The anatomy of language

Anatomy of Language

There are several areas of the brain that play a critical role in speech and
language.

 Broca’s area, located in the left hemisphere, is associated with speech

production and articulation. Our ability to articulate ideas, as well as use
words accurately in spoken and written language, has been attributed to
this crucial area.
 Wernicke’s area is a critical language area in the posterior superior
temporal lobe connects to Broca’s area via a neural pathway. Wernicke’s
area is primarily involved in the comprehension. Historically, this area
has been associated with language processing, whether it is written or
spoken.
 The angular gyrus allows us to associate multiple types of language-
related information whether auditory, visual or sensory. It is located in
close proximity to other critical brain regions such as the parietal lobe
which processes tactile sensation, the occipital lobe which is involved in
visual analyses and the temporal lobe which processes sounds. The
angular gyrus allows us to associate a perceived word with different
images, sensations and ideas.

Disorders of Speech & Language

Aphasia is the term used to describe an acquired loss of language that causes
problems with any or all of the following: speaking, listening, reading and
writing. Some people with aphasia have trouble using words and sentences
(expressive aphasia). Some have problems understanding others (receptive
aphasia). Others with aphasia struggle with both using words and understanding
(global aphasia). Aphasia can cause problems with spoken language (talking
and understanding) and written language (reading and writing). Typically,
reading and writing are more impaired than talking or understanding. The
severity of the aphasia depends on the amount and location of the damage to the
brain.

Broca’s (expressive or motor) Aphasia

Damage to a discrete part of the brain in the left frontal lobe (Broca’s area) of
the language-dominant hemisphere has been shown to significantly affect the
use of spontaneous speech and motor speech control. Words may be uttered
very slowly and poorly articulated. Speech may be labored and consist primarily
of nouns, verbs or important adjectives. Speech takes on a telegraphic character.
People suffering from Broca’s aphasia have great difficulty with repetition and
a severe impairment in writing. In some patients, however, the understanding of
spoken and written language may be relatively well-preserved. The nonfluent
variant of primary progressive aphasia (nfvPPA) is a type of expressive aphasia.

Global Aphasia
If damage encompasses both Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas, global aphasia can
occur. In this case, all aspects of speech and language are affected. Patients can
say a few words at most and understand only a few words and phrases. They
usually cannot carry out commands or name objects. They cannot read or write
or repeat words said to them.

Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA)

PPA is caused by degeneration in the parts of the brain that control speech and
language (the left, or “dominant,” side of the brain in the frontal, temporal and
parietal regions that normally control language function). This type of aphasia
begins gradually, with speech or language symptoms that reflect the normal role
for the site of initial degeneration.

Wernicke’s Aphasia
Damage to the posterior superior areas of the language dominant temporal lobe
(often called Wernicke’s area) has been shown to significantly affect speech
comprehension. In other words, information is heard through an intact auditory
cortex in the anterior temporal lobe, however, when it arrives at the posterior
association areas, the information cannot be sufficiently “translated.” In contrast
to Broca’s aphasia, the person with Wernicke’s aphasia talks volubly and
gestures freely. Speech is produced without effort, and sentences are of normal
length. However, the person’s speech is devoid of meaning.

Brain damage and language deficits:

Aphasia is a disorder where you have problems speaking or understanding what

other people say. It usually happens because of damage to part of your brain but
can also happen with conditions that disrupt how your brain works. There are
also multiple types of aphasia. The location of the damage in your brain
determines the type of aphasia you have.

This condition is almost always a symptom of another problem, such as

a stroke or traumatic brain injury. It can also happen as a temporary effect of
conditions like migraines. Aphasia is often treatable, especially when the
underlying condition is treatable or can heal on its own.

What is the difference between aphasia vs. dysarthria, dysphasia or

apraxia?

Aphasia is a condition that has a connection or an overlap with several other

speech-related disorders and problems, such as dysarthria, dysphasia and
apraxia.

