Chemosphere 267 (2021) 129205

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Chemosphere
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemosphere

Review

Soil heavy metal pollution and food safety in China: Effects, sources
and removing technology
Guowei Qin a, 1, Zhaodong Niu b, 1, Jiangdong Yu c, d, *, Zhuohan Li d, Jiaoyang Ma e,
Ping Xiang e, **
a
Faculty of Management and Economics, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, 650093, PR China
b
State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (MOE), School of Environmental Science and
Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, PR China
c
Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, 650500, PR China
d
Development Research Center of Yunnan Provincial People’s Government, Kunming, 650021, PR China
e
Institute of Environmental Remediation and Human Health, School of Ecology and Environment, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, 650224, PR
China

h i g h l i g h t s

The current status of agricultural soil pollution by heavy metals in China was comprehensively introduced.

The sources of heavy metal pollution in soil were analysed.

Remediation technologies for soil, including soil amendments, phytoremediation and foliar sprays were reviewed.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Soil plays a fundamental role in food safety and the adverse effects of contaminants like heavy metal
Received 20 October 2020 (loid)s on crop quality have threatened human health. Therefore, it is important to focus on the food
Received in revised form safety and agricultural soil pollution by heavy metals, especially for China where the demand for food
29 November 2020
production is increasing. This review comprehensively introduced the current status of agricultural soil
Accepted 1 December 2020
Available online 8 December 2020
pollution by heavy metals in China, analyzed the main sources of contaminants, including the applica-
tions of pesticides and fertilizers, atmospheric deposition related to vehicle emissions and coal com-
Handling Editor: Y Yeomin Yoon bustion, sewage irrigation and mining. Food safety and agricultural soil pollution by heavy metals, the
removal technologies for soil remediation such as soil amendments, phytoremediation and foliar sprays
Keywords: were also introduced. The review can provide significant insights for policymakers, environmental en-
Agricultural soil gineers, and agro-technicians regarding soil contamination control and management strategies and
Heavy metals technologies.
Food safety © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Soil remediation
Phytoextraction

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Current status of agricultural soil pollution by heavy metals in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Food safety and agricultural soil pollution by heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1. Heavy metals affect plant growth and yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2. Health risks in animals and human caused by heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

* Corresponding author. Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, 650500, PR China.
** Corresponding author. Institute of Environmental Remediation and Human Health, School of Ecology and Environment, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, 650224,
PR China.
E-mail addresses: chenql2005@126.com (J. Yu), xiangping@swfu.edu.cn (P. Xiang).
1
These authors contributed equally.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129205
0045-6535/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G. Qin, Z. Niu, J. Yu et al. Chemosphere 267 (2021) 129205

