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Maturity Indices of Tropical and Sub-tropical Fruit Crops

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38
MATURITY INDICES OF TROPICAL
AND SUB-TROPICAL FRUIT CROPS
Tanmoy Sarkar1 and Arghya Mani2
1
Department of Fruit Science, BCKV, Mohanpur, India
2
Department of Post-Harvest Technology, BCKV, Mohanpur, India
tsarkarbckv@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Maturity is one of the most important processes in fruits, which involve
changes in flavour, colour and texture, and thereby making them most
acceptable for edible purposes. Such obvious changes generally occur
in a coordinated fashion. An understanding of these changes during
ripening is of prime importance in checking post harvest losses for
developing technologies in enhancing the shelf life of fruits.
Key words: climacteric, fruits, maturity, non-climacteric, sub-tropical,
tropical,

1. Introduction
Fruit quality is a composite of many components including
attributes, properties and characteristics that give the fruit its value. These
quality components may differ depending upon the fruit/vegetable and its
intended use, producers, handlers and consumers. For instance, fruit quality
parameters will differ depending on whether it is to be used for fresh
consumption or for processing. Farmers are more likely inclined towards
high yields, good appearance and tolerance to long distance transport.
Marketers are likely to consider appearance, firmness and shelf life while
consumers consider appearance, firmness, flavor and nutritional value of
the fruits they purchase.
730

Most postharvest technologists consider for maturity that the

definition should be “that stage at which a commodity has reached a
sufficient stage of development that after harvesting and postharvest
handling (including ripening, where required), its quality will be at least
the minimum acceptable to the ultimate consumer.” Maturity at the time
of harvest is the most important factor that determines post harvest life
and final quality of the produce. Harvesting should be done when the
produce is at a stage that will allow it to be at its peak quality (including
sensory attributes) when it reaches consumer, at the same time it must also
be not toxic and have an adequate shelf life. The maturity has been divided
into two categories i.e. physiological maturity and horticultural maturity.
Physiological maturity means that stage at which a commodity has reached
a sufficient stage of development that after harvesting & postharvest
handling (including ripening, where required), its quality will be at least
the minimum acceptable to the consumer. Horticultural maturity is that
stage of development when a plant or plant part possesses the prerequisites
for utilization by consumers for a particular purpose or market requirement.
Matured fruits are having completed natural growth and development. They
are categorized by two on the basis of ethylene production at the stage of
maturity i.e. climacteric and non-climacteric fruit. The climacteric is a
stage of fruit ripening associated with increased ethylene production and
respiration, whereas non-climacteric fruit is lack of ethylene –associated
respiratory peak at ripening.
List of climacteric and non-climacteric fruits
Climacteric Non-climacteric fruit
fruit
Name Scientific Name Name Scientific Name
Avocado Persia americana Mill Citrus Citurs spps.
Apple Malus X domestica Borkh Grape Vitis vinifera L.
Banana Musa spps. Litchi Litchi sinensis Sonn.
Mango Mangifera indica L. Strawberry Fragaria spps
Papaya Carica papaya L. Pomegranate Punica granatum L.
Pear Pyrus communis L. Raspberry Rubus idaeus L.
Kiwi Actinidia deliciosa Loquat Eriobotrya japonica
Apricot Prunus Americana L. Ber Ziziphus mauritiana Lam
Fig Ficus carica L. Jamun Syzygium cuminii L
 731

Custard apple Annona spp. Pineapple Annanas comosus L

Guava Psidium guajava L. Cherry Prunus avium
Sapota Manilkara zapota L. Phalsa Grewia subinaequalis
DC.

1.1. Importance of maturity indices

i) It is important to know the stage of development when a commodity
is of optimum quality in order to know when to harvest the crop.
ii) Ensure sensory and nutritional quality of harvested produce.
iii) Ensure post harvest shelf life of produce
iv) Facilitate marketing operations and scheduling
v) Facilitate of produce fresh to the consumer and good market
availability.
vi) Reduce postharvest losses
1.2. Maturity Index
This is involves to determination of the stage of maturation of
fruit availability to consumer and for market place. Physical, physiological,
biochemical and Chronological indices are used to establish the maturity
of fruits. There is several ways to assure the maturity of fruit like,
i) Visual effect i.e. changes of skin color, size, shape and texture etc.
ii) Physical method i.e., Fruit retention strength, firmness, specific
gravity etc.
iii) Chemical measurement i.e. Total soluble solid (TSS), Acidity,
Sugar content, starch content etc.
iv) Physiological method i.e. Respiration rate and ethylene evolution
rate.
v) Days from flowering to fruit set.
1.2.1. Maturity indices of tropical fruit crops
A. Mango
Mango is a climacteric fruit. Harvesting of mango fruit at proper
stage of maturity is of fundamental importance. The effect fruit quality
and storage life depends upon the maturity stage of fruit crop[1]. The fruits
are usually harvested when,
732

