Theories of Second-Language Acquisition

Theories of second-language acquisition (SLA) explain how people who already know
one language learn a second language. The predominant theory of second language
acquisition was developed by the University of Southern California's Steven Krashen.
Krashen is a specialist in language development and acquisition, and his influential theory
is widely accepted in the language learning community.

Five Components of Second Language Acquisition Theory

Here are five main components of Krashen's theory.

1. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis
2. The Monitor Hypothesis

3. The Natural Order Hypothesis

4. The Input Hypothesis
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

This hypothesis actually fuses two fundamental theories of how individuals learn
languages. Krashen has concluded that there are two systems of language acquisition
that are independent but related: the acquired system and the learned system.

 The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language acquisition.

When people learn their first language by speaking the language naturally in daily
interaction with others who speak their native language, this acquired system is at
work. In this system, speakers are less concerned with the structure of their
utterances than with the act of communicating meaning. Krashen privileges the
acquired system over the learned system.
 The learned system relates to formal instruction where students engage in formal
study to acquire knowledge about the target language. For example, studying the
rules of syntax is part of the learned system.
The Monitor Hypothesis

When second language learners monitor their speech, they are applying their
understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and initiate their communication. This
action can only occur when speakers have ample time to think about the form and
structure of their sentences.

The amount of monitoring occurs on a continuum. Some language learners over-

monitor and some use very little of their learned knowledge and are said to under-monitor,
Ideally, speaker strike a balance and monitor at a level where they use their knowledge
but are not overly inhibited by it.

The Natural Order Hypothesis

This hypothesis argues that there is a natural order to the way second language
learners acquire their target language.
Example:

1. They produce single words.

2. They string words together based on meaning and not syntax.
3. They begin to identify elements that begin and end sentences.

4. They begin to identify different elements within sentences and can rearrange them to
produce questions.

The Input Hypothesis

Learners needed only to hear samples of the target language that they could
understand, but that were slightly ahead of their own current level of interlanguage
production (i+1) for acquisition to occur.
Follows the į where i represents previously acquired linguistic competence and
extra-linguistic knowledge, the hypothesis claims that we move from i to +1 by
understanding input that contains i+1. Extra linguistic knowledge includes our knowledge
of the world and of the situation, that is, the context. The +1 represents 'the next
increment' of new knowledge or language structure that will be within the learner's
capacity to acquire.
'Comprehensible input' is the crucial and necessary ingredient for the acquisition
of language.
Ex. Someone who is nearly fluent in Italian will not gain much grammatical
knowledge from a child's picture book, because it will not introduce any new grammatical
features. May be a short poemn or story.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis

This hypothesis describes external factors that can act as a filter that impedes
acquisition. These factors include motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. For example,
if a learner has very low motivation, very low self-confidence, and a high level of anxiety,
the affective filter comes into place and inhibits the learner from acquiring the new
language. Students who are motivated, confident, and relaxed about learning the target
language have much more success acquiring a second language than those who are
trying to learn with the affective filter in place.

Language and the Brain

There are several areas of the brain that play a critical role in speech and language.

The areas of the brain necessary for processing language: Broca's area,
Wernicke's area, the primary motor cortex, the posterior middle temporal gyrus, and the
middle and posterior superior temporal gyrus.

The language parts of the brain were named after two 19th Century Physicians
PAUL BROCA & CARL WERNICKE.

Broca's area

Broca's area is an important part of language formulation - even if someone has the motor
ability to form the sounds necessary for words, Broca's area is necessary to form and
express language.
Insular cortex

Buried underneath the outer lobes of the cerebral cortex, the insular cortex is important
for many functions, including motor control, emotion and self-awareness, but is also
important in the processing of language.
Angular gyrus

The angular gyrus assembles information to help us understand words and concepts.
Wernicke's area

Wernicke's area works with the angular gyrus, insular cortex and basal ganglia to process
words and word sequences to determine context and meaning.

Broca's Area
 Broca's area, located in the frontal lobe of the brain, is linked to speech production,
and recent studies have shown that it also plays a significant role in language
comprehension. Broca's area works in conjunction with working memory to allow a person
to use verbal expression and spoken words. Our ability to articulate ideas, as well as use
words accurately in spoken and written language, has been attributed to this crucial area.

Damage to Broca's area can result in productive aphasia (also known as Broca's
aphasia), or an inability to speak. Patients with Broca's can often still understand
language, but they cannot speak fluently.