4. Sources of soil heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

5. Heavy metal remediation technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.1. Soil amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.2. Phytoremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.3. Foliar sprays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6. Conclusion and recommendations for future soil/land use policy-making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1. Introduction As everyone knows that China has only 7% of the land to feed
successfully 22% of the world’s population. If China’s agricultural
Farmland soil heavy metal contamination poses a worrisome soil is massively polluted by heavy metals, food security in China
threat to agricultural productivity, food safety, and human health will be undoubtedly under greater threat. And thus, it is very
since metal (loid)s are not biodegradable and only can be trans- important that food security related to natural resources such as
ferred from one chemical state to another, and metals are highly soil has to be given a high priority on national political agendas (Lu
persistent in the soil (Naila et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020d; Sun et al., et al., 2015). In this paper, we presented an overview of the current
2020). Given that, it is very difficult to recover soil environment if status of heavy metals in soils across China, introduced the harmful
the soil is polluted by heavy metals. Heavy metals in the soil would effects of heavy metals on food safety and plant growth as well as
affect plant growth and yield. Metals such as thallium (Tl), chro- the main sources of soil heavy metals. Finally, the mitigation
mium (Cr), mercury (Hg), silver (Ag), lead (Pb), uranium (U), and measures and removal technologies of heavy metals such as soil
cadmium (Cd) are toxic to most of plants and other organisms at amendments, phytoremediation and foliar sprays were reviewed.
higher concentrations. Besides the health risks in crops, accumu- In the conclusion, we propose that apart from the application of
lating evidence found that many human diseases are associated engineering technological means, effective enforcement of envi-
with heavy metals exposure (Wang et al., 2020). For example, high ronmental protection law and public policies are also required. This
levels of copper (Cu) exposure led to brain and kidney damage, liver paper could provide significant insights for policymakers, envi-
cirrhosis and intestinal irritation; Cd is a cause of human emphy- ronmental engineers, and agrotechnicians regarding contamina-
sema, end-stage renal failures, osteoporosis and cancers. The Pb tion prevention measures and technologies.
exposure resulted in changes of neurologic system, leading to loss
of neurological function (Chen et al., 2018a; Huang et al., 2018; 2. Current status of agricultural soil pollution by heavy
Hamid et al., 2019). Therefore, human health would be threatened, metals in China
once the heavy metals enter the body through the food chain. That
is human health risks are associated with heavy metals polluted Soil pollution is a serious problem in many countries including
food in heavy metals contaminated soils. More details about the China (Teng et al., 2010). The State Environment Protect Agency
food safety and agricultural soil pollution by heavy metals will be (SEPA) of China (2006) soil pollution assessment concluded that:
introduced in section 3. China faces “serious” soil pollution that jeopardizes the ecology,
Environmental contamination by heavy metals has elevated food safety, people’s health and the sustainable development of
since 1900 (Nriagu and Jerome, 1979). From then on, more and agriculture. It is estimated that nationwide 12 million tons of grain
more metals are released into the environment with rapid urban- are polluted each year by heavy metals that have found their way
ization and industrialization. Heavy metals contents in soils have into soil. It is reported that ~10 million hectares of arable land in
frequently been found to exceed their standard values in the China have been polluted. In 2014, the Ministry of Environmental
worldwide, even though not all heavy metals come from anthro- Protection (MEP) and the Ministry of Land and Resources (MLR) of
pogenic sources, their background concentrations vary broadly (Da China issued a joint report on the current status of soil contami-
Silva et al., 2020). It is also worth to note is that the standard values nation in China, the nationwide surveys of soil were conducted
vary from country to country. Jennings (2013) pointed out that it is between 2005 and 2013, covering more than 70% of China’s land
common for regulatory guidance values to vary by 5e7 orders of area (Zhao et al., 2015). The survey reported that 16% of soil samples
magnitude. Several sources of heavy metals include the combus- and 19% of agricultural soil was contaminated with inorganic and
tion of coal, petrol, mining, fertilizers, smelting, and pesticides, (or) organic contaminants (exceeding the environmental quality
which are adding heavy metals to the environment as shown in standard set by the MEP). Of the soils considered to be polluted,
section 4. It is beyond doubt that reducing the sources of heavy 82.4% of contamination was due to metals and metalloids and the
metals is an effective strategy for improving soil and food security rest (17.6%) was due to organic contaminants, the point exceeding
and safety. There are many remediation techniques are being used rates of Cd, Hg, As, Cu, Pb, Cr, Zinc (Zn), Nickel (Ni) inorganic pol-
to remove heavy metals and metalloids from soils. Taking phytor- lutants respectively are 7.0, 1.6, 2.7, 2.1, 1.5, 1.1, 0.9 and 4.8% ac-
emediation as an example, Naila et al. (2019) discussed the metal- cording to the bulletin issued by MEP and MLR in 2014.
accumulating plants, mechanism of metal accumulation, In addition to the official survey data as mentioned above, many
enhancement of metal accumulation, potential commercial appli- researchers also focus on the heavy metal accumulation in agri-
cations, research trends, and research progress to enhance the cultural soils across China. Ma and their coworkers conducted the
metal accumulation, benefits, and limitations of metal accumula- first national-scale assessment of Cd, Pb and Cu contamination in
tors. In addition, other amendments such as biochar, chemical agricultural soils across China based on thousands of published
agents, lime, sepiolite, biogas solid residues, iron-silicon material, papers (Shi et al., 2019a, 2019b; Li et al., 2020c). For the ecological
foliar sprays are also been employed to reduce metals movement in and health risks of Cu concentrations of agricultural soils covering
the soil-food chain, which will be discussed in section 5. 1731 sites in China (1985e2016), the sampling site results showed
2
G. Qin, Z. Niu, J. Yu et al.
that the Cu concentrations exceeded the screening value
(50.00 mg/kg, GB15618-2018), accounting for 21.02% (Li et al.,
2020c). For the Cd concentration, a small part of sampling sites
with Cd concentration surpassed the screening value (0.6 mg/kg,
GB15618-2018) and the control value (4.0 mg/kg, GB15618-2018),
respectively. But the median Cd concentrations were higher than
the national background soil value in China (0.097 mg/kg) and the
soil Cd concentrations in South China, such as the Yunnan-Guizhou
Plateau, and the southern part of the Yangtze River were higher
than other regions (Shi et al., 2019b). For the Pb concentration, the
mean Pb concentrations in agricultural soil showed a slow but
increasing trend after 2000. Pb concentrations peaked (90.58 mg/
kg) during the period 2006e2010 and except for South China, the
mean Pb concentrations were lower than the risk control value
(500 mg/kg) and the risk screening value (90 mg/kg) of the soil
environmental quality standard for China (GB15618-2018) (Shi
et al., 2019a). However, it is noteworthy that Pb concentrations in
some sites did exceed the risk control value (500 mg/kg) in East,
South, and West China. For example, Li et al. (2011) found that the
soil located 4 km from a smelter was severely contaminated, with