i) The fruit increase in size, weight and skin color as it grows are
regularly used to assess harvest maturity. Some fruits bear colored
pigments on the skin (Alphonso, Kesar, Pusa Arunima, Arka
Puneet, Ambika) and flavor comes from the fruit [2]. Different
varieties and maturity stages may have different skin and flesh
color. Kent has a skin color of green-yellow and a deep yellow
flesh, Tommy Atkins has a skin color of yellow to orange and a
yellow to deep yellow flesh while Vandyke has a skin color of
bright yellow ground color and orange yellow color flesh[3].
ii) Few ripe fruits have fallen from the tree, also called as ‘Tapka’.
The rest of the fruits are considered as sufficiently mature.
iii) The days of fruit maturity from flowering depends upon the variety
to variety. Generally it takes about 90-110 days to mature. Whereas,
Bombay Green variety mature at 90-100 days after full bloom
(DAFS), Amrapali (130-140 DAFS), 135 DAFS in Fazli and Langra
mature at120 days after full bloom[4]. Specific gravity is scientific
maturity index for mango. The specific gravity of most of the mango
fruits reaches between 1.01 and 1.02; it indicates that fruits are
ready for harvesting[5].
iv) Fruit has good total soluble solids (TSS); less total acidity and pH
content indicate maturity of fruit. Arumanis mango is best for
consumption when the TSS content of the fruit is not less than
16.8 ºBrix, total acidity 0.18%, pH 4.8[6].
Harvesting
As the mango trees grow tall, harvesting of fruits becomes difficult
and time consuming. Climbing thin branches becomes risky, as the wood
is brittle. Therefore use of a traditional harvesting stick is advisable. The
harvesting stick is prepared by tying two iron or bamboo hooks 5-6 cm
long at the tip of a straight, long bamboo. A net made of jute or coir rope,
attached to an iron ring of 30-40 cm diameter, is tied to the bamboo, around
the hook. Mangoes can be harvested by placing them in the net and then
pulling the stem through the hook. The harvested fruits remain in the net
without any damage.
B. Banana
Optimum maturity stage of banana fruits reduced the postharvest
losses and extended the storage life of fruits. The stage of maturation at
which the fruit is harvested greatly influences the green-life or storage
 733

longevity and eating quality. Every fruit attains its full characteristics e.g.
flavour, taste and colour during storage if it is picked at optimum time.
Depending on season and cultivar, bananas become matured at 90-120
days after appearing of first flower[7]. Poovan, Manthan, Rasthali and Dwarf
Cavendish are ready for harvest in 11-12 months after date of planting.
Grande Naine’ and ‘Williams’ may be harvested from 22 and 24 weeks[8].
The fruits are harvested when top leaves start drying. The color of the fruit
changes from deep green to light green. The ridges on the skin surface of
the skin change from angular to round i.e. attainment of 3/4th full stage.
Harvesting
Banana is harvest throughout the year with no intervals between
harvests. The selection of bunches to be cut is made by virtue of visual
assessment when those with the fullest fruit (the more rounded) are taken.
A more yellowish internal appearance indicates that the fruit is at the ideal
moment to be harvested. Harvesting is carried out by only one person,
partly by cutting the pseudo-stem with a machete, and lowering the bunch
down slowly. Once harvested, the fruit is manually transported to a location
where it is collected by truck.
C. Papaya
Papaya is categorized as one of climacteric fruits[9] with the ability
to continue ripened off the tree when harvested at the suitable maturity
stage. Papaya trends to set too many fruits. Such crowded fruit do not get
proper space resulting poor development of fruit and quality. Thinning of
fruits while they are small, so, the remaining fruits develop proper size
and quality. Papaya fruit set within 8-10 months of their planting. It also
varies by variety and season.
In north India, fruits ripen during spring and summer while in hills,
it is restricted 3-4 months from February to May because it requires warm
climate during ripening. For papaya, its ripening had been commercially
described by its skin color, pulp firmness and soluble solids. Change of
surface color of fruit with the maturity can be used as a parameter to measure
the ripeness. Often, unripe fruits show greenish surface color which changes
to yellowish color when they ripen gradually. The instruments that widely
used to measure skin color of the fruits are colorimeter [10]. The development
of colorimeter is to overcome optical illusion because color may appear
differently to different individuals. However, local farmers still sort the
fruits traditionally by using visual inspection when the fruit has turned
greenish yellow color.
734