 Aphasia: This is the overall term for a brain-connected problem with

language abilities, including speaking or understanding other people
speaking. Experts use this term for full or partial loss of language
abilities.
 Dysphasia (dis-fay-zh-ah): This is an outdated term for partial loss of
language abilities from a brain-related problem. Use of this term isn't
common in most places. A major part of why it fell out of use is the risk
of confusion with the term “dysphagia” (see below).
 Dysphagia (dis-fay-gee-uh): This is the medical term for a problem with
swallowing. The ability to swallow relies on specific muscles to push
food, liquid, medication, etc. down your throat. Dysphagia can happen
with brain or nerve disorders or problems with the muscles themselves.
 Dysarthria: This is when you have trouble speaking because you can’t
fully control parts of your mouth, face and upper respiratory system. This
can make you speak too loudly or softly, at uneven speeds, mispronounce
words, or have unusual changes in pitch (changing between high- or
deep-sounding voices).
 Apraxia: This is a problem where you can’t do something even though
you have learned how to do it or have done it before. An example would
be suddenly not knowing how to use a key to open a locked door, even
though you have no problem describing the action and still know how a
lock and key work. People with apraxia often have trouble saying words
correctly

How is our brain processing language?

The sentence processing differentiates three linguistic processing phases after
the initial phase of acoustic analysis. Here are the phases of sentence
processing:

 Phase 1: Local Phrase Structure

Local Phrase Structure is the first sentence-level processing phase with no
grammar restrictions and is based on word category information. Word category
information is proposed to be a guide in the build-up of sentence structures.
  Phase 2: Syntactic and Semantic Relations
The second phase involves the computation of the relations between the verb
and its arguments. This computation leads to the assignment of thematic roles
(who is doing what to whom) for the compatible interpretation. Once there is
compatible interpretation, comprehension takes place.

For example, it is easy to interpret the animate noun in a sentence (John cuts
twigs) because the person is likely the actor.

 Phase 3: Integration of Information

Phase three happens when a sentence’s semantic and syntactic information are
not easily mapped. This phase involves final consideration and integrations of
different information types, which include context or word knowledge.

The above description of the language process is only the basic process of the
brain to process language and comprehend it.

neural model of language comprehension

The neural model of language comprehension is a complex and dynamic
framework that seeks to understand how the brain processes and comprehends
language. The model involves multiple brain regions working in concert to
decode linguistic input, extract meaning, and generate appropriate responses.
Here's a simplified overview of the neural model of language comprehension:

### Key Brain Regions Involved:

1. **Broca's Area:**
- Located in the left frontal lobe, Broca's area is associated with language
production and grammatical processing. It is crucial for the formation of
grammatically correct sentences.

2. **Wernicke's Area:**
- Situated in the left temporal lobe, Wernicke's area is involved in language
comprehension and the understanding of semantics. Damage to this area can
lead to fluent but nonsensical speech.

3. **Angular Gyrus:**
 - Located in the parietal lobe, the angular gyrus plays a role in reading
comprehension and the integration of visual and auditory information during
language processing.

4. **Primary Auditory Cortex:**

- Processes auditory information, including speech sounds, and plays a
foundational role in the initial stages of language processing.

5. **Primary Visual Cortex:**

- Involved in processing written language (reading). Visual information is
transformed into linguistic representations.

6. **Arcuate Fasciculus:**
- A bundle of nerve fibers connecting Broca's area and Wernicke's area,
facilitating communication between regions involved in language production
and comprehension.

7. **Supramarginal Gyrus:**
- Located in the parietal lobe, the supramarginal gyrus contributes to
phonological processing and language-related working memory.

8. **Inferior Frontal Gyrus:**

- Plays a role in syntactic processing and language-related motor functions.

### Stages of Language Comprehension:

1. **Perception:**
- Auditory and visual stimuli (speech sounds or written words) are perceived
by the primary auditory and visual cortices.
2. **Phonological Processing:**
- The brain processes the sounds of speech, breaking down the auditory input
into phonemes. This occurs in the primary auditory cortex and related regions.