maximum concentrations of Pb as high as 1200 mg/kg in vegetable
plots and paddy fields, in Hunan Province, South China.
Huang et al. (2019) also analyzed the current status of agricul-
tural soil pollution by heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, As, Cu, Zn and
Ni) in China based on meta-analysis of reviewed data. Their results
showed that the levels of Cd and Hg were increased compared to
background values, while, other six elements showed no significant
accumulation in normal farmlands and that heavy metal contents
were generally higher in southwest and south coastal areas but
lower in northwest regions, whereas higher contents of Cd, Hg, Pb,
Cu, Zn were observed in paddy and vegetable than upland and
other land use. Lu et al. (2009) estimated that the Cd concentration
in Chinese agricultural soils has been increasing at an average rate
of 0.004 mg/kg/year. Zhang et al. (2015b) collected 465 published
papers on heavy metal pollution rates in farmland soil throughout
China to study the impact of soil heavy metal pollution on food
safety and their results showed that Cd had the highest pollution
rate of 7.75%, followed by Hg, Cu, Ni and Zn, Pb and Cr had the
lowest pollution rates at lower than 1% and about 10.18% arable soil
was polluted by heavy metals in total. In addition, Shifaw (2018)
concluded that at the national level, soil pollution was more
widespread in southern China than in the north and west and about
53% of the provinces were in the category of moderate and heavy
pollution levels, based on the integrated pollution index.
Moreover, He et al. (2019) presented a long-term monitoring
result of heavy metal contamination in the soil-rice grain system in
typical e-waste dismantling region by collecting 169 paired paddy
rice grain and corresponding soil samples. Their results exhibited
that moderate contaminations of Cd, Cu, Zn and Ni were observed
in soil currently. Furthermore, 20.7% of rice grain samples exceeded
the Cd threshold value. Lian et al. (2019) investigated the human
health risk of four heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Hg, and Zn) based on 411
soil samples and 59 crop samples in the watershed of Xi River,
Liaoning Province, northeast China. Among them, the Cd was the
primary pollutant that posed a hidden health risk. Their results
suggested that the soil around this area is unsuitable for agricul-
tural production activities, and more powerful countermeasures
should be considered to reduce heavy metal pollution. Yang et al.
(2019) compiled a database of heavy metal concentrations in Chi-
nese agriculture soils and selected six heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Ni,
Pb, Zn) for pollution assessment and risk screening, their results
indicated that the concentrations of Cd were elevated above their
reference standard and Cd had the highest mean geo-accumulation
index (Igeo) of 1.79. Moreover, the hazard index (HI, an indicator to
assess the cumulative non-cancer risks of multiple heavy metals)
3
Chemosphere 267 (2021) 129205
through exposure to six heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn) was
0.185 and 0.0287 for children and adults, respectively, with 2.2% of
non-cancer risks for children that exceeded the guideline value of 1.
In brief, many papers published indicate that there is little doubt
that soil contamination in China is becoming a threat to sustainable
development (Zhao et al., 2015). However, it is gratifying that the
discharge of some heavy metals has been decreasing during recent
years as shown in some papers. As observed by Huang et al. (2019),
the accumulation of Cd was continuously increasing, while the
levels of Hg, Pb, and Cu showed a decreasing trend and Zn showed a
trend of rising firstly and then decreasing during the period from
2005 to 2017, as shown in Fig. 1. It is worth mentioning that China
attaches great importance to the protection of soil environment,
the State Council released the Action Plan on Prevention and
Control of Soil Pollutiondd10 chapters with 231 detailed mea-
sures dealing with monitoring, pollution prevention and remedia-
tion to be used in drafting laws and regulations and it is expected
that 95 percent of contaminated farmland be made safe by 2030
(Chen et al., 2018b).
3. Food safety and agricultural soil pollution by heavy metals
Food security is a high-priority issue for sustainable global
development both quantitatively and qualitatively (Rai et al., 2019).
In recent decades, the adverse effects of unexpected contaminants
on crop quality have threatened both food security and human
health.
3.1. Heavy metals affect plant growth and yield
Evidence of food quality issues resulting from environmental
contamination is now widespread, and the frequent reports of food
contamination have caused great public concern over food safety in
China (Gale and Hu, 2011). For example, several market basket
surveys have shown mean Cd concentrations of 0.05e0.12 mg/kg in
rice samples across the country, with 2.2e10% of the surveyed rice
samples exceeding the maximum permissible level of Cd in rice
(0.2 mg/kg) according to the Chinese Ministry of Health (Wang
et al., 2019b). A survey of rice grain from a county located in the
Xiangjiang river basin in Hunan province, one of the most impor-
tant rice growing areas in Central South China, also showed that
60% of the samples exceed the 0.2 mg Cd/kg limit, and 11% contain
>1.0 mg Cd/kg (Du et al., 2013).
Several studies examined the heavy metals toxicity on rice at
multiple levels including molecular, cellular, and tissue (Xu et al.,
2020). Heavy metals and metalloids adversely affected soil organ-
isms through microbial processes and soil-microbe interactions
(Gall et al., 2015). Toxic heavy metals are also considered to be
phytotoxic agents for plants and disrupted plant morphology and
physiological processes, such as reduced growth rate, stomatal
movement and nutrient imbalance, and inhibition of photosyn-
thesis. Heavy metals negatively changed various physiological and
biochemical processes in plants, which may cause damage to cell
membranes and the destruction of biomolecules and organelles via
increased ROS (reactive oxygen species) production in plants (Rai
et al., 2019). For example, Arsenic (As) was reported to cause
stress in rice seedlings by reducing the root length, and shoot
length (Upadhyay et al., 2016). Parmar et al. (2013) observed that Cd
reduced the photosynthetic rate, obstructed the synthesis of chlo-
rophyll molecule by interference with daminolevulinic acid dehy-
dratase. Srivastava et al. (2014) worked on the interactive effects of
Cd and Pb in rice seedlings and observed that Pb caused more
damage in guard cell shape in leaf stomata than Cd. Both Cd/Pb
could lead to dysfunction of stomata by causing ultra-structural
damage in guard cells of stomata at a toxic level. Lin et al. (2013)
G. Qin, Z. Niu, J. Yu et al.
Fig. 1. The temporal variation of heavy metal accumulation in agricultural soils (black star represents background value for each element) (Huang et al., 2019).
revealed that Cu and Cd exposures regulated transcription of 1450
and 1172 genes, respectively. And Cu altered the genes related to
vesicle trafficking transport and fatty acid metabolism as well as in
cellular component biogenesis, whereas Cd regulated the genes
responsive to unfolded protein binding and sulfate assimilation.
3.2. Health risks in animals and human caused by heavy metals
The excessive heavy metals and metalloids in the soils have
become one of the primary environmental issues of concern
worldwide, due to the heavy metals that can be transferred to
plants, and causing phytotoxicity to threaten human health
4
Chemosphere 267 (2021) 129205
through the food chain (Corguinha et al., 2015). Among them, Cd,
Pb, As, Hg are considered unnecessary for metabolism and other
biological functions. Therefore, they have been listed in the top 20
hazardous substances by the United States Environmental Protec-
tion Agency and the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry (ATSDR) (Khalid et al., 2017; Rai et al., 2019). If heavy
metals in plants enter the food chain, it will pose potential health
risks to downstream animals and humans due to heavy metals
