Calatin, Juvielyn Claire D.

Matulin, Julie Mae N.

Pamon, Kristel Joy R.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter states the different related studies that the proponents used

to conduct this study including oyster shell, sand, brick, fly ash and water.

Oyster Shell

According to Chou-Fu Liang et.al. (2013) in the study of Feasibility of

Pulverized Oyster Shell as a Cementing Material, the addition of pulverized

oyster shells improves the optimal moisture content in the soil; that is, it

decreases the sensitivity of soil to moisture content. Also, the compacted soil

becomes soft and susceptible to displacement with the increasing addition of

pulverized oyster shells.

According to Hapinat (2019), the utilization of empty oyster shells, which

are thrown in the environment as wastes can be used as a raw material in

producing lime. Lime produced from oyster shells is highly effective alternative

for agri-lime in treating acidic soil. The utilization of the bulk of solid wastes

generated from discarded shells into lime as treatment for acidic soil is one of the

alternative solutions on solid waste problem of the region which is Cebu

(Republic Act 2003). It entails lower-cost and readily available compared to agri-

lime.
 According to Dr.Kakisawa and Dr. Sumitomo (2012), for construction

purposes, oysters are viable option because they are easy to acquire and contain

high amounts of CaCO3 (Calcium Carbonate) in the shells nacre. Nacre is

commonly called “The mother of pearl”, is combined of platelets of CaCO3

(Calcium Carbonate) within layers of an organic polymer matrix. The combination

of the platelets and organic matrix provides strength of the shell.

According to CSIS (2016), Dredged marine sediments and oyster shells

powder as cement substitute materials in mortar are examined by several

techniques. Four mixtures of treated sediments and oyster shellspowder are

added to portion cement at 8%, 16% and 33% by weight.Results showing that

the increased of addition amounts, reducedperformance of mortars.

According to Baylon et.al. (2017), the use of oyster shell and plastic as

substitutes of sand in manufacturing bricks may considered as a solution to the

increasing prices of construction materials. It may help to lessen the problem in

garbage disposal for discarded oyster shells and non-biodegradable plastic

waste. As clearly state on the cost estimates, oyster shells and plastic have lower

prices that sand with this in mind, it would be economical and environment to use

oyster shells and plastic than sand in making bricks.

The statements mentioned above are related to the present study

because oyster shells that was used in the past studies by other researchers.

Sand
 According to Ashish Mathur and Mahim Mathur (2018) in the study of “An

Experimental Study on the Effect of Replacement of Natural Sand with

Manufacture Sand”. Common River Sand is expensive due to excessive cost of

transportation from natural Sources. Also large scale depletion of these sources

creates environmental problems. As environment, transportation and other

constraints make the availability and use of river sand less attractive, a substitute

or replacement product for concrete industry needs to be found. River sand used

as fine aggregates in production of concrete poses the problem of acute shortage

in all parts of country. The continuous use of this has started posing serious

problem with respect to its availability, cost and environmental impact. In such a

situation Manufactured sand (M. Sand) can be economical alternative to river

sand. Manufactured Sand can be defined as all most residue, tailing or other

non-valuable waste after the extraction and processing of rocks to form fine

particles less than 4.75 mm. Manufactured Sand is used in large scale in the

building work, highways as a surface finishing material, used for manufacturing of

hollow blocks and light weight concrete prefabricated elements. Use of

Manufactured Sand in concrete is drawing attention to researchers and

investigators. The study of M. Sand presents the feasibility of usage of

manufactured sand as substitute of Natural sand in concrete. Various mix

designs have been developed for different grades using design codes like IS

codes for both conventional concrete. In this paper we report various tests which

were conducted on cubes, Cylinders and beams to study the strength of concrete

made of M. Sand concrete and results were compared with Natural sand
concrete. It was found that the compressive, flexural and tensile strength studies

of concrete made of Manufactured Sand are nearly equal to the conventional

concrete.

According to Prabin Kumar. K (2015) in the study of “Experimental Study

on Suitability of Sea Sand as Fine Aggregate for Concrete”. Concrete is the most

popular building material in the world. River sand has been the most popular

choice for the fine aggregate component of concrete in the past, but overuse of

the material has led to environmental concerns, the depleting of securable river

sand deposits and a concomitant price increase in the material. Therefore, it is

desirable to obtain cheap, environmentally friendly substitutes for river sand that

is preferably sea sand. The Land Reclamation and Development Board (Sri

Lanka) plans to popularize the use of sea sand as an alternative to river sand.

According to the experts in the global construction trade, Sea Sand is being used

in the construction industry in the Asian Region and some leading European

countries. Civil Engineering Department of University of Moratuwa (Sri Lanka)

and the National Building Research Organization [NBRO] (Sri Lanka) have

confirmed that the sea sand pumped from a distance of about ten kilometers is

very suitable for building construction industry. This study is to experiment the

suitability to use beach/sea sand as a substitute for river sand as fine aggregate

for concrete.