High humidity and comparatively high temperature during ripening

period may not be conducive to development of attractive color in fruits
which may remain pale green even on ripe. The fruit considered ready for
harvesting when the latex of fruit become almost watery.
D. Pineapple
Pineapple is one of the most popular tropical fruits for consumption
around the globe. The maturity of pineapple can be determined based on
the change of color of the skin of the fruit. Pineapple can be said to be
mature when there is skin color change at the base of the fruit from green
to yellow as mentioned by Rosnah et al.[11]. Pineapples are considered ripe
and at their best eating quality when the fruit surface colour is the one
quarter to one-half yellow. If the fruit is not harvested until the full-yellow
stage it will have a flatter, less desirable taste due to excess sugar content
and decreased acidity. Pineapples for the domestic markets should be
harvested close to full ripeness, when external surface colour is one-half
yellow. Fruit intended for the export market should be picked slightly
sooner, at the quarter-yellow colour stage.
Fruitlet Flatness
The pineapple is a compound fruit comprised of numerous
individual fruitlets. The fruitlets mature progressively from the bottom
part of the fruit to the top. As the fruitlets mature, they become flatter. The
extent of fruitlet flatness is usually a good indicator of overall fruit maturity.
A pineapple is typically mature and ready for harvest when the lower one-
quarter to one-half of the fruitlets are flat[12].
Internal Appearance
Random fruit samples should be sliced horizontally at the point of
the largest width. Immature pineapple fruit have appear with white flesh
colour, and are slightly clear in appearance while mature or ripe fruit have
yellowish-white flesh. Fruit are over-mature when more than half of the
cross sectional area of the fruit is transparent.
Shape, Size and Biochemical indicators
Fruit at maturity stage should be gained its full size and uniform
shape, and firmness. Fruit weight is varied depend on the varieties and
ripening stage. The minimum soluble solids content should be 12-14%,
specific gravity should be 0.98-1.02% and maximum acidity should be 1%
will assure minimum flavor acceptability by most consumers.
 735

Harvesting
Harvesting is done with a sharp knife, severing the fruit stalk with
a clean cut retaining 5-7 cm of stalk with the fruit in such a way that the
fruit is not damaged.
E. Guava
Guava is an important fruit crop grown under tropical and sub-
tropical regions of the world. Because of its better adaptability and rich
nutritional value, guava is eulogized as ‘the apple of tropics’. In guava,
two distinct seasons of flowering, spring (March-April) and rains (August-
September) occur from which fruits ripen during rainy and winter season
respectively. Guava tree blooms approximately 2 months after pruning and
fruit can be harvested from 3 to 4 months after blooming, depending on
the season of the year. The harvest time is an important factor related to
post-harvest losses of fruits [13]. Guava is climacteric fruit and should be
picked when it is mature but firm. For guavas, the harvest time is based in
subjective evaluations as fruit size, skin colour and hand firmness, which
may vary for the same location according to the cultivar, time of the year,
plant age and management procedures. Guava fruit generally takes about
17-20 weeks from fruit set to reach maturity. Fruits are generally harvested
when the pulp is still firm and the skin colour starts changing from dark to
light green or to a yellowish colour. Changes in colour are the most apparent
external symptoms of ripening in guava [14].
Harvesting
Individual fruits are picked when they are still hard and firm at
regular intervals. Guava fruit must be harvested with great care because of
their soft, thin skin. Harvesting normally carried out by hand to avoid
physical injuries.
F. Sapota
Sapota is a climacteric fruit, it ripes properly and improves in its
quality after harvesting. The maturity stage of sapota at harvest is very
difficult because no external color has changes during fruit development
and ripening processes. The erratic flowering habit and the presence of
fruits at all stages of development on the tree make it difficult to determine
optimum harvest time. A non destructive technique using the “Kiwifirm”
device (Plant and Food Research, New Zealand) has been shown to be
useful in identifying the maturity stage of sapota fruit [15]. An in built
processor records the resulting collision, analyzes the waveform, and
736