induced serious damage, even at very low concentrations (De
Oliveira et al., 2018). For example, Cd is a one of well-known
mutagenic and carcinogenic heavy metals, can interfere with cal-
cium (Ca) metabolism in the body, cause hypercalciuria, and even
G. Qin, Z. Niu, J. Yu et al.
kidney failure and severe anemia. Pb toxicity can not only make
diseases of kidney failure and cardiovascular disease but also affect
children’s development, such as reduced intelligence, loss of short-
term memory, coordination problems, and decreased learning
ability. Cr and As are responsive to severe hair fall. On the other
hand, although Cu, Zn, and Ni are relatively low-toxic heavy metals,
excessive concentrations may yet pose a serious health threat, such
as brain and kidney damage, fatigue and dizziness, and lung cancer.
Genchi et al. (2017) reported an overview of Hg toxicity and
pointed out that long-term exposure, even at low concentrations,
could cause a series of health problems, such as cardiovascular,
reproductive, and developmental toxicity, neurotoxicity, nephro-
toxicity, immunotoxicity, and carcinogenicity. In addition, another
evidence suggested that Hg exposure may disrupted heart rate
variability, especially for early childhood exposure (Tsuji et al.,
2018; Chen et al., 2020). Children’s developing brain is extremely
susceptible to factors such as heavy metals in the environment, and
even relatively small amounts of Pb and Cd in children’s blood may
cause triggered intellectual developmental disorders (Szkup-
Jabon
ska et al., 2012). The blood Pb levels in children are posi-
tively correlated with the probability of their hyperactivity and
impulsive behavior in daily life.
Because most heavy metals in soil can accumulate in crops and
then transferred to humans through the food chain, many
soileplant transfer indices are used to evaluate the environmental
safety risks of heavy metals in soil (Rai et al., 2019). Among which,
the bio-concentration factor (BCF, defined as Concentration in
crops/Concentration in soil) and bioavailability (which is uesd to
evaluate the rate and amount of toxic substances that may occur in
the body) are essential parameters for the soileplant transfer of
hazardous contaminants such as heavy metals. Several studies have
demonstrated that the highest BCF values were found in leafy
vegetables, followed by tuberous ones, whereas the lowest values
are found in horticulture crops and fruits. For example, the BCF of
several heavy metals in the cropesoil interface, particularly in
major global staple crops such as wheat and corn, has been docu-
mented by Wang et al. (2017). Potential ecological risk index (RI) is
another parameter which reflects the sum of the risk factors for all
hazardous heavy metals in a soil sample and the biotic responses, RI
can be low (<50), moderate (50e100), considerable (100e200), and
intense/high (>200) (Chabukdhara et al., 2015). Moreover, Zhong
et al. (2018) evaluated the potential health risks of heavy metal in
vegetables to public health in Chin, they employed a HI approach to
assess non-carcinogenic health risk, based on data from 220 pub-
lished papers between 2007 and 2016. Their results revealed that
the average concentrations of heavy metals (i.e., Pb, Cd, and Hg) in
the vegetables involved was lower than the specified maximum
value, respectively. However, the potential risk of these heavy
metals in vegetables still exists, especially in Guizhou, Yunnan,
Guangxi, Hunan, Guangdong, Hubei provinces in southern China,
and Liaoning province in northeast China.
4. Sources of soil heavy metals
The pollution of heavy metals to the environment mainly comes
from the burning of fossil fuels, municipal waste, sewage, pesti-
cides, metal mines, smelting and mining smelting, etc. (Naila et al.,
2019). The wastewater generated by the above process pollutes
rivers, groundwater, and soil (Gao et al., 2019). Cd mainly comes
from human production activities (such as mining, smelting,
sewage irrigation, and fertilization). Among them, there is a linear
correlation between the amounts of fertilizer application and the
Cd concentrations in the soil, which indicates that the application
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and compound fertilizers are
5
Chemosphere 267 (2021) 129205
important contributors to Cd in the soils. According to the data from
the website of the National Bureau of Statistics of China, the Cd
concentrations in agricultural soils were significantly correlated
with the amount of fertilizer application (P < 0.05) (Shi et al.,
2019b).
The applications of pesticides and fertilizers are also important
pathways to promote the accumulation of Cu in the soils. According
to the usage data of fertilizers (organic and chemical) and pesticides
(fungicides) collected on the website of the National Bureau of
Statistics of China, it can be seen that the Cu concentrations in the
agricultural soils are significantly related to the amounts of fertil-
izers and pesticides applied (R > 0.5) (Li et al., 2020c). The Cu in the
fungicides mainly exists in the forms of Cu trichlorophenol, CueZn
mixtures, and Cu sulfate. Long-term application of Cu-containing
reagents could lead to Cu accumulation in the soils, generating
the deterioration of plant growth, and chlorosis. Mining is one of
the predominant sources of heavy metal pollution in farmland soil.
It not only affects the increasing agricultural products but may also
cause some harm to the human body. For example, Zhang et al.
(2019) summarized the influence of mineral extraction on the
concentration of heavy metals in the surrounding farmland soil.
The results showed that the levels of heavy metals in the soil
around the mining regions was significantly higher than the
background value, mainly due to the high content of heavy metals
in ores and tailings.
Sewage irrigation is the major source of heavy metal contami-
nation of crops and there are 39 sewage irrigation areas (totally 55
surveyed) that had soil pollution according to the First National
Survey of Soil Pollution in 2005e2013 in China (Zhang et al., 2015a).
Wang et al. (2013) found that long-term Tl-containing wastewater
irrigation resulted in Tl contamination of arable soils and crops in
western Guangdong province, China. Hu et al. (2019) believed that
the sources of the metals in agricultural soils were mainly sewage
irrigation in Beijing and Zhengzhou. Han et al. (2018) also conclude
that industrial wastewater discharge was possibly one of the main
anthropogenic sources of heavy metal (Pb) in China’s Pearl River
Basin and Yellow River Basin sediments.
In addition, atmospheric particulate matter deposition is one of
the main sources of heavy metal pollutants in the environment,
threatening food safety and human health. Peng et al. (2020)
analyzed the sources of heavy metal in soil and maize in North-
east China based on a simple binary model. The results explained
that the contribution rate of vehicle emissions and coal combustion
to Pb in atmospheric dust is 78.1% and 21.9%, respectively. There-
fore, the accumulation of Pb in maize plants may mainly come from
atmospheric deposition related to vehicle emissions. Schro €der et al.
(2010) also stated that atmospheric deposition was an important
pathway through which Pb accumulates in soils. Zhang et al.
(2015b) believed that human activities such as mining, smelting,
industry, sewage irrigation, urban development, and fertilization,
released a certain amount of heavy metals into the soil, causing
pollution of farmland soil. The total soil pollution rate of farmland
in China is 10.18%, mainly derived from Cd, Hg, Cu, and Ni. For grain
production, the impact of farmland soil heavy metal pollution on
food production accounts for about 13.86%. Coal mining also led to
more than 10% pollution by Cu and Cr, about 7% pollution by Pb and
Zn, and a little contribution by As and Ni (i.e., 1.03 and 1.45%,
respectively). The results of the linear relationship between soil
heavy metal concentration and the pollution rates indicate that the
correlation between them might share common origins. Particu-
larly, Cu had higher than 0.5 correlation coefficients with Pb, Zn, Cd,
and As, while Pb had high correlation coefficients (>0.5%) with Cu,