According to Parappallil and Bellam (2019) in the study of “A Review on

the Usage of Recycled Sand in the Construction Industry”. The construction

industry requires natural sand for many applications. The recycled sand obtained
from industrial operations can also be utilized in construction activities. Many

industries generate waste sand as a byproduct. The material generated from this

discarded molds and cores is usually known as “used foundry sand,” “waste

foundry sand,” or “spent foundry sand.” A vast quantity of used foundry sand is

generating and heaping globally in a day-by-day manner. In this review article, an

attempt is made to explore the characteristics and various utilizations of this

recycled sand from the foundry industry as a valuable resource material in

construction activities. From the analysis of the multiple types of research done

so far on the reuse of waste foundry sand, it is found that the waste foundry sand

is reusable in different civil engineering applications with added advantages. The

advantageous applications of used foundry sand are ranging from the road base

material to the substitute to fine aggregate in high-performance self-compacting

concrete. More generally used foundry sand in the range of 10–30% is best

suitable as a partial substitute to regular sand in mortar and concrete making.

The use of recycled sand such as waste foundry sand in the construction

industry can not only eliminate the problems of waste management and

environmental impacts but also substantially boost up the sustainable

developmental activities by way of reducing the consumption of natural

resources.

According to Udaysankar and Hemansu (2018) in the study of “A Review

Paper on Evolution of Sand in Construction”. Cement, sand and aggregate are

basic needs for any construction industry. Sand is a prime material used for

preparation of mortar and concrete and which plays a major role in mix design.
Now a day’s erosion of rivers and considering environmental issues, there is a

scarcity of river sand. The non-availability or shortage of river sand will affect the

construction industry, hence there is a need to find the new alternative material to

replace the river sand, such that excess river erosion and harm to environment is

prevented. Many researchers are finding different materials to replace sand and

one of the major materials is quarry stone dust. Using different proportion of

these quarry dust along with sand the required concrete mix can be obtained.

This paper presents a review of the different alternatives to natural sand in

preparation of mortar and concrete. The paper emphasize on the physical and

mechanical properties and strength aspect on mortar and concrete.

According to Saisinchai et. al. (2019) in the study of “Upgrading of Coarse-

Grained from Construction Sand to Glass Sand. The sample of silica sand is

taking from Nakon Pathom province in Thailand. It has been reported to be good

quality for glass industry. Presently, it is mined for construction sand and

transported to many destinations inside and outside the country without any

processing. According to this reason, the price of silica sand was low. Because of

the contaminate of many substances such as rutile, ilmenite, muscovite, Biotite

and Garnet. So to improving a higher price of silica sand with better quality,

mineral processing such as attrition scrubber, shaking table and Wet High

Intensity Magnetic Separator (WHIMs) were used to reduce the iron content.

The above-mentioned studies are related to the present matter because of

the numerous applications of sand in construction. Sand comes in a variety of

types and elements, so it must be thoroughly investigated to determine where it

can be mixed. It is one of the most commonly used construction materials.

Brick

According to Zipeng et. al. (2018) in the study of “A review of studies on

bricks using alternative materials and approaches”. Bricks have been playing a

significant role in building and construction for thousands of years. Despite the

reliable workability and accessibility, it is widely known that the production of fired

clay brick has always been a rather energy- and resource-intensive process.

Many researchers have been conducting a wide range of studies regarding

sustainable and innovative bricks, to mitigate the large carbon footprint of brick

industry. To better understand the development and current context of

sustainable and innovative bricks during the past several decades, this paper

provides an up-to-date review on the recent studies of bricks, categorising these

publications according to the materials used and methods employed for the

production of innovative bricks. This review found that firing is still the most

common method to produce bricks, while this process involves enormous energy

consumption and carbon footprint. Considering that cement and lime-based

calcium-silicate-hydrate bricks are also not sustainable, Geopolymerisation is a

preferable way to produce bricks, but corresponding cost and benefit analyses

need to be conducted for relevant research. In addition, this paper suggests that

clay-based geopolymer bricks could be one of the focuses of future brick-related

research, and the key challenge is to improve the reactivity of clay at a low cost.
 According to Piotr and Michal (2015) in the study of “A Comparative Study

on the Compressive Strength of Bricks from Different Historical Periods”. The aim

of this article is to present the results of compressive strength tests for bricks

from different historical periods. The studies were conducted on hand-molded

and mechanically formed bricks. The bricks that were used for the studies came

from historical structures from the center of the royal city of Crakow.

Compressive strength was determined on rectangular prisms and on cylinders

cut out from bricks in various directions—anisotropy and shape effects were then

analyzed. The basic aim of the conducted studies was to estimate the possibility

of carrying out the strength tests on relatively small samples and re-calculating

these results on normalized brick strength determined according to EN772–1.

