THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE I

Introduction
Week 1
Villa Savoye by Le Corbusier
ARCHITECTURE: NATURE AND MEANING
• The art and science of producing built form, the product and study of
this.
• Mastery of building
• According to Vitruvius, “a humanized pattern of the world, a scheme
of forms on which our life reflects its clarified image: this is its true
aesthetic, and here should be sought by laws…of that third condition
of well-building, its delight.”
Conditions of building well
• Utilitas, firmitas and venustas (commodity, firmness and delight) by
Vitruvius
Essence of architecture
• Simplicity
• Multiple styles
• Sympathy with the environment
• The “nature” of materials
• Buildings should bring people joy

Frank Lloyd Wright

Essence
• Identification of
place (to
recognize,
amplify, create
the identity of)
• Poetic and
philosophical
potential
• Architecture
as analytical
filter
 Basic Theory of
Form and shape-
1
Primary elements
Point indicates a position in space
1D

Point extended becomes a

Line with properties of
Length
Direction
Position
2D

Line extended becomes a

Plane with properties of
Length and width
Shape
Surface
Orientation
Position
3D

Plane extended becomes a

Volume with properties of
Length, width and depth
Form and space
Surface
Orientation
Position
 overhead plane

wall plane

Base plane
Form
• Form is the primary identifying characteristic of a volume.
• It is determined by the shapes and interrelationships of the planes that
describe the boundary of the volume.
• As the 3D element in the vocabulary of architectural design, a volume
can be either
• Solid –space displaced by mass
• Void- space contained or enclosed by planes.
Form
Form and shape
• Shape - Is defined as the effect produced by the outlines or the edges
of a figure.
• It is the visual field that the object occupies demarcated by the outer
limits that distinguish it from its surroundings.
Shape
Theory of shape
and form- 2
Form
• Form is the primary identifying characteristic of a volume.
• It is determined by the shapes and interrelationships of the planes that
describe the boundary of the volume.
• As the 3D element in the vocabulary of architectural design, a volume
can be either
• Solid –space displaced by mass
• Void- space contained or enclosed by planes.
Form
Form and shape
• Shape - Is defined as the effect produced by the outlines or the edges
of a figure.
• It is the visual field that the object occupies demarcated by the outer
limits that distinguish it from its surroundings.
Shape
Form
• Form: Visible aspect of an object or figure.
• It could refer to parts or the whole of a figure that is describable in
two or three dimensions.
• Form is also understood as being a characteristic feature of the
conceptual element that we call a solid or a volume.
Form
Form
• Form as an element of design is more than a shape that is seen; it is a
shape with definite size, color and texture.
• It is the equivalent of the summation of the components that we call
visual element.
Form as a Point
• A point is an element that marks a position in the
visual space.
• perceived as having no length, width or depth.
• Static, centralized and direction less.
• Expresses stability and calmness
Form as a Line
• a point in motion creates the
appearance of a line.
Physical Characteristics
• Length:
• Value
• Direction
• Position
• Types of line curved, bent, irregular,
wavy, etc…
Form as a Line
Expressive characteristics,
• A line can serve to:
1) Join, Link, Support, and Surround or
intersect other visual elements
2) Describe edges of or give shape to
planes
3) Articulate surfaces of a plane
Form as a Plane
• When a line is extended in a direction other than its intrinsic one, it
forms a plane.
• Physical Characteristics
• Shapes
• Surface
• Orientation
• Types of shapes
Form as a Plane
Types of shapes
• Geometric, rectilinear, organic, irregular
Form as a Plane
• Uses of Planes In design:
• Simplify complex shapes and
volumes
• Study relationships between
components of a shape and
volume
• Combined to create complex
shapes or forms in three
dimensional visual field
Form as a Volume
• When a plane extends in the dimension that is other than its intrinsic
one, it will create a solid.
• Determined by the contour of line forming the edges of the solid
Form as a Volume
Used to:
• Define or enclose space
• Study relationships between
components of a volume
• Create a complex form in the
three-dimensional visual field
Types of form
A. Geometric and Organic Form