displays a value on a digital display. This could be applied to predict which

fruit are going to ripen during storage and to reduce inconsistent ripening
within a batch [15].
Phenol and sugar content increased with development of fruit while
acidity and ascorbic acid reduced. Sugar concentration ranges from 12 to
14%. Flavor quality depends on the soluble solids content (13-26%) and
acidity (0.2-0.3%) [16]. Total soluble solids (TSS) increase during ripening.
Sapota mature 8-10 months after fruit set. The fruit shed off brown
scaly external material and become smooth when reaching physiological
maturity. Fruit ready for harvest will not show a green tissue or latex when
scratched with finger nails. Fully mature fruit will have a brown skin, and
fruit will separate easily from the stem without leaking latex. At the time
of maturity, dried stigma at the end of fruit drop easily, fruit has a smooth
surface, shining potato color and rounded styler end is considered mature
[17]
.
Harvesting
Harvesting of fruits has been done by ladder and baskets and the
peduncle is cut with a knife or scissors. Selection can be based on size and
maturity of the fruits. Any fruit presenting deterioration or mechanical
injury are discarded [18].
G. Custard apple
Custard apple fruits are climacteric in nature, therefore they are
harvested when they are mature, firm and plumpy and turn light green on
maturity fruit. Custard apple matures during October-November/December
in dry region, whereas in humid areas harvesting is done during August.
The inter aereolar space widens the fruits turn creamy white, the skin
between the segments or tubercles turn into light yellow colour.
Harvesting
For transporting over distant market, the fruits are to be picked
before full ripening and are packed in single layer, well ventilated wooden
boxes with soft cushioning material. A good bearing tree gives about 100-
150 fruits i.e., about 8-10 tonnes/ha. The fruits are highly perishable and
cannot be stored for long duration. It can be stored in good condition up to
7 days by treating them with 8% wax emulsion.
H. Jackfruit
Jackfruit is climacteric fruit, so it harvest when mature. Fruits
 737

require 3-8 months to develop from flower emergence to full maturity [19].
There are different indicatior to identify fully mature fruits- 1) The skin
colour turns from light green to yellowish. 2) The spines grow further
apart and flatten slightly. 3) The skin yields slightly to pressure 4). The
last leaf on the stalk turns yellow. 5) The fruit produces a dull, hollow
sound when tapped with hand. After harvesting a mature fruit, it ripens in
3-7 days and begins to emit a strong jackfruit odor.
Harvesting
It is always best to harvest and handle fruits with care to prevent
mechanical injuries while harvesting, one person on the ground will keep
on moving the sacks around the tree, while the person on the tree will drop
the fruits on the sacks. For harvesting fruits on high branches it is advisable
to lower the fruit on a rope or collect in a sack or basket and then lowered
slowly to the ground. Harvesting of ripe fruits between mid morning and
late afternoon can help reduce latex flow [19].
I. Mangosteen
Mangosteen is one of the most praised fruits regarded as ‘Queen
of tropical fruits’. Mangosteen bear fruit at 7 years of age. The time of
fruiting is August-October. Fruits are harvested when color starts changing
from green to purple. Fruits are picked with peduncle when slightly soft
and color change. Ripe fruit falling from tree can be collected and used.
Harvesting
As mangosteen tree grow very tall, long bamboo poles or steel
ladders are helpful in harvesting. The yield varies from 500-1500 fruits
depending on development of the tree and climate.
J. Persimmon
The persimmon fruit is a berry resembling a tomato in shape and
size, but the seeds are large, almond shaped and few in number in older
cultivars and absent in newer cultivars. Persimmon fruits are categorized
as climacteric fruit, which means they are very sensitive to exogenous
ethylene exposure and are induced to ripen with autocatalytic ethylene
production by exposure to exogenous ethylene [20,21]. The external skin
colour of this fruit is the index currently used as the nondestructive index
for harvesting persimmons. The colour evolution displayed by persimmon
cultivars comes from immature fruit that has a homogenous green skin to
fruit with its characteristic orange or orange-reddish tones in the commercial
maturity stage[22]. Persimmon cultivars can be classified into two general
738