3. **Lexical and Syntactic Analysis:**

- Wernicke's area processes the meaning of words, while Broca's area is
involved in grammatical analysis and sentence formation.

4. **Semantic Integration:**
- The angular gyrus and other areas work to integrate word meanings into a
coherent overall understanding of the sentence or discourse.

5. **Working Memory:**
- Various brain regions, including the supramarginal gyrus, are involved in
holding and manipulating linguistic information in working memory during
comprehension.

6. **Motor Planning (if applicable):**

- In cases of speech production, Broca's area may also be involved in the
planning and execution of motor movements for speech.

### Connectivity and Coordination:

- **Distributed Network:**
- Language comprehension involves a distributed network of interconnected
regions working in parallel rather than a strict linear sequence.

- **Bi-Hemispheric Involvement:**
- While language processing is often left-lateralized, certain aspects, including
prosody and some semantic processing, may involve the right hemisphere.
- **Dynamic Connectivity:**
- Connectivity between brain regions dynamically changes based on the
specific demands of the language task and individual differences.

This model emphasizes the distributed and interconnected nature of the neural
networks underlying language comprehension. Advances in neuroimaging
techniques, such as fMRI and EEG, have greatly contributed to our
understanding of the neural basis of language processing. Ongoing research
continues to refine and expand our knowledge of the intricate neural
mechanisms involved in language comprehension.

neural model of speech production

The DIVA model is a neural network model of speech production. The model
was developed by Frank H. Guenther and his group at Boston University. It's
the leading approach in neurocomputational modeling of speech production.
The DIVA model accounts for a wide range of phonetic and neuroimaging
data. It explains a number of speech production phenomena, including:
 Motor equivalence
 Contextual variability
 Anticipatory and carryover coarticulation
 Velocity/distance relationships

The model learns to control the movements of a computer-simulated vocal tract

in order to produce speech sounds. It accounts for axonal projections from
speech sound map neurons in the left ventral premotor cortex and posterior
inferior frontal gyrus to higher-order auditory cortical areas.
The fundamental concept of computational neuroscience is to understand the
theoretical mechanisms of information processing in the human brain.
 Emotion:

neural systems involved in emotional processing

Emotional processing involves a complex interplay of neural systems that work
together to perceive, interpret, and respond to emotional stimuli. These regions
are interconnected and communicate through neural circuits, forming a network
that allows for the integration of sensory information, emotional experience, and
appropriate behavioral responses. Dysfunction in these neural systems can
contribute to various emotional disorders, such as anxiety, depression, and post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
The key brain regions and neural systems involved in emotional processing
include:

1. **Amygdala:**
- The amygdala is a central player in emotional processing, particularly in the
formation and storage of emotional memories.
- It is crucial for the detection of emotional stimuli, especially those associated
with fear and threat.
- The amygdala also plays a role in the modulation of other brain regions
involved in emotional responses.

2. **Prefrontal Cortex:**
- The prefrontal cortex, particularly the ventromedial prefrontal cortex
(vmPFC), is involved in regulating and controlling emotional responses.
- It plays a role in decision-making, social interactions, and the expression of
appropriate emotional responses in various situations.

3. **Hippocampus:**
- The hippocampus is important for the formation of explicit or declarative
memories, including emotional memories.
- It works in concert with the amygdala and other regions to encode and
retrieve emotionally charged events.
4. **Insula:**
- The insula is implicated in the subjective experience of emotions and
interoception, which involves the awareness of bodily states associated with
emotions.
- It is involved in processing both positive and negative emotions and plays a
role in empathy.

5. **Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC):**

- The ACC is involved in monitoring and regulating emotional responses,
conflict detection, and decision-making.
- It contributes to the cognitive control of emotions and helps in adjusting
behavior based on emotional information.

6. **Hypothalamus:**
- The hypothalamus is a key player in the autonomic nervous system and
endocrine system, regulating physiological responses associated with emotions
(e.g., heart rate, hormone release).

7. **Basal Ganglia:**
- The basal ganglia are involved in the processing of reward-related emotions,
motivation, and the formation of habits and routines.