B. Regular and Irregular Form

C. Static and Dynamic Form

D. Positive and Negative Form

E. Primary and Secondary Form

Primary shapes
• Circle

• Triangle

• Square
Primary solids
• Includes cube, sphere, cone, cylinder, and pyramid
• Created from primary shapes.
• Regular
• Symmetrical
• Stable
Primary solids
▪ Circles - generate spheres and cylinders.
▪ Triangles - generate cones and pyramids.
▪ Square - generates cube.
Transformation of solids
Primary solids
▪ Circles - generate spheres and cylinders.
▪ Triangles - generate cones and pyramids.
▪ Square - generates cube.
Operations on solids
• As any discipline of the sciences, in architecture, it is important
to understand that no solid is created. As a form that exists in
reality, it is made up of materials that are already present in the
environment.
Operations on solids
• The term operation is defined as an action, scope or method of
working that is undertaken on something to affect its value or
form.
• The term solid can be understood as something that is both firm
in shape and measurable in three dimensions.
Operations on solids
• Operation on solids then will deal with the subject matter related to
those activities that are undertaken to: Alter the properties of solids
with known outward shape or form; resulting in the change in their
appearance (Transformation)
Operations on solids
• Transformation should be understood as the operation of changing
one configuration/ expression or state into another according to a
certain rule.
TYPES OF TRANSFORMATIONS
1. DIMENSIONAL
TRANSFORMATION
2.SUBTRACTIVE
TRANSFORMATION
3.ADDITIVE
TRANSFORMATION
Dimensional transformation
• Refers to altering one or more dimensions of an existing form.
• Here the underlying assumption is that all forms that we experience
are transformations of the primary platonic solids discussed.
Dimensional transformation
•A spherical form can be
transformed into any number of
ellipsoid forms by elongating it
along an axis.

•A pyramidal form can be

transformed by altering the
dimensions of its base,
modifying the height of its apex
or by moving the apex off of its
normal vertical axis.

• A cube can be transformed

into other rectangular prismatic
forms by shortening or
elongating its height, width, or
depth.
SUBTRACTIVE TRANSFORMATION
▪ We search for regularity & continuity in the forms we see
within our field of vision.
▪ When regular forms have fragments missing from their volumes, they can
retain their formal identities if we perceive them as if they were whole and
complete.
SUBTRACTIVE TRANSFORMATION
• Platonic solids adapt readily to subtractive treatment.
These forms will retain their formal identities if
portion of their volumes are removed without
deteriorating their edges, corners and overall
profile./Keeping identity/
SUBTRACTIVE TRANSFORMATION
• Ambiguity results if the portion removed from its volume erodes its
edges and drastically alters its profile./loosing identity/
•A square whose corner is removed, or
an L shaped which is composed of two
rectangles?
Examples
Additive transformation
• As the name suggests, additive transformation is
nothing but the addition of elements to the “Original”
volume.
POSSIBILITES FOR GROUPING
TWO OR MORE FORMS
1. Spatial tension

2. Edge - to - edge contact

3. Face - to - face contact

4. Interlocking relationship
Additive transformation
1. Spatial tension - a relationship that is based on proximity &
common visual elements and not any type of actual contact.
- surfaces share a common visual trait such as shape, material,
colour or texture.
Spatial tension
Additive transformation
2. Edge to edge contact - forms share a common edge and have an
actual physical contact, pivoting about that edge.
1. Edge - to - edge contact
Additive transformation
3. FACE TO FACE CONTACT - the two forms need to have corresponding
planar surfaces, which are parallel to each other and with surfaces
that actually meet.
Face - to - face contact
Additive transformation
4) INTER LOCKING VOLUMES - In such a relation ship forms inter
penetrate each others space.
Interlocking relationship
Examples
Organization of
Elements in
Design
 Language of Design
Equality

Basic Design
Rudimentary Similarity
Composition Tools
Contrast
Line
Point
Solid
 Centralized
Organization
CENTRALIZED
As the name suggests, such types of compositions are so
organized to simulate a centralized object, one of the
regular platonic planes.