Wernicke's Area

Wernicke's area, located in the cerebral cortex, is the part of the brain involved in
understanding written and spoken language. Damage to this area results in receptive
aphasia (also called Wernicke's aphasia). Wernicke's area is primarily involved in the
comprehension. Historically, this area has been associated with language processing,
whether it is written or spoken.
This type of aphasia manifests itself as a loss of comprehension, so sometimes
while the patient can apparently still speak, their language is nonsensical and
incomprehensible.

Auditory Cortex and Angular Gyrus

The primary auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobe and connected to the
auditory system, is organized so that it responds to neighboring frequencies in the other
cells of the cortex. It is responsible for identifying pitch and loudness of sounds.
The angular gyrus located in the parietal lobe of the brain allows us to associate
multiple types of language-related information whether auditory, visual or sensory. It is
located in close proximity to other critical brain regions such as the parietal lobe which
processes tactile sensation, the occipital lobe which is involved in visual analyses and the
temporal lobe which processes sounds. The angular gyrus allows us to associate a
perceived word with different images, sensations and ideas.
These regions work together as a network to process words and word sequences
to determine context and meaning. This enables our receptive language abilities, which
means the ability to understand language. Complementary to this is expressive language,
which is the ability to produce language.
To speak sensibly, you must think of words to convey an idea or message,
formulate them into a sentence according to grammatical rules and then use your lungs,
vocal cords and mouth to create sounds. Regions in your frontal, temporal and parietal
lobes formulate what you want to say and the motor cortex, in your frontal lobe, enables
you to speak the words.
Most of this language-related brain activity is likely occurring in the left side of
your brain. But some people use an even mix of both sides and, rarely, some have right
dominance for language. There is an evolutionary view that specialization of certain
functions to one side or the other may be an advantage, as many animals, especially
vertebrates, exhibit brain function with prominence on one side. I

Why the left side is favored for language isn't known but we do know that injury or
conditions such as epilepsy, if it affects the left side of the brain early in a child's
development, can increase the chances language will develop on the right side. The
chance of the person being left-handed is also increased. This makes sense, because
the left side of the body is controlled by the motor cortex on the right side of the brain.

Lateralization of Brain Function

Lateralization of brain function is the view that functions are performed by distinct regions
of the brain. For instance, it is believed that there are different areas of the brain that are
responsible for controlling language, formulating memories, and making movements.
If a certain area of the brain becomes damaged, the function associated with that area
will also be affected.
The human brain is split into two hemispheres, right and left. They are both joined together
by the corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibres which is located in the middle of the
brain.
The left hemisphere is associated with language functions, such as formulating grammar
and vocabulary, and containing different language centres (Broca's and Wernicke's area)
The right hemisphere is associated with more visuospatial functions such as
visualization, depth perception, and spatial navigation. These left and right functions are
the case in the majority of people, especially those who are right handed.
Brain Dominance

The theory is that people are either left-brained or right-brained, meaning that one side of
their brain is dominant. If you're mostly analytical and methodical in your thinking, you're
said to be left-brained. If you tend to be more creative or artistic, you're thought to be
right-brained.
This theory is based on the fact that the brain's two hemispheres function differently. This
first came to light in the 1960s, thanks to the research of psychobiologist and Nobel Prize
winner Roger W. Sperry.
The left brain is more verbal, analytical, and orderly than the right brain. It's sometimes
called the digital brain. It's better at things like reading, writing, and computations.

Different forms of aphasia?

The most common types of aphasia are Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia, which means
that the respective area of the brain is damaged. For patients suffering from Broca's
aphasia the speech production is very limited. The speech of the patients is slow,
deliberate, and effortful, while function words and grammatical endings are often missing
(Anderson et. al. 1999).
Typical for the other type Wernicke's aphasia next to the damage in Wernicke's area are
severe difficulties with speech comprehension, while the speech is still fluent, and speed
and intonation appear normal. Patients also tend to frequently use very detailed
descriptions or newly created words.
DAT - dementia of Alzheimer's type

Another cause for a language disorder is Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's is a neurological

disease from the family dementia disorders in which brain tissue and nerve endings are
dying and dissolving. This process cannot be undone and is not curable. It is a slow
gradual process from mild to severe which affects intellectual as well as physical abilities.
Also the effects on language are severe. Alzheimer's influences language processing,
language knowledge and communicative behavior in general.