categories, non-astringent and astringent at harvest, depending on the

concentration of the soluble tannins present in fruit flesh. Although the
fruits of both groups are very astringent when small and immature, the
former lose astringency while they grow on trees [21]. During growth and
ripening, non-astringent cultivars show fewer soluble tannins at levels that
are sensorially non-detectable, even before fruit colour breaking, while
the fruits of astringent cultivars maintain a high content of soluble tannins,
even when fully coloured. Values of soluble tannins that come close to
0.03% have been reported in non-astringent ‘Jiro’ and ‘Harbiye’
persimmons [23], while astringent cultivars such as ‘Hiratanenashi’, ‘Rojo
Brillante’ or ‘Tipo’ have presented a content of soluble tannins of 0.5-1%
[22,24]
. Therefore, it is necessary to apply postharvest treatments to remove
astringency prior to commercializing cultivars that are astringent at harvest.
Harvesting
Harvesting persimmons is to clip fruits from trees with small
secateurs, and to leave the calyx and a short stem attached to fruits. It is
possible to snap fruits from trees, but this requires skill and increases its
susceptibility to injury and subsequent decays. Generally, two to three picks
are required depending on the cultivar and seasonal conditions.
K. Carambola
The fruit changes its color from the green mature stage when it is
firm and green in color to half-ripe when although its waxy in texture is
still firm but color changes to yellowish green to finally leading to the ripe
stage when the fruit possesses a soft texture and its color turns to a total
yellow. The pH of the fruit increases with the advance in maturity and ripe
fruits are significantly less acidic (pH-3.44) than green mature (pH-2.40)
and half-ripe (pH-2.71) fruits [25].
Harvesting
The star fruit are usually harvested by hand from the tree or shaken
down by a machine. They are harvested when the fruit becomes a yellowish-
green color. It is preferred to harvest in the morning when the temperatures
are cool. With preferred weather conditions trees can produce 45 kg up to
136 kg pounds of fruit in a year.
1.2.2. Maturity indices of Subtropical fruits
L. Citrus
The citrus fruit crop is represented by diûerent species and varieties
 739

that display unique aesthetic, organoleptic and nutritional characteristics.

However, fruits of the diûerent varieties share common mechanisms and
many biochemical pathways during growth, development and ripening,
that are critical factors for determining the maturation indexes and harvest
time for each variety. Harvest time determination is challenging and
dependent on citrus growing areas and market requirements.
Maturity Sings of Mandarin and Sweet Orange
i) Fruit mature in about 210 to 240 days.
ii) Color changes from green to pale green or yellow or orange.
iii) Outer rind looks shiny and one can see oil glands on the fruit.
iv) Mandarin 0.4% acidity and 12-14% TSS. Orange 0.3% acidity
and 12% TSS.
v) Fruits become soft.
Maturity Signs of Lemon
i) In India, a ripening period of 165 to 195 days with more than 50%
juice content and a total acidity of 9%, are considered as good
indicators of a mature fruit.
Maturity Signs of Grapefruit
Grapefruit maturity standards vary with the growing regions and
among red, pink and white varieties. The yellow color should be present in
two-thirds of the fruit surface with a minimum TSS of 6–7 º Brix and a
ratio around 5.5–6.
Table 1. Variations in the main maturity indices required for fruits of the more
important commercial citrus varieties
Citrus species TSS (%) Minimum TSS: Juice Surface
Acidity Acid ratio (%) coloration
ORANGES 8 0.4-0.7 8-10 >33 >4/5
Naval oranges 8-8.5 >33
Blood oranges 7 >30
others >35
MANDARINS >8.5 0.3-0.5 6.5-7.5 >1/3
Satsumas 6.5 >33
Clementines 7 >40
740

Hybrids/others 7.5
LEMONS >20
GRAPEFRUITS 5.5-7 >35 >2/3
Sources: Based on EU [24,25**], California [26] standards

Harvesting
In India the fruit picker collect the fruits manually by climbing on
a ladder when the tree is tall, with a collecting bag on his shoulders. In
U.S.A mechanical harvesting is done particularly for processing industry.
M. Ber
The ber is a hardy fruit tree and is well known for its ability to
thrive under adverse conditions of salinity, drought and water logging. It is
often called the poor man’s fruit [29]. The time required for ber fruit to
develop from fruit set to maturity is dependent on cultivar and location.
The fruit skin color is one of the most reliable maturity indices. Fruits are
harvested at the mature golden-yellow stage in ‘Umran’ [30] and ‘Kaithli’
[31]
, and at the mature green stage in ‘Mallasey’ and ‘Bambawi’ [32].
The ratio of sucrose, glucose, and fructose should be 3:1:1 at
maturity time of ber [33] (Bal 1981a), while biochemical characters like
TSS, acidity, and ascorbic acid content vary between 12-21%, 0.13-1.42%,
and 39-166 mg per 100 g, respectively, on the basis of fresh weight of fruit
in different cultivars and regions. Fresh ber fruits can be processed into a
number of desirable products for utilization during the off season. The ber
products like sun dried and dehydrated fruits, candy and preserve, canning
in sugar syrup and fruit pulp and squash can be prepared. The fruits of
‘Sanaur 2’ harvested at early stage are dried best in a mechanical drier at
60 ± 2°C for 31 h for making Chhuharas [34].
Harvesting
The peak harvesting season of ber in North India is mid March to
mid April but some early cultivars may ripen by end February. In South
India, the fruits are ready for harvest in October to November. The
harvesting season of ber fruit in Gujarat is December to March and in
Rajasthan it is January to March. Normally four to five pickings have to be
made in the fruiting season to harvest the total fruits on the tree.
N. Fig
Figs (Ficus carica) are among the earliest cultivated fruit trees in
 741