Dominant Central Form

Secondary Forms
Dominant Central Form
❑ In a composition that is centralized, there will be a
dominant form that is located at the center of the
compositional field of space and hence is dominant owing
to its placement.

❑ This central element hence becomes the Primary form in

the composition.

❑ To emphasize the core concept of the desired

composition, the centrally placed object is usually a
regular form that is centralized and static.
Secondary Forms

Located around the central form will be secondary forms

whose presence is significant as they

❑ Are used to add to the effect of centrality by being

located equidistant from the central object

❑ Are used to contribute to the overall effect by

defining a static and stable outer boundary.
 Dominant
central form

Secondary
form

St. Peter’s Basilica

Vatican
 Secondary
form

Dominant
central form
Renaissance Complex
Detroit
 Linear
Organization
LINEAR
As the name suggests, such types of compositions are
so organized to simulate a line. Therefore, we are
trying to create a composition that depicts the
properties and characteristics of line as a form, to
fulfill the following minimum sets of conditions:

❑In a Linear Composition, elements are

arranged in a row, or along a path, having a
common direction.

❑Arrangement Expresses Movement

Bangkok Airport
 Radial
Organization
RADIAL

As the name suggests, such types of compositions are

so organized to simulate the physical properties of a
radius of a circle.

The main property that we can recognize is the fact

that the radii are lines having a common unmarked
center as their origin.

As lines, they have directions that in our case is

perceived to be from the center to the boundary of the
circle.
 Therefore, we are trying to create a composition that depicts
the properties and characteristics of group of lines as a form,
having a common center, and the following minimum sets of
conditions are expected to be met:

❑ Mixture of Linear & centralized organization

❑ Central Core is not necessarily dominant, not

necessarily geometric center, not necessarily
present.
European Union
Brussels
 Cluster
Organization
CLUSTERED

There are cases where compositions appear to have no

organizing logic present. They just appear to be one
whole unit merely because of proximity or by sharing a
common field.
 Grid
Organization
GRID

When two or more parallel lines form a regularly

shaped field, we have created a grid structure. A
grid structure helps us to organize the
compositional elements of our choice in a logical
pattern
Studio Exercise
Centralized, Linear, Radial, Cluster and Grid

Requirements
• The base for the model should be 25*50 cm
• Use only three types of colors inclusive of the base
What is expected
• Good imagination and creativity
• Precision
• Abstraction
Exercise
Centralized, Linear, Radial, Cluster and Grid

Requirements
• The base for the model should be 25*75 cm
• Use only three types of colors inclusive of the base
What is expected
• Good imagination and creativity
• Precision
• Abstraction
Ordering principles
 Ordering principles
• In a composition that uses elements, regardless of the
logic of organization, we can establish an ordered
relationship between the elements by the use of Ordering
Principles.
• These principles, unlike organizing principles, they are not
due to the manifestation of the actual structure of the
composition
• rather it is a relationship defined between the elements
as parts of the composition that can contribute to the overall
effect.
 Ordering principles
• Order refers not simply to geometric regularity, but
rather to a condition in which each part of a whole is
properly assembled with reference to other parts so as
to produce a harmonious arrangement.
• Order without diversity can result in monotony or
boredom; diversity without order can produce chaos.
• A sense of unity with variety is the ideal.
 Ordering principles
• Axis
• Symmetry
• Hierarchy
• Datum
• Rhythm
• Repetition
 AXIS
• A line defined between two points in space about which
forms can be arranged in a symmetrical or balanced
manner.
• This line can be actual or implied
• The overall impact of the introduction of an axis is that it
establishes an order of significance between the
elements of design.
Axis
 Axis
an axis has qualities of length and
direction, and induces movement
and promotes views along its path.

The Louvre Museum

Paris, France
For its definition, an axis must be
terminated at both of its ends by a
significant form or space.

The Louvre Museum

Paris, France
The idea of an axis can be reinforced by
defining edges along its length. These edges
can be simply lines on the ground plane, or
vertical planes that define a linear space
coincident with the axis.

The Louvre Museum

Paris, France
An axis can also be established simply by a
symmetrical arrangement of forms and
spaces.