Zn, and As; the pollution rate of Zn showed high close relationship
to the other 7 heavy metals; Cd had higher correlation coefficients
G. Qin, Z. Niu, J. Yu et al.
with Cu, Zn, and As higher than 0.5; As had high correlation with
Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd and Cr; Cr showed high correlation only with Zn and
Pb; Hg only had high correlation with Zn and Cu; Ni had high
correlation coefficients with Zn, Cd, and As (Zhang et al., 2015b).
It is interesting that, the application of organic fertilizers could
also lead the accumulation of some heavy metals. Liu et al. (2020c)
analyzed the impact of the organic fertilizers from livestock and
poultry manure on heavy metals accumulation in farmland soils in
China. The results showed that the concentration of Zn and Cu and
the exceeding rate of Zn, Cu, Cd, and As were much higher than
other heavy metals, especially in pig manure. Matte et al. (2017)
also shown that organic fertilizers (such as pig manure) is also
one of the sources of Cu pollution in the soil since most of the Cu is
excreted with pig manure (~95%).
To summarize, the sources of soil heavy metals are very
comprehensive, including the applications of pesticides and fertil-
izers, the atmospheric deposition related to vehicle emissions and
coal combustion, sewage irrigation and mining. Among which, the
applications of pesticides and fertilizers is more general, there is a
strong linear relationship between some heavy metal concentra-
tions and pesticides and fertilizers application, to which we should
pay more attention.
5. Heavy metal remediation technologies
China’s extensive development model in the past few decades
and the growing demand for increased food production in the
future have led to huge potential contradictions in farmland soil
heavy metal pollution and food security (Lu et al., 2015). Therefore,
how to ensure sustainable development to increase food produc-
tion becomes a challenge. Food production is a complex integrated
environmental system related to soil, air, water, and biodiversity.
Various heavy metal pollutants remain ubiquitous in the agricul-
tural soils of China (Ai et al., 2019; Zheng et al., 2020). These pol-
lutants will not only pose an adverse effect on soil properties, but
they can also enter food chains and eventually pose risks to human
health. It is thus essential to reduce and eliminate heavy metal
pollutants and lower the contamination that is already present in
the environment. Many remedial attempts, including physical,
chemical, and biological treatments, have been made to reach
environmentally sound and cost-effective remediation of contam-
inated lands (Ahmadi et al., 2017; Sarwar et al., 2017; Placek et al.,
2018).
5.1. Soil amendments
In-situ stabilization of metals provide a feasible solution to
heavy metal pollution in soil. Different soil amendments (e.g.,
organic, inorganic, and minerals) have been employed to reduce
the mobility of metals in contaminated sites (Table 1). These agents
are deployed through different mechanisms with lower metals
immobilization by attributes of precipitation, complexation,
adsorption or ion exchange, etc., thereby reducing the trans-
portation and bioavailability of heavy metals in the soil (Hamid
et al., 2019). The fixation of heavy metals in the soil can reduce
the bioavailability and harm to human exposure. Here we will
discuss the effects of different organic, inorganic, and mineral
amendments on heavy metals in contaminated soils.
As a soil amendment, biochar can reduce the environmental
risks caused by contaminated sites. Biochars are produced through
the burning of organic materials such as wood, poultry manure, and
crop residues (Hamid et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2018). The application
process of biochar in soil is simple, usually does not require further
treatment, and can increase the soil carbon contents, which is
conducive to improve the soil fertility (Xu et al., 2019). The
6
Chemosphere 267 (2021) 129205
efficiency of biochar depends on the amount of adsorbed pollutants
and the stability of the biochar-contaminant complex. Wang et al.
(2019a) studied the effects of earthworms on the immobilization
of heavy metals with biochar employing 4-week soil pot experi-
ments. In biochar treatments group, the Cd and Pb concentrations
in pakchoi shoots were reduced by 10.8e11.7% and 21.5e26.5%,
respectively. Also, the introduction of earthworms significantly
reduced the pH (0.1e0.9) of the soil, increased the concentrations of
Cd, Pb, and Zn in the soil pore water, and elevated their bioavail-
ability and the total absorption in the shoots. Similarly, Khan et al.
(2020) studied the effects of poplar wood (PWB) and sugarcane
bagasse biochar (SCBB) on the availability of heavy metals in agri-
cultural soil contaminated by mining. They found that the biochar
enhanced plant biomass and reduce the bioaccumulation of Cr and
Pb in lettuce, thereby lowering the health risks. For instance, Liu
et al. (2020b) designed comparative experiments to investigate
the effects of Cd concentration in soils on germination potential,
height, and weight of plants and observed that nano-biochar
reduced the Cd level in the soils, thereby promoting the growth
characteristics of the plants, and increased the microbial diversity
in the Cd-contaminated soils.
Previous studies have shown that composting can reduce the
mobility of heavy metals and the exchangeable metal fractions in
contaminated soil, and also as another efficient amendment for
heavy metals (Ferreyroa et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2019). Ferreyroa
et al. (2019) detected that the application of wood shavings and
yard trimmings biosolid compost can not only effectively decrease
the availability of Pb in agricultural soil but also improve the
nutritional quality of the soil by 10% compost. Lebrun et al. (2020)
discovered that the compost or biochar þ compost combination
exhibited better results in terms of Salix viminalis growth
improvement than that of iron grit amendment, mainly because
they effectively ameliorate soil characteristics and fertility, and
decreasing metal (loid) mobility and toxicity. On the contrary, the
latter increases the soil acidity, thereby increasing the phytoavail-
ability of the metal (loid) in the root system and thus impairing the
absorption of soil nutrients. More recently, Tang et al. (2020)
investigated the effects of biochar, compost, and their combina-
tions on the utilization rate, physicochemical properties, and
enzyme activities of heavy metals in the soil. They found that the
application of amendments improved the features of contaminated
soil, and reduced the availability of Cd and Zn. Compared with the
addition of amendment alone, their combined application was
more effective in improving soil pH, organic matter, organic carbon,
and available potassium.
The abundant surface functional groups and mineral phase of
sepiolite can significantly dispose of the portability of heavy metals
in contaminated soil. Bashir et al. (2020) proposed a pot experiment
to research the effects of sepiolite (1e5%) on Cd availability in
spinach tissues. The soil pH increased from 0.3 to 1.0, with the
amount of sepiolite increased. Compared with control, the Cd
content in the acid-soluble phase was reduced by 42.8%, and in the
residual phase was increased by 35.8% at a 5% rate. Besides, the Cd
adsorption by spinach shoots and roots decreased by 26.2% and
30.6% at a rate of 5%, respectively. Composite amendments con-
taining sepiolite have also reported. For example, Zhan et al. (2019)
studied the effects of sepiolite and biochar on the physicochemical
features of Cd and Pb in soils and the growth of maize, based on the
contaminated farmland around the Lanping PbeZn mine in Yunnan
Province, China. The results showed that the sepiolite and biochar
both reduce the contents and transfer coefficients of Cd in maize
plants and grains. The application of sepiolite increased the soil pH
and reduced the bioavailability of Cd (25.6e47.5%). Also, biochar
increased the available nutrient contents of farmland soils and
maize yield. Limestone can reduce the exchangeable fractions of
G. Qin, Z. Niu, J. Yu et al. Chemosphere 267 (2021) 129205