the world [35]. The large number of consumers unaware of figs, combined
with positive consumer perception, indicates there is potential for
development of a fresh fig market. Fresh market figs must be harvested
when almost fully ripe and firm to be of good eating quality. Skin color
and flesh firmness are dependable maturity and ripeness indices. ‘Black
Mission’ figs should be light to dark purple rather than black and should
yield to slight pressure. ‘Calimyrna’ figs should be yellowish-white to light
yellow and firm. Figs for drying should fully ripen and partially dry on the
tree before harvesting and completion of drying to about 17% moisture
using either solar drying or a dehydrator at 60ºC (140ºF).
O. Litchi
As a non-climacteric fruit, litchi does not improve in quality after
harvest, but has to ripen on the tree [36]. Appropriate physiological maturity
at harvest is crucial for proper quality and shelf-life. In practice, growers’
decisions often rely on individual experience in terms of size, pericarp
structure, colour, flavor, and taste of the fruit as well as a characteristic
time after anthesis [37,38]. Litchi fruit maturation occurs during the last part
of fruit development. For local markets, litchi is ideally harvested when
fully red and ripe [39], whereas fruit intended for long shipping distances is
often picked when the pericarp partly turns red or at 75–80% maturity
[40,41,42]
. The international trade standard of the Codex Alimentarius [43]
requires minimum ripeness without defining details, but peel coloring of
litchis should vary from pink to red.
Various strategies have been followed for decision of harvest time.
The contents of titratable acids (TA) and hence the sugar/acid ratio (TSS/
TA) highly correlated with the litchi taste and were thus favored over total
soluble solids (TSS) as maturity indicators [44]. A wide range of TSS/TA
ratios from 15 to 65 (based on TA as malic acid and TSS in g hg”1) was
recommended for mature fruit of different producing areas [44,37,45].
Harvesting
The best time to pick litchi fruit is in the morning. Harvesting
during the hottest part of the day or on rainy days should be avoided in
order to avoid desiccation and decay. Harvesting should be done by breaking
or cutting the whole fruit panicle with de-stemming of fruit afterwards.
Multiple harvesting is more common than single harvesting due to
differences in ripening. Fruit must be handled with care at all times, as
mechanical damage to the fruit increases desiccation and decay. Fruit should
be taken to the packing house as soon as possible after harvesting.
742

P. Pomegranate
Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) has gained popularity in recent
years due to its multi-functionality and nutritional value in human diet [46].
During pomegranate fruit development, advancing maturity stages
correspond to a number of coordinated physiological, biochemical, and
structural processes that result in changes in size, colour and flavour,
ultimately making the fruit desirable for consumption [47]. Quality
assessment of pomegranate fruit is based on important external attributes
such as size, shape and colour [48,46]. However, because fruit skin colour
does not indicate the extent of ripening or its readiness for consumption,
internal attributes such as colour, total soluble solids and acidity are also
considered in assessing readiness for harvest to meet market requirements
[48,46]
. The timing of harvest is of utmost importance if fruit, either for
immediate fresh market or for storage, are to reach the customer in prime
condition. A wide range of methods used to evaluate quality and
physiological attributes of pomegranate fruit.
Physical changes
Physical properties of fruit such as weight, volume, and juice
content are important from a marketing viewpoint because the attributes
influence consumer preference [49,46]. ‘Bhagwa’ cultivar, fruit arils was below
50% of the fruit weight until 110 DAFB, when the fruit was considered
semi-ripe and reaching 58% of the fruit weight at full ripe stage [48]. Colour
is an important factor affecting marketability and consumer preference of
fruit. Depending on cultivar and maturity stage, fruit external colour varies
considerably from yellow, green, or pink overlain with pink to deep red or
indigo to fully red [49].
Biochemical changes
Total soluble solids (TSS) which is mostly made of sugars,
increased significantly during three major fruit developmental stages. The
TSS content increased from 10.300Brix in immature fruit at 20 days after
fruit set (DAFS) to 19.56æ%Brix in fully ripe fruit at 140 DAFS [51]. In
India, Ganesh variety TSS content of 13% in 40 day-old fruit increased
but this was not significant until the 100th day of fruit development when
the TSS value exceeded 15%. The highest TSS content of 16.3% was
recorded in 140 day-old fruit [52]. The maturity indices, viz. total soluble
solids (TSS) and brix-acid ratio (BAR) determined for harvesting the fruits
of pomegranate with better edible quality is as follows: ie. 15.95°B TSS
and 31.90 BAR at 180 DAFB for Bhagwa, 15.80°B TSS and 32.91 BAR at
 743