The Louvre Museum

Paris, France
Axis
Axis
Symmetry
SYMMETRY
It is the arrangement
of objects that are
equidistant from an The Army Museum
Paris, France
actual or implied
axis.
Two types of symmetry
1. Bilateral symmetry; balanced arrangement of
similar or equivalent elements on opposite sides
of a median axis so that only one plane can
divide the whole into essentially identical halves.
Radial symmetry; balanced arrangement of similar or equivalent elements such that the
composition can be divided into similar halves by passing a plane at any angle around a
center point or along a central axis.
Hierarchy
 HIERARCHY
• Way of establishing order from most dominant to least
dominant element.
• It establishes primary and secondary elements that
have a dependent relationship.
• Achieved by changing size, shape or location relative
to the other forms
HIERARCHY
• Hierarchy by size
Hierarchy by
shape/orientation
Hierarchy by placement
Datum
 DATUM
• The introduction of one dominant element in an
otherwise disordered composition may produce an
overall ordering effect on the existing forms.
• In such cases, we are considering the introduction of
the form as a datum.
• Such a form could be a line, Plane, Volume.
 DATUM
• To be an effective ordering device, a linear datum must
have sufficient visual continuity to cut through or
bypass all of the elements being organized.
• If planar or volumetric in form, a datum must have
sufficient size, closure, and regularity to be seen as a
figure that can embrace or gather together the elements
being organized within its field.
 DATUM
• Line

• Plane

• Volume
 REPETITION
• Reoccurrence of similar elements define repetition.
• As a structure, repetition could be achieved by using
visible structural elements of form or by the use of
invisible formal elements that produce effects of
repeating spaces between visible forms.
 RHYTHM
• Reoccurrence of elements in a logical pattern.
• A unifying movement characterized by a patterned
repetition or alteration of formal elements or motifs in the
same or a modified form.
• Rhythm is hence a sense of order established
between elements that are in repetition, but not vice
versa.
 RHYTHM
• A regular rhythm: occurs when the intervals between
the elements, and often the elements themselves, are
similar in size or length.
Flowing: A flowing rhythm gives a sense of movement,
and is often more organic in nature.
Progressive:
A progressive rhythm
shows a sequence of forms
through a progression of
steps.

Repeats elements in an art work to create a visual tempo

 EXERCISE
1. MAKE AN ABSTRACT COMPOSITE AND TRY TO
EMPHASIZE SOMETHING IN THAT COMPOSITION.

2. MAKE AN ABSTRACT COMPOSITE BY APPLYING

THE PRINCIPLE OF DATUM AS AN ORGANIZING
PRINCIPLE.
 SCALE
. . . . . . refers to how the size of an object
relates to human beings or other objects or
spaces in a design.
MEASUREMENT
Uses of measurement
• With metric scale architects can create a mental
picture which is accurate and vivid.

• It is important to know the relationship between sizes

of human limbs and what space a person requires in
various postures and movements; sizes of objects for
everyday use to determine the dimension of containers
and furniture; spaces between furniture in home and
workplace and position of furniture to optimize the
space and provide comfort to the user while
performing a task.

• Other dimension can be derived from knowing the

minimum space requirements.
 Concepts on measurement
• The only true scale is that of human beings.

• The amount of space we need between ourselves and strangers to feel at ease in varies
from culture to culture.

• Subjective preferences can be a good guide but unreliable since personal, cultural and
universal layers of response can be mixed-up.

• Space affects how users need to speak, move or focus the eyes. It is therefore has bodily
effects which regardless of our expectations and preferences influence social relationships.