Table 1
Management of heavy metals in the soil-crop system by different soil amendments.

Amendment Metals Main conclusion Ref.

Compost of biosolid with wood shavings and Pb Pb availability decreased significantly, and the nutritional quality of the soils increased in the soils Ferreyroa
yard trimmings amended with 10% of compost. et al. (2019)
Combined amendment Pb and Cd The effect of LS on reducing Cd content in brown rice was better than that for Pb. LS was more Wu et al.
(limestone þ sepiolite, LS) suitable for the long-term remediation of Cd-polluted soil than Pb-polluted soil. (2016)
Biochar, compost and iron grit As and Pb The compost or biochar þ compost combination showed better results in terms of Salix viminalis Lebrun et al.
growth improvement, compared with the iron grit amendment. (2020)
Maize biochar Cd and Cu The addition of NT-2 loaded biochar could significantly increase the proportion of residual fraction Tu et al.
of Cd and Cu. (2020)
Corn stack integrated with graphene, and Cu The CTBC-GO/nZVI has a superior immobilization efficiency of copper than pristine biochar and Mandal et al.
nano zero-valent iron (CTBC-nZVI) GO@BC CTBC-GO/nZVI promoted the conversion of more accessible Cu into the less accessible and (2020)
bioavailable forms to reduce the toxicity of Cu.
Sludge and rice husk biochar Cd and Pb Application of earthworms into pots with biochar treatments significantly reduced soil pH by 0.1 Wang et al.
e0.19 units, increased the Cd, Pb and Zn concentrations in soil pore water, their bioavailability and (2019a)
total uptake in shoots, weaken the immobilizing effect of biochar.
Silicates Tl Adding mineral amendment to the soils can provide conditions to facilitate Tl to enter the silicate Liu et al.
crystal lattice. (2020a)
Iron-silicon material, synthetic zeolite and As and Cd Amendment with iron-silicon material was the mitigating effects of iron-silicon material on soil Yao et al.
alkaline clay acidity and on As and Cd toxicity. (2017)
Lime, biochar, Fe-biochar and composite Cd and Pb Improved the soil pH, decrease metal availability and reduce metal uptake and accumulation by Hamid et al.
amendments rice. (2020)
Amino-functionalized hydrochar (NH2 Cu, Pb and The mechanism study indicated that surface complexation, chemical chelating and cation-pi Xia et al.
eHCs) Cd interaction of NH2eHCs played a vital role in the immobilization of heavy metals. (2020)
Ferrihydrite-Humic acid (Fh-HA) Cd and Pb The Fh-HA coprecipitate could greatly enhance the stabilization of Cd and Pb. Xu et al.
coprecipitate (2020)
Sepiolite and biochar Cd and Pb Sepiolite and biochar both decrease the contents and transfer coefficients of Cd in maize plants and Zhan et al.
grains. (2019)
Phytogenic iron oxide nanoparticles (PION) Cd After PION application, the exchangeable Cd fraction decreased by up to 91 and 69%, while the Lin et al.
carbonate bound Cd fraction decreased by up to 61 and 75%, under oxic and anoxic conditions, (2019)
respectively.
Biochar and compost Cd, Zn, As, Addition of biochar, compost and their combination to heavy metal polluted soil decreased the Tang et al.
and Cu availability of Cd and Zn, but slightly activated As and Cu. (2020)
Poplar wood biochar (PWB) and sugarcane Cr and Pb Application of biochar in mineimpacted soils resulted in increased plant biomass and decreased Khan et al.
bagasse biochar (SCBB) bioaccumulation of Cr and Pb in lettuce resulting in a projected reduction in related health risks. (2020)
Biogas solid residue (BSR) from anaerobic Cr(VI) The presence of BSR decreased the bioavailability of Cr in the soil and, therefore, lowered the Song et al.
digestion potential mobilization of Cr(VI) from the soils. (2019)
Titanium gypsum (TG) Ca, Pb and The addition of TG significantly decreased the pH and dissolved organic carbon in the bulk soil, Zhai et al.
As improved the rice plants growth and reduced the bioavailability of Cd, Pb and As and reduced the (2020)
accumulation of Cd, Pb and As in brown rice.
A novel FeeSieCa rich material (IS), chicken Cd and As The precipitation/coprecipitation and specific chemisorption were proved to be more efficient in Yao et al.
manure (CM) and its biochar simultaneously lowering As and Cd phytoavailability than was organic complexation. (2019)
Sepiolite Cd The presence of surface functional groups and mineral phases on sepiolite surface showed a Bashir et al.
substantial involvement to the precipitation, complexation and adsorption of Cd in the sepiolite- (2020)
amended soil.
Thiol-modified rice straw biochar (RS) Cd and Pb Cd2þ and Pb2þ were removed mainly through surface complexation. Fan et al.
(2020)
Water treatment residual nanoparticles Hg and Cr Addition of nWTR at a rate of 0.3% to the contaminated calcareous soil significantly increased Hg Moharem
(nWTR) and Cr in the RS fraction. et al. (2019)

heavy metals in the soil. Wu et al. (2016) found that the effect of the
combined amendment (LS, limestone þ sepiolite) on reducing Cd
content in brown rice was better than that of Pb, and they regard as
the rice husk was the primary organ for heavy metal accumulation.
5.2. Phytoremediation
Using engineered metal-accumulating plants or selected plants
to eliminate or mitigate heavy metal pollution in soil or water (i.e.,
phytoremediation) is one of the emerging technologies (Naila et al.,
2019). Normally, these plants and their rhizosphere microorgan-
isms clean the environment by reducing or stabilizing environ-
mental pollutants in the environment. Phytoremediation has huge
application potential in the field of heavy metal pollution control in
the environment (Table 2). In fact, the technology includes
knowledge in multiple disciplines (e.g., agricultural engineering,
agronomy, soil science, microbiology, genetic engineering, and
plant biology). This process mainly involves the mechanisms of
heavy metal adsorption, translocation, and compartmentalization
in cellular vacuoles.
7
Phytoremediation was considered as a high efficiency, eco-
friendly, and the economic approach (Muthusaravanan et al.,
2018). It usually includes one or more of the following mecha-
nisms in combination with the actual situation of places contami-
nated by heavy metals, such as phytoaccumulation,
phytostabilization, phytodegradation, phytovolatilization, and hy-
draulic control. More recently, Cui et al. (2020) investigated the
effects of Setaria pumila, Pennisetum sinese, Sedum plumbizincicola,
and Elsholtzia splendens on the bioavailability and mobility of Cu
and Cd in contaminated soil with an assisted by limestone (0.1 wt%)
phytostabilization. They discovered that compared with the un-
treated soils, the combination of four plants with limestone
significantly increased the pH of the soil, reduced the Cu and Cd
fractions extracted by NH4OAc, and diminished the film diffusion
gradient (DGT). Choosing suitable soil amendments could effec-
tively promote the improvement of plant adsorption capacity. Lan
et al. (2020) used amendments (coconut shell biochar, organic
fertilizer, and FeeSieCa) and ramie for phytostabilization to reduce
the bioavailability of Cd and Pb in the soil. The results show that
rhizosphere immobilization and plant absorption play a key role in
G. Qin, Z. Niu, J. Yu et al. Chemosphere 267 (2021) 129205

Table 2
Management of heavy metals in the soil-crop system by phytoremediation.