8. **Thalamus:**
- The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information, transmitting
emotional stimuli to other brain regions, including the amygdala.

The 6 Types of Basic Emotions and Their Effect on Human Behavior

Basic Emotions
During the 1970s, psychologist Paul Eckman identified six basic emotions that
he suggested were universally experienced in all human cultures. The emotions
he identified were happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, surprise, and anger. He later
expanded his list of basic emotions to include such things as pride, shame,
embarrassment, and excitement.

Combining Emotions

Psychologist Robert Plutchik put forth a "wheel of emotions" that worked

something like the color wheel. Emotions can be combined to form different
feelings, much like colors can be mixed to create other shades.

According to this theory, the more basic emotions act something like building
blocks. More complex, sometimes mixed emotions, are blendings of these more
basic ones. For example, basic emotions such as joy and trust can be combined
to create love.

Happiness

Of all the different types of emotions, happiness tends to be the one that people
strive for the most. Happiness is often defined as a pleasant emotional state that
is characterized by feelings of contentment, joy, gratification, satisfaction, and
well-being.

Research on happiness has increased significantly since the 1960s within a

number of disciplines, including the branch of psychology known as positive
psychology. This type of emotion is sometimes expressed through:

 Facial expressions: such as smiling

 Body language: such as a relaxed stance
 Tone of voice: an upbeat, pleasant way of speaking

While happiness is considered one of the basic human emotions, the things
we think will create happiness tend to be heavily influenced by culture. For
example, pop culture influences tend to emphasize that attaining certain things
such as buying a home or having a high-paying job will result in happiness.
The realities of what actually contributes to happiness are often much more
complex and more highly individualized.2 People have long believed
that happiness and health were connected, and research has supported the idea
that happiness can play a role in both physical and mental health.
Stress, anxiety, depression, and loneliness, for example, have been linked to
things such as lowered immunity, increased inflammation, and decreased life
expectancy.4
Sadness
Sadness is another type of emotion often defined as a transient emotional state
characterized by feelings of disappointment, grief, hopelessness, disinterest, and
dampened mood.
Like other emotions, sadness is something that all people experience from time
to time. In some cases, people can experience prolonged and severe periods of
sadness that can turn into depression. Sadness can be expressed in a number of
ways including:

 Crying
 Dampened mood
 Lethargy
 Quietness
 Withdrawal from others

The type and severity of sadness can vary depending upon the root cause, and
how people cope with such feelings can also differ.

Fear
Fear is a powerful emotion that can also play an important role in survival.
When you face some sort of danger and experience fear, you go through what is
known as the fight or flight response.

Your muscles become tense, your heart rate and respiration increase, and your
mind becomes more alert, priming your body to either run from the danger or
stand and fight.5

This response helps ensure that you are prepared to effectively deal with threats
in your environment. Expressions of this type of emotion can include:

 Facial expressions: such as widening the eyes and pulling back the chin
 Body language: attempts to hide or flea from the threat
 Physiological reactions: such as rapid breathing and heartbeat

Of course, not everyone experiences fear in the same way. Some people may be
more sensitive to fear and certain situations or objects may be more likely to
trigger this emotion.

Fear is the emotional response to an immediate threat. We can also develop a

similar reaction to anticipated threats or even our thoughts about potential
dangers, and this is what we generally think of as anxiety. Social anxiety, for
example, involves an anticipated fear of social situations.
Some people, on the other hand, actually seek out fear-provoking situations.
Extreme sports and other thrills can be fear-inducing, but some people seem to
thrive and even enjoy such feelings.

This is the idea behind exposure therapy, in which people are gradually exposed
to the things that frighten them in a controlled and safe manner. Eventually,
feelings of fear begin to decrease.

Disgust

Disgust is another of the original six basic emotions described by Eckman.

Disgust can be displayed in a number of ways including:

 Body language: turning away from the object of disgust

 Physical reactions: such as vomiting or retching
 Facial expressions: such as wrinkling the nose and curling the upper lip

This sense of revulsion can originate from a number of things, including an

unpleasant taste, sight, or smell. Researchers believe that this emotion evolved
as a reaction to foods that might be harmful or fatal. When people smell or taste
foods that have gone bad, for example, disgust is a typical reaction.

