-
ofAnalysis
AnalysisAnalysis of of
the results the the
has results
results
revealed hashas revealed
revealed
that: that:
that:
ing on the work site elements to which national Society for Fall Protection 1991.
n Differences between Differences of F ,
the valuesbetween the anchoroflines are attached;  3. and
Baszczyński K,areZrobek Z. Horizontal
 Differences betweenxm thethe values
values of FxmF,xmF, ymFym& x calculated
&m xm calculated and measured
measured are
Fym & xm calculated and measured are n analysis of both single-span and mul- anchor lines made of steel wire ropes
acceptable asacceptableacceptable
they do not as as they
they
exceed thedodo notnot exceed
exceed
ti-span thethe
horizontal20% 20% limit
limit
anchor imposed
imposed
lines; by byStandard
Standard
(Stalowe PN-EN
PN-EN
poziome liny zaczepowe). Oc-
20% limit imposed by Standard PN- n possibility of configuring parameters cupational Safety. Science and Practice,
795:2012
795:2012 [5].[5]. Warsaw, 6/1998, p. 18-21.
EN 795:2012 [5]. b0, b1, ƞ, and k1 to reflect the character-
  The The differences
differences between
between simulation
simulation andand measurement
measurement  4. European
results
results Committee
observed
observed areare for Standardiza-
n The differences between simulation istics of different textile materials. tion (CEN). (2008). Personal fall protec-
and measurement resultsboth
attributable
attributable observed
bothto to imperfections
imperfections of of
thethe model
model and andto to
thethe uncertainty
uncertainty of of measurement
measurement
tion equipment – Personal fall protection
are attributable both to imperfections Given the differences between the nu- systems (Standard No. EN 363: 2008).
of
of the the various
various mechanical
mechanical parameters.
parameters.
of the model and to the uncertainty of merical simulations and laboratory test Brussels, Belgium.
measurement
 The The of most
most theimportant
various
important mechani-
causes
causes of results,
of further efforts
discrepancies
discrepancies should be made to  5. European Committee for Standardiza-
include:
include:
cal parameters. improve the model by: tion (CEN). (2012). Personal fall pro-
- energy
- energy absorption
absorption by bythethe lanyard
lanyard (5)(5) (Figure
(Figure 8) 8) connecting
connecting thethe test
test weight
weight to to
thethe
tection anchor – Anchor devices
anchor
equipment
– taking into consideration the initial
(Standard No. EN 795: 2012). Brussels,
n The most importantline, causes of discrep-
line, tension in the anchor line generated Belgium.
ancies include: by the force of gravity and by human  6. European Committee for Standardiza-
– energy absorption by the lanyard (5) adjustment; tion (CEN). (2012). Personal fall pro-
(Figure 8) connecting the test weight – taking into consideration anchor line tection equipment – Anchor devices –
to the anchor line, 11 11 its own weight;
deflection under Recommendations for anchor devices
– initial deflection of the anchor line un- – expanding the analysis to include oth- for use by more than one person simul-
taneously (Technical Specification No.
der the influence of gravity (prior to er points of loading than the span mid-
16415: 2013). Brussels, Belgium.
the fall of the test mass), point;  7. Directive 89/686/EEC – personal protec-
– initial horizontal displacement of the – determining load-elongation char- tive equipment
test mass and the point of loading acteristics for a wide range of textile  8. Miura N & Sulowski AC. Introduction to
along the horizontal anchor line by ropes and webbing to enable their horizontal lifelines. In A.C. Sulowski (Ed.)
approx. 200 mm caused by the con- analysis; (pp. 217-283) Fundamentals of fall pro-
struction of the experimental stand, – expanding the model to include ener- tection. Toronto, Ont, Canada: Interna-
tional Society for Fall Protection, 1991.
– initial tensioning of the anchor line gy-absorbing elements, such as textile
 9. Baszczyński K, Zrobek Z. Dynamic Per�-
applied to reduce its deflection prior shock-absorbers installed at points formance of Horizontal Flexible Anchor
to dropping the test mass. where the anchor line is attached to Lines During Fall Arrest – A Numeri-
the work site or connected to the full cal Method of Simulation. International
body harness. Journal of Occupational Safety and Er-
Conslusions gonomics, Central Institute for Labour
The validation tests conducted showed The accomplishment of these objectives Protection 2000l 6, 4: 521-534.
the numerical model of horizontal anchor would lead to better correspondence of 10. Baszczyński K, Jachowicz M. Load-Elon-
gation Characteristics of Connecting
lines presented to be sufficiently accurate numerical simulations with the actual and Shock-Absorbing Components of
to analyse the performance of such lines mechanical phenomena and enable anal- Personal Fall Arrest Systems. Fibres
in fall arrest situations and to estimate ysis of a larger range of fall protection and Textiles in Eastern Europe 2012; 20,
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personal protective equipment protect-
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arrest. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern
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INSTITUTE OF BIOPOLYMERS
AND CHEMICAL FIBRES
LABORATORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
The Laboratory works and specialises in three fundamental fields:
n R&D activities:
n research works on new technology and techniques, particularly envi-
ronmental protection;
n evaluation and improvement of technology used in domestic mills;
n development of new research and analytical methods;
n research services (measurements and analytical tests) in the field of en-
vironmental protection, especially monitoring the emission of pollutants;
n seminar and training activity concerning methods of instrumental
analysis, especially the analysis of water and wastewater, chemicals
used in paper production, and environmental protection in the paper-
making industry.
Since 2004 Laboratory has had the accredi-
tation of the Polish Centre for Accreditation
No. AB 551, confirming that the Laboratory
meets the requirements of Standard PN-EN
ISO/IEC 17025:2005. AB 388
Investigations in the field of environmental protection technology:
n Research and development of waste water treatment technology, the
treatment technology and abatement of gaseous emissions, and the
utilisation and reuse of solid waste,
n Monitoring the technological progress of environmentally friendly technol-
ogy in paper-making and the best available techniques (BAT),
n Working out and adapting analytical methods for testing the content of
pollutants and trace concentrations of toxic compounds in waste water,
gaseous emissions, solid waste and products of the paper-making indus-
try,
n Monitoring ecological legislation at a domestic and world level, particu-
larly in the European Union.
A list of the analyses most frequently carried out:
n Global water & waste water pollution factors: COD, BOD, TOC, suspend-
ed solid (TSS), tot-N, tot-P
n Halogenoorganic compounds (AOX, TOX, TX, EOX, POX)
n Organic sulphur compounds (AOS, TS)
n Resin and chlororesin acids
n Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
n Phenol and phenolic compounds (guaiacols, catechols, vanillin, veratrols)
n Tetrachlorophenol, Pentachlorophenol (PCP)
n Hexachlorocyclohexane (lindane)
n Aromatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons
n Benzene, Hexachlorobenzene
n Phthalates n Polychloro-Biphenyls (PCB)
n Carbohydrates n Glyoxal
n Glycols n Tin organic compounds
Contact:
INSTITUTE OF BIOPOLYMERS AND CHEMICAL FIBRES
ul. M. Skłodowskiej-Curie 19/27, 90-570 Łódź, Poland
Michał Janiga, M.Sc., Eng.
m.janiga@ibwch.lodz.pl icpnls@ibwch.lodz.pl

Received 21.10.2016 Reviewed 28.04.2017

FIBRES&&TEXTILES
FIBRES TEXTILESininEastern
EasternEurope
Europe 2017,
2016,Vol.
Vol.25,
24, 5(125)
1(115) 101
103