• Regarding materials, favored sizes and dimensions allow better coordination between
manufactured components, design and construction operations derived from the basic
100mm/4 inch module.
 Scale
• Scale clues – relative size of something
• It allows us to assess the size of a room/element by
comparison within the sizes of known elements to make
judgment about the room’s dimension

• Exterior- trees, cars, street furniture, humans

• Interior – storey heights, masonry courses, doors, windows,
staircases
Normal scale – relaxed fashion, without
any self-concious manipulation of scale
clues . The size of the object is precisely
as percieved and anticipated by the
observer, it is easily read together with
the other components and contributes to
visual intensity

Intimate scale – reducing the size of familiar

components to induce a relaxed atmosphere of
cozy domesticity , ex. Reduced ceiling height, cove
lighting, low window heads
 Heroic scale – diminishes the ego of the user,
used to make the user of the object relate to
its smallness, used to enhance the scale of
something which has relatively modest
dimensions

Shock scale – used to startle and excite the

observer, exaggeratedly expanded or reduced
to create an amusing scale with their
environment
SCALE
Scale
• It refers to how we perceive or judge the size of something compared
to a reference standard or the size of something else.

• We often compare an object’s size to the size of our own bodies.

• Therefore, we are always comparing one thing to another.

• Scale also refers to the mathematical relationship between an object

and a measurable quantity.
Scale
Size of something compared to a
reference to a reference standard
or to the size of something else.
Example: Human scale,
where we compare the
size of any object as
compared to the size of
an average human.
Spatial Intelligence

When the shape on the left is folded at the dotted lines which
shape does it produce?
Grand scale
Humble scale
 Grand stairs used
to see others and
be seen by others

• Scale then is not some abstract architectural concept at all, but a meaningful and
very human and social idea that even has commercial and political value.

• It is one of the most fundamental components of the language of space.

• Scale is in a way as much about people as it is about buildings.

Grand stairs used
to see others and
be seen by others
The Eiffel Tower dwarfs the beautiful
buidings of the Av. de Suffren in Paris.
Scale of Movement
Scale and Social Order
Scale is one of the most important elements of the social language of
space, and a study of history shows us that it has always been so.
Dimensional Relationships
Proportion
• a part, share, or number considered in comparative relation to a
whole

• harmonious relation of parts to each other or to the whole

• a balanced, pleasing, or suitable arrangement of parts

 Theory of Proportion
different theories of proportion were developed to establish a
controlled relationship between the dimensions of the parts that make
up the whole of a composition. All attempt to create a sense of order
along elements that form visual construction
Theories of Proportion
• Golden Section
• Classical Orders
• Renaissance Theories
• Modulor
• Ken
• Anthropometry
• Scale
Types of Proportion
Fibonacci Sequence
1,1,2,3,5,8,13, 21 and so on
 Golden section
• Also known as the Golden Section, Golden Mean, Divine
Proportion, or the Greek letter Phi, the Golden Ratio is a
special number that approximately equals 1.618. The ratio
itself comes from the Fibonacci sequence, a naturally
occurring sequence of numbers that can be found
everywhere, from the number of leaves on a tree to the
shape of a seashell.

• The Fibonacci sequence is the sum of the two numbers

before it. It goes: 0, 1,1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and so on, to
infinity. From this pattern, the Greeks developed the
Golden Ratio to better express the difference between any
two numbers in the sequence.

• How does this relate to design? You can find the Golden
Ratio when you divide a line into two parts and the longer
part (a) divided by the smaller part (b) is equal to the sum
of (a) + (b) divided by (a), which both equal 1.618. This
formula can help you when creating shapes, logos,
layouts, and more.
Pythagoras
Width, height
and length of
rooms can be
calculated using
a2 + b2 =c2
Plato
Polygonal transverses
are necessary for the
design and
construction for round
structures
Vitruvius
Roman theatre is built on
the triangle turned four
times, the Greek theatre
in a square turned three
times – both resulted in
dodecagon
Vitruvian Man
the Vitruvian Man was created
by Leonardo da Vinci around
the year 1487. It is
accompanied by notes based
on the work of the famed
architect, Vitruvius Pollio. The
drawing, which is in pen and
ink on paper, depicts a male
figure in two superimposed
positions with his arms and
legs apart and simultaneously
inscribed in a circle and
square. The drawing and text
are sometimes called the
Canon of Proportions or, less
often, Proportions of Man.
Le Modulor
Anthropometry
Applications of Proportion in
Architecture
Palladio Villa Foscari, Malconteta in Venice
Frederik’s Hospital