175 DAFB for Ruby, 16.10°B TSS, 37.44 BAR at 150 DAFB for Ganesh,
16.20°B TSS, 36.00 BAR at 145 DAFB for Jalore Seedless, 15.40°B TSS,
34.22 BAR at 140 DAFB for Arakta and 15.50°B TSS, 33.69 BAR at 140
DAFB for Mridula [53]. Juice from fully mature pomegranate fruit has 12–
16% sugar content, consisting mainly of glucose and fructose [54, 55, 50, 56].
Glucose was the more predominant sugar than fructose. Decrease in titrable
acid levels during fruit development with a concomitant increase in TSS
content, is an inherent process during growth and development of
pomegranate. In ‘Bhagwa’ pomegranate, the ratio of TSS/TA varied
considerably from 16.68 at 54 DAFB to 39.19 at 140[56].
Harvesting
On account of the common problem of splitting, most varieties
are harvested before fully ripen. Mature fruits become slightly yellowish
and further pink to red. On tapping, the fruits give sound and when pressed
they give a crunch sound. The fruits are harvested with the help of secateurs.
The period of harvested time is November to March in Mrig bahar, June to
August in Ambe bahar and February to May in Hast bahar.
Q. Grape
Worldwide, grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is widely cultivated for its
delicious and nutritive berries. It holds a unique position among the fruits
and grown in large scale. The grape berry is a non-climacteric fruit with a
low rate of post-harvest physiological activity. Grapes must be harvested
when they have reached optimum levels of colour development and of
important solutes such as sugars and acids. The main maturity index is the
sugar content, determined as the percentage of total soluble solids (TSS).
Minimum TSS levels are given as 13°Brix for all other seeded varieties,
and 14°Brix for all seedless varieties [57]. According to the AGMARK, the
TSS of berry should be 160B and sugar acid ratio of 20:1 and this has to be
complied or export and domestic market. Physical appearance takes the
major role for maturity index, under which bunch and berry size with
uniform colour development is a reliable index of ripening in coloured
varieties. In white grape varieties, uniform green colour is considered in
the export market [58].
The quality dried products of grape depends upon the harvesting
time. This is determined by size of berry, uniformity of berry colour, texture
of the skin and pulp, chemical composition and presence of decay and
foreign matter [59]. The timing of wine grape harvest is very critical. Too
early harvested grapes are too acid and too late may lack of acidity or
744

suffer reduced yields from biotic and abiotic stresses. The berries must
contain the correct balance of flavour and aromatic compounds. The typical
maturation levels of sugars should lie between 16% and 24% and acid
between 0.6% and 1% [60].
Harvesting
To reduce dust contamination, irrigation is usually withheld
between vines before harvesting. The harvester is trained to select
appropriate bunches as per maturity indices described above. Grapes for
drying purpose are usually harvested by hand-picked. Generally, mechanical
harvesting causes too much damage of berry but the canes can be pruned
mechanically with the bunch still attached and hung to dry on the vine [61].
R. Phalsa
The fruit is non-climacteric in nature and very short shelf life.
Fruit yield is unstable and non-uniform ripening are the major bottlenecks
in cultivation of phalsa. Fruit is a globose drupe, 1.8-2.2 cm in diameter,
indistinctly lobed, red or purple, finely warty and with stellate hairs; flesh
soft, fibrous, greenish- white stained with purplish-red, tasting pleasantly
acid. Generally fruits are harvested on the basis of changing of colour.
Fruits require 50-60 days for maturity to fruit set [62].
Harvesting
The fruit should be harvested in the morning hours and pick up by
hand. The harvesting of fruits are very time consuming and can create
labour scarce because it harvest in every 2-3 days interval. For uniform
ripening, pre-harvest spray of ethaphon 500ppm during colour changes of
fruits. The annual yield is 3-5 kg per plant or 4.5-6 t/ha [63].
S. Aonla
Aonla (Emblica officinalis), popularly known as the Indian
gooseberry, it is minor subtropical fruit and grows widely along the hill
sides and sub mountainous areas of North India. Aonla is also one of the
oldest fruit of India and considered as “Wonder fruit for health” because
of its unique nutritious qualities. It is a rich source of Vitamin C and its
content of ascorbic acid is next to only that of Barbados cherry [64].
The maturity indices of aonla viz., number of days from fruit set,
appearance, size, shape, colour, texture specific gravity, soluble solids etc.,
are used for determining the maturity of fruits. Fully developed fruits are
harvested. Delay in harvesting time results in heavy fruit drop. Delay
 745