Based on the tests results, a range of correlation coefficient values for cylinder

samples with diameters of 30 mm and 50 mm was given. It was indicated that for

the tested historical bricks characterized by significant material non-homogeneity

within the element and sensitivity to damages while cutting out the samples,

correlation coefficients are higher than for bricks used contemporarily. The

results of these studies are presented alongside the findings from existing

studies on the compressive strength of bricks.

According to Lianyang Zhang (2013) in the study of “Production of bricks

from waste materials - A review”. Bricks are a widely used construction and

building material around the world. Conventional bricks are produced from clay

with high temperature kiln firing or from ordinary Portland cement (OPC)

concrete, and thus contain high embodied energy and have large carbon
footprint. In many areas of the world, there is already a shortage of natural

source material for production of the conventional bricks. For environmental

protection and sustainable development, extensive research has been conducted

on production of bricks from waste materials. This paper presents a state-of-the-

art review of research on utilization of waste materials to produce bricks. A wide

variety of waste materials have been studied to produce bricks with different

methods. The research can be divided into three general categories based on

the methods for producing bricks from waste materials: firing, cementing and

geopolymerization. Although much research has been conducted, the

commercial production of bricks from waste materials is still very limited. The

possible reasons are related to the methods for producing bricks from waste

materials, the potential contamination from the waste materials used, the

absence of relevant standards, and the slow acceptance of waste materials-

based bricks by industry and public. For wide production and application of bricks

from waste materials, further research and development is needed, not only on

the technical, economic and environmental aspects but also on standardization,

government policy and public education related to waste recycling and

sustainable development.

According to Faria et.al. (2012) in the study of “Recycling of sugarcane

bagasse ash waste in the production of clay bricks”. This work investigates the

recycling of sugarcane bagasse ash waste as a method to provide raw material

for clay brick bodies, through replacement of natural clay by up 20 wt.%. Initially,

the waste sample was characterized by its chemical composition, X-ray

diffraction, differential thermal analysis, particle size, morphology and pollution

potential. Clay bricks pieces were prepared, and then tested, so as to determine

their technological properties (e.g., linear shrinkage, water absorption, apparent

density, and tensile strength). The sintered microstructure was evaluated by

scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It was found that the sugarcane bagasse

ash waste is mainly composed by crystalline silica particles. The test results

indicate that the

According to Muñoz Velasco et.al. (2014) in the study of Fired clay bricks

manufactured by adding wastes as sustainable construction material. This paper

provides a review of research concerning the recycling of different types of

wastes into ecofriendly fired clay bricks (FCB's). Materials and methods of

researches are discussed. Several properties of bricks, made by incorporating

additives are reviewed as well as 13procedures in accordance with international

standards are highlighted. Most common results, grouped by type of additive, are

shown and discussed. In conclusion, the reuse of waste in brick production might

be an environmental friendly way to manage them. In some cases it even implies

an enhancement of the bricks properties as well as an advantage for brick

producers.

The statements mentioned above are related to the present study

because of the many types of bricks. Bricks can be made from waste materials or

by combining them with other building materials. Because of their low cost and

durability, they have been well-known from ancient times to the present.

Fly Ash
 According to M. Ondova, N. Stevulova and A. Estokova (2012) in the

Study of the Properties of Fly Ash Based Concrete Composites with Various

Chemical Admixtures. Technological developments in our society are still highly

extensive nature and the forthcoming process of globalization affects the state of

the environment significantly. Along with a slight increase in population,

uncontrolled pumping of raw materials for production of materials and energy and

urbanization of the environment, there is the increase of harmful emissions and

waste generation. Mineral resources are limited considerably. The resources for

feeding our growing population (the problem of drinking water and food) are

limited as well as materials needed for construction of buildings, infrastructure

development, and industry needed to ensure the people's welfare. This is also

true for conventional raw materials for production of construction materials and

fuel. One of the main challenges of the 21st century is oriented on the increasing

effectiveness of the materials processing and significantly reduced energy usage.

Because concrete is the most used building material in the world, the new

approach consists in change in the design of concrete structures and in

developing and implementing new concrete processing technologies based on

cement reduction demand. Although new technologies are being developed to

solve these problems, there is a viable solution for the present time utilization of

alternative raw materials i.e. fly ash. The current annual worldwide production of

by-products is estimated about 700 million tons of which 70% is fly ash at least.

Large quantities of fly ash are available at low costs around the world and the

use of fly ash concrete seems to offer the best solution to reducing consumption
of cement. The paper is aimed at the study of the mechanical properties (tensile

flexural and compressive strengths) of hardened fly ash - concrete composites

with various proportions of fly ash as well as the investigation of the chemical

admixtures influence on the concrete properties.

According to Pinak Ray, Amarabati Paul, Sourav Ghosh, Kanisha Sarkar

& Ranendra Narayan Sen (2020) in an experimental study on fly ash with lime

and gypsum for quality improvement in pavement subgrade materials.

Characteristics of pavement subgrade materials play a paramount role in

determining the quality and longevity of a pavement. An experimental study has

been undertaken to improve such subgrade material on addition of fly ash

(percentage