Poor hygiene, infection, blood, rot, and death can also trigger a disgust
response. This may be the body's way of avoiding things that may carry
transmittable diseases.

Anger

Anger can be a particularly powerful emotion characterized by feelings of

hostility, agitation, frustration, and antagonism towards others. Like fear, anger
can play a part in your body's fight or flight response.

When a threat generates feelings of anger, you may be inclined to fend off the
danger and protect yourself. Anger is often displayed through:

 Facial expressions: such as frowning or glaring

 Body language: such as taking a strong stance or turning away
 Tone of voice: such as speaking gruffly or yelling
 Physiological responses: such as sweating or turning red
 Aggressive behaviors: such as hitting, kicking, or throwing objects

While anger is often thought of as a negative emotion, it can sometimes be a

good thing. It can be constructive in helping clarify your needs in a relationship,
and it can also motivate you to take action and find solutions to things that are
bothering you.

Anger can become a problem, however, when it is excessive or expressed in

ways that are unhealthy, dangerous, or harmful to others. Uncontrolled anger
can quickly turn to aggression, abuse, or violence.

Surprise

Surprise is another one of the six basic types of human emotions originally
described by Eckman. Surprise is usually quite brief and is characterized by a
physiological startle response following something unexpected.

This type of emotion can be positive, negative, or neutral. An unpleasant

surprise, for example, might involve someone jumping out from behind a tree
and scaring you as you walk to your car at night.

An example of a pleasant surprise would be arriving home to find that your

closest friends have gathered to celebrate your birthday. Surprise is often
characterized by:

 Facial expressions: such as raising the brows, widening the eyes, and
opening the mouth
 Physical responses: such as jumping back
 Verbal reactions: such as yelling, screaming, or gasping

Surprise is another type of emotion that can trigger the fight or flight response.
When startled, people may experience a burst of adrenaline that helps prepare
the body to either fight or flee.

Types of Theories of Emotion

The major theories of emotion can be grouped into three main categories:

1. Physiological theories suggest that responses within the body are

responsible for emotions.
2. Neurological theories propose that activity within the brain leads to
emotional responses.
3. Cognitive theories argue that thoughts and other mental activities play an
essential role in forming emotions.

Evolutionary Theory of Emotion

Naturalist Charles Darwin proposed that emotions evolved because they were
adaptive and allowed humans and animals to survive and reproduce. Feelings of
love and affection lead people to seek mates and reproduce. Feelings of fear
compel people to fight or flee the source of danger.

Understanding the emotions of other people and animals also plays a crucial
role in safety and survival. If you encounter a hissing, spitting, and clawing
animal, chances are you will quickly realize that the animal is frightened or
defensive and leave it alone. Being able to interpret correctly the emotional
displays of other people and animals allows you to respond correctly and avoid
danger.

The James-Lange Theory of Emotion

The James-Lange theory is one of the best-known examples of a physiological
theory of emotion. Independently proposed by psychologist William James and
physiologist Carl Lange, the James-Lange theory of emotion suggests that
emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events.1
For example, suppose you are walking in the woods and see a grizzly bear. You
begin to tremble, and your heart begins to race. The James-Lange theory
proposes that you will conclude that you are frightened ("I am trembling.
Therefore, I am afraid"). According to this theory of emotion, you are not
trembling because you are frightened. Instead, you feel frightened because you
are trembling.
The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Another well-known physiological theory is the Cannon-Bard theory of

emotion. Walter Cannon disagreed with the James-Lange theory of emotion on
several different grounds. First, he suggested, people can experience
physiological reactions linked to emotions without actually feeling those
emotions. For example, your heart might race because you have been
exercising, not because you are afraid.2

Cannon also suggested that emotional responses occur much too quickly to be
simply products of physical states. When you encounter a danger in the
environment, you will often feel afraid before you start to experience the
physical symptoms associated with fear, such as shaking hands, rapid breathing,
and a racing heart

Cannon first proposed his theory in the 1920s, and his work was later expanded
on by physiologist Philip Bard during the 1930s.