harvesting time also delay the next bearing season. Colour change of seed
from creamy-white to brown is a basic indicator of maturity. Specific gravity
of fruits varied due to maturity levels among different cultivars, which
maintained always more than 1.0 (sinker) throughout growth period. Quality
in terms of TSS, acidity, vitamin-C and tannin contents varied significantly
due to cultivars and stages of harvest. The TSS content increased invariably
up to 3rd stage and decreased gradually till final harvest. The TSS, acidity
and vit-C range should be 8-9.50 Brix, 1.15-1.545/100gm and 300-400
respectively on maturity [65]. Killadi et al., [66] found that the TSS of variety
Krishna was 9.45%, NA-10 (9.10%), and the acidity of Chakaiya variety
was 1.28% and NA-10 (1.65%) at the time of maturity of fruits. The fruit
takes about 8 months from flowering to fruit maturity.
Harvesting
Mature fruits are generally hard with the stalk and they do not fall
by gentle touch, therefore vigorous shaking is required for harvesting of
fruits. Fruits are also harvested by bamboo poles attached with hooks.
T. Avocado
Avocado fruit (Persia Americana Miller) is one of the major
economically important subtropical fruit crops. The fruit does not give
obvious indication of maturity as it does not ripen as long as it remains
attached to a tree. Harvesting avocado fruit at full physiological maturity,
a stage at which it will continue normal development plays a vital role in
the postharvest physiological processes and the successful postharvest
management of the fruit. Harvesting immature avocado fruit can result in
economic losses due to poor fruit quality once the fruit has ripened.
Symptoms of poor quality resulting from harvesting immature avocado
fruit include shrivelling, rubbery texture, stringy vascular tissue, insipid
flavour and increased rots [67, 68, 69].
Common maturity parameters used in various avocado fruit
industries include mesocarp oil content, moisture content (MC) and dry
matter (DM) [70,71]. Determination of total soluble solids (TSS) is a quicker
and less expensive maturity parameter to measure compared to oil content
and dry matter. The oil content of avocado fruit increases after fruit set
[72]
.In most countries, the use of the percentage of dry matter as a maturity
indicator for avocado is widely accepted and minimum values have been
established as a legal standard for each cultivar. The dry matter minimum
requirement varies from 19 to 25%, depending on the cultivar (19.0% for
Fuerte, 20.8% for Hass and 24.2% for Gwen) and the country (21% for
746

Australia, 21.6-22.8% for USA and 23.0% for Mexico, South America
and South Africa for ‘Hass’ avocado) [73]. Hailu [74] reported at Ethiopia
that the dry matter of Hass and Fuerte cultivar were 22.827% and 22.7.0 %
and oil content 11.43% and 14.53%.
Advancement in science and technology has launched several non-
destructive methods of analysing biological and chemical components of
agricultural products [75]. Some of these technologies include magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) and NIRS. The former is an application of NMR
and is an analytical tool used for chemical analysis. Several authors have
recorded successes in using NIRS and MRI to determine DM and thereby
avocado fruit maturity [74]. Such technology can be used to quantify the oil,
sugar and protein concentration of a given commodity, thereby increasing
profitability as a result of production expansion [76].
Harvesting
Avocados should be harvested with sharp clippers by severing the
stem slightly above the fruit shoulder. Fruits should never be pulled off the
tree since the stem needs to remain attached. The stem length should be 1
cm (0.4 in) or less, in order to avoid puncture damage of adjacent fruit in
the harvest container. Avocados should be harvested carefully as even small
cuts, scratches and abrasions can spoil the appearance of the fruit and lead
to decay. Hand gloves should be use to reduces the likelihood of skin damage
during harvest. Harvesting of fruit by standing or climbing, a picking pole
can be used to harvest the fruit. A cutting device is put at the end of the
pole, with a catching bag below. The bag should be made from a soft fabric
to prevent damage to the fruit.
U. Jamun
Jamun (Syzygium cumini), a potentially indigenous important minor
commercial fruit crop to South East Asia and India, but also reported in
Hawaii, Australia, Phillipines, Kenya, Florida etc. Jamun is available in
May-June and its harvesting time is short for 30-40 days. It is non-
climacteric fruit so it harvested after ripening of fruit. Fruits are immediately
harvested when they change green to dark purple colour because they are
not retained on the tree. The fruits are picked by hand and care should be
taken to avoid to all possible damages. The fruits are harvested on daily
basis and sell to the market on same day. The seedling tree can give yield
90-100kg/plant and grafted plant 70-80kg/plant.
 747

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