Plants Metal Main conclusion Ref.

Setaria pumila, and Cu and Cd Bioavailability and mobility of Cu and Cd were the lowest in P. sinese treatments, but they were increased Cui et al.
Pennisetum sinese in S. plumbizincicola and E. splendens treatments compared with S. pumila treatments and recommend the (2020)
energy plants with high biomass as the remediation plants for phytostabilization assisted by soil
amendments in future.
Indian mustard (Brassica Zn, Cd, Pb The conjoint application of green manure and metal-solubilizing bacteria was the most efficient in Mishra et al.
juncea cv. Pusa Vijay) enhancing the Zn, Cd, and Pb uptake by Indian mustard. (2019)
Ramie Cd and Pb Phytostabilization using ramie and amendmentss (coconut shell biochar, organic fertilizer and FeeSieCa) Lan et al.
could reduce the Cd and Pb bioavailability in the soil mainly through rhizosphere immobilization and (2020)
plant absorption.
Xanthium strumarium Cd, Pb, Ni and Zn Under natural conditions, X. strumarium showed great ability to accumulate Pb, Cd and Ni metals in itsKhalid et al.
leaves. (2018)
Jatropha curcas (bioenergy Cd, Pb and Zn J. Curcas. had the best absorption capability for Cd, Cr, Ni, and Zn. Chang et al.
crop plant) (2014)
Jatropha curcas Soil taken from J. curcas. can be regarded as a hyperaccumulator plant. Martin et al.
the mine area (2020)
Italian ryegrass (Lolium Sludge soil The uptake heavy metals were enhanced, and bio-concentration factor of Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, and Pb of EDTA Li et al.
perenne L.) treated groups were 1.9, 1.6, 4.1, 2.7, and 4.8 times of the control group, respectively. (2020a)
Paulownia tomentosa and Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn Application of EDTA produced heavy metal accumulation in hybrid lines higher than those obtained with Markovska
Paulownia elongata citrate. et al. (2018)