More specifically, the theory proposes that emotions result when the thalamus
sends a message to the brain in response to a stimulus, resulting in a
physiological reaction. At the same time, the brain also receives signals
triggering the emotional experience. Cannon and Bard’s theory suggests that the
physical and psychological experience of emotion happen at the same time and
that one does not cause the other.3
Schachter-Singer Theory
Also known as the two-factor theory of emotion, the Schachter-Singer theory is
an example of a cognitive theory of emotion. This theory suggests that the
physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must identify the
reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an emotion. A stimulus leads
to a physiological response that is then cognitively interpreted and labeled,
resulting in an emotion.4

Schachter and Singer’s theory draws on both the James-Lange theory and the
Cannon-Bard theory. Like the James-Lange theory, the Schachter-Singer theory
proposes that people infer emotions based on physiological responses. The
critical factor is the situation and the cognitive interpretation that people use to
label that emotion.

Like the Cannon-Bard theory, the Schachter-Singer theory also suggests that
similar physiological responses can produce varying emotions. For example, if
you experience a racing heart and sweating palms during an important exam,
you will probably identify the emotion as anxiety. If you experience the same
physical responses on a date, you might interpret those responses as love,
affection, or arousal.4

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

According to appraisal theories of emotion, thinking must occur first before

experiencing emotion. Richard Lazarus was a pioneer in this area of emotion,
and this theory is often referred to as the Lazarus theory of emotion.

According to this theory, the sequence of events first involves a stimulus,

followed by thought, which then leads to the simultaneous experience of a
physiological response and the emotion. For example, if you encounter a bear in
the woods, you might immediately begin to think that you are in great danger.
This then leads to the emotional experience of fear and the physical reactions
associated with the fight-or-flight response.5
Facial-Feedback Theory of Emotion

The facial-feedback theory of emotions suggests that facial expressions are

connected to experiencing emotions. Charles Darwin and William James both
noted early on that, sometimes, physiological responses often have a direct
impact on emotion, rather than simply being a consequence of the emotion.
the amygdala interaction between emotion and other cognitive process

The amygdala is a key brain structure involved in the processing of emotions

and plays a crucial role in the interaction between emotion and other cognitive
processes. It is a small, almond-shaped cluster of nuclei located within the
temporal lobe of the brain.

1. **Emotion Processing:** The amygdala is particularly associated with the

processing of emotionally charged stimuli, including fear, anger, and pleasure. It
helps in the rapid detection of emotional significance in stimuli and facilitates a
quick emotional response.

2. **Memory Formation:** The amygdala is involved in the formation and

consolidation of emotional memories. It can enhance the encoding and storage
of memories associated with emotionally arousing events. This can influence
the recall of emotionally charged information in the future.

3. **Attention and Perception:** The amygdala can modulate attention and

perception, directing cognitive resources towards emotionally salient stimuli.
This prioritization of emotional information can influence what we notice and
remember in our environment.

4. **Decision-Making:** Emotional information processed by the amygdala

can impact decision-making. The emotional valence (positive or negative)
associated with a stimulus can influence choices and judgments, sometimes
leading to decisions that prioritize emotional outcomes.

5. **Social Processing:** The amygdala is involved in the processing of social

and emotional information, contributing to the understanding of others'
emotions and intentions. It plays a role in social cognition and empathy.

6. **Stress Response:** The amygdala is a key component of the brain's stress

response system. It activates the release of stress hormones, such as cortisol, in
response to perceived threats. This physiological response can have widespread
effects on cognition and behavior.

7. **Regulation of Emotional Responses:** While the amygdala is central to

the processing of emotional stimuli, other brain regions, such as the prefrontal
cortex, play a role in regulating and modulating emotional responses. There is a
dynamic interplay between the amygdala and these regulatory regions.