this process.
The application of chelating agents would effectively improve
the solubility of heavy metals in the soil and enhance the efficiency
of plant enrichment (Markovska et al., 2018). Li et al. (2020a)
conducted pot experiments to investigate the effects of
Ethylenediamine-tetraacetic acid (EDTA) on the physicochemical
properties of sludge soil and Italian ryegrass growth. They found
that 1e5 mmol/kg EDTA decreased the biomass of ryegrass
(2e43%), reduced soil pH value (0.21e0.34), and the capacity of
exchange cation (4.1e9.7%), on the contrary, soil organic matter
increased by 1.4e8.6%. Compared with the control, the adsorption
capacity of heavy metals was significantly enhanced, and the bio-
concentration coefficients of Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, and Pb in the EDTA
treatment group were 1.9, 1.6, 4.1, 2.7, and 4.8 times of the control
group, respectively. On the other hand, Mishra et al. (2019) found
that the combined application of green manure and metal-
solubilizing bacteria can effectively improve the absorption of Zn,
Cd, and Pb in Indian mustard. Although EDTA can dramatically
enhance the solubility of heavy metal metals in the soil, the
biomass yield of mustard must be exceedingly reduced compared
to the combination of green manure þ metal-solubilizing bacteria.
On the other hand, it is found that the root exudates and rhizo-
bacteria activities play important roles in As solubilization and
transformation in the phytoremediation of As-contaminated soils
with Pteris vittata. The phytate in the root exudates of P. vittata may
contribute to its efficient solubilization of Fe, Ca, P and As in the
rhizosphere soils (Han et al., 2017a). Therefore, we suspect that the
roles of chelating agents and root exudates maybe similar in
improving the absorption of heavy metal (loid). This conjecture
deserves further study.
Chang et al. (2014) selected Jatropha curcas (bioenergy crops) to
assist in removing heavy metals from contaminated farmland soils.
They found that J. curcas exhibited the best uptake ability for Cd, Cr,
Ni, and Zn, which was considered to have substantial practical
value. More recently, J. curcas has also been employed to remediate
mining soil with high concentrations of Fe (31985 mg/kg) and As
(23717 mg/kg) (Martin et al., 2020). After the 90-day phytor-
emediation, the concentrations of Fe and As in the soil mixture
decreased by 29% and 44%, respectively. Khalid et al. (2018) eval-
uated the phytoremediation ability of Xantium strumarium on Cd,
Pb, Ni, and Zn in contaminated soil. Compared with the control,
high concentrations of all metals were recorded in the soil and the
leaves and roots of X. strumarium in all sites. The average
8
concentrations of Cd, Pb, Zn, and Ni in the leaves are 0.27 ± 0.01,
3.33 ± 0.16, 54.5 ± 1.02, 5.85 ± 0.11 (mg/kg), respectively, and the
corresponding concentrations in the soil are 0.25 ± 0.24,
3.38 ± 0.29, 118.7 ± 1.04, 4.89 ± 0.12 mg/kg. The results indicated
that the leaves of X. strumarium showed greater capacity for Pb, Cd,
and Ni under natural conditions. Although several potential appli-
cations have been recently proposed for the subsequent handling of
the metal-contaminated biomass, there are still environmental
risks.
Overall, compared with traditional physical and chemical
remediation technologies, bioremediation technologies (in-situ and
ex-situ) are more in line with the concept of environmental and
economic sustainable development. Although there are still prob-
lems with low remediation efficiency, as research continues, in-
depth will accelerate its pace of commercial application (Shah
and Daverey, 2020). Super-enriched plants can usually grow in
soils rich in heavy metals, and they accumulate these metals in
plant organs at high concentrations. Similarly, plants that grow in
soils with low or moderate heavy metal pollution will also accu-
mulate these metals in their organs. However, when the concen-
trations of heavy metal pollutants in the soil increase, some native
plants will cease growing or even die due to phytotoxicity, which
indicates that the plants have different levels of metal tolerance
(Naila et al., 2019).
5.3. Foliar sprays
Foliar sprays seem practical as well in safe farming of heavy
metal contaminated, and generally, they have a lower environ-
mental risk compared to soil amendment (Li, 2019). Besides, foliar
spray can also improve the growth of crops. For instance, spraying a
proper amount of Zn increased the hydraulic conductivity of the
roots and had a positive effect on pakchoi growth (Fatemi et al.,
2020). Li et al. (2020b) used field plot experiments to investigate
the effects of silicon (Si) implementation methods on grain yields
and Cd absorption, translocation, as well as accumulation in hybrid
rice (Oryza sativa L, Changliangyou 772) grains. The results showed
that foliar spraying Si mainly reduced Cd accumulation and
increased the yield of calcareous paddy soil (17.15e25.45%) via
inhibiting the translocation of Cd from stem to the brown rice. Lian
et al. (2020) found that foliar spraying of TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs)
was superior to root application in reducing Cd accumulation and
mitigating Cd-induced phytotoxicity in maize (Zea mays L.). In
G. Qin, Z. Niu, J. Yu et al.
addition, foliar contact with TiO2 NPs reduced the shoot Cd levels of
maize from 15.2 to 17.8% to reduce the Cd induced toxicity by
increasing the activity of superoxide dismutase and glutathione S-
transferase (GST) and upregulation of the metabolic pathways of
galactose metabolism and citric acid cycle. Similarly, Ogunkunle
et al. (2020) analyzed the effects of nano-TiO2 spray foliar on Cd
toxicity in cowpea plants. They found that compared with the
control the foliar, the application of nano-TiO2, not only signifi-
cantly increased the chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll contents of
plants after Cd stress, but also reduced the Cd contents in roots,
shoots, and grains (p < 0.05). Previous reports have shown that the
application of glycerin foliar fertilizer could also promote crop
growth (Tisserat et al., 2011). Besides, Yang et al. (2020) investi-
gated the effects of foliar glycerin spraying on Cd accumulation in
brown rice. They found that the filling stage was the optimal
spraying period. During this time, glycerol application (0.4e5 mM)
reduce the Cd concentration in brown rice by 28.5e60.4%, and the
transport factors (the ratio of brown rice and flag leaf/node) of Cd
were decreased by 48.5% and 27.3%, respectively, which may be
attributed to the fact that the foliar spraying of glycerol reduced Cd
transport to brown rice, separated Cd in vacuoles and inhibited the
chemical forms conversion of Cd.
Selenium (Se) is a beneficial trace element for crops growth
(Babalar et al., 2019; Ulhassan et al., 2019). The application of
appropriate doses can not only alleviate the heavy metals and
disease stresses of plants, but also increase the Se contents to
satisfy human demand for Se nutrition (Wan et al., 2016). Recently,
Wu et al. (2020) studied the effects of Se (Na2SeO4) and Zn (ZnSO4)
foliar spraying on physiology and growth parameters and Cd con-
tents in wheat plants grown in Cd-contaminated soil utilizing pot
experiment in the greenhouse. The results exhibited that Se and Zn
applications can effectively promote the growth of wheat and in-
crease the contents of Se and Zn in crops, and simultaneously
reduce the concentration of Cd in wheat plants. Compared with Zn,
Se demonstrates a higher promotion effect. Se-containing com-
posite sprays also used to alleviate the damage of heavy metals in
the soil to crops. Wang et al. (2020) found that the composite sols of
Si and Se showed the potential to decrease Cd and Pb accumulation,
reduce oxidative damage, and enhance rice photosynthesis and
organic Se enrichment at Cd and Pb combined contaminated soils.
6. Conclusion and recommendations for future soil/land use
policy-making
Cultivation of crops demands fertile soil, but unfortunately, the
excessive application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has
posed a great burden on soil with substantial accumulations of
toxic metals. Lu et al. (2015) stated that the increasing food demand
aggravated the environmental pollution and the deterioration of
ecosystem quality. they suggested that food production should be
considered as part of an environmental system and not indepen-
dent from it. How to mitigate agricultural emissions while ensuring
food security is a long-term challenge for both scientists and poli-
cymakers (Sun et al., 2017).
Soil pollution by heavy metal has become a global problem,
which urgently needs solving. In order to improve the soil quality as
well as increasing the yield of rice grains, a number of approaches
have been explored (see in section 5). For example, the addition of
soil amendments reduced the plant’s absorption and declined the
mobility and bioavailability of heavy metals in contaminated soil.
However, further investigations are required to determine whether
the amendment is a tool for the long-term remediation of multi-
metal-contaminated soils at the field scale. Moreover, soil amend-
ments application may also bring certain environmental and health
risks. The large-scale promotion of mineral ameliorants may cause
9
Chemosphere 267 (2021) 129205
permanent and irreversible changes in soil chemical composition,
especially liming and phosphate minerals. For biochar, the toxic
substances it contains may be released into the environment,
resulting in increased pollution and affecting the physicochemical
properties of the soil. Phytoremediation approaches are often less
economic in large-scale applications, and naturally occurring
super-accumulating plants usually grow slowly and produce little
biomass. Chemically assisted and microbes-assisted phytor-
emediation (Han et al., 2017a, 2017b) technologies are also
important methods to remove soil heavy metals. For presently,
foliar sprays as a simple and effective strategy can mitigate the
effects of heavy metal pollution on farmland soil, and also increase
the intake of necessary trace elements for growth. Li (2019) sug-
gested the minimal use of chemical immobilizers, particularly
liming and phosphate minerals and demonstrated that a
biotechnology-centered framework may largely simplify the field
practice of safe farming, which was more acceptable for govern-
ments and farmers. Based on the two criteria for evaluating the
candidate technology, namely, any remediation measures must
respect the nature of the soil and any technical solutions should
respect the interests of farmers. Rai et al. (2019) recommend that
rapid and accurate mapping of soil pollution is needed to prevent
the transfer of metallic contaminants into the food chain and to
formulate suitable remediation strategies.
In addition to the application of engineering technological
means, effective enforcement of environmental protection law and
public policies are also required. Zhao et al. (2015) stated that the
first step to combat heavy metal contamination in the soil-plant
systems are to identify and stop the main sources of contamina-
tion. This requires more stringent monitoring and effective
enforcement of environmental protection law, especially with re-
gard to large emission sources such as mining, smelting and other
metal consuming industries. Thompson and Darwish (2019) also
pointed out that monitor plays a vital role in food safety, it is more
important to identify contaminated sites and assess health risks to
the general population and thereafter aim to reduce or remove
exposure to contaminants. Moreover, a system of progressively
stringent food quality production standards should be established
and the government should support to establish eco labeling for
various food quality standards (Lu et al., 2015).
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Yunnan Innovative Research
Team of Environmental pollution, Food Safety and Human Health
(202005AE160017), the Yunnan Agricultural Joint Foundation
Projects (2018FG001-048), National Natural Science Foundation of
China (41967026), and the Scientific and Technological Innovation
Top Young Talents Project of National Forestry and Grassland
Administration (2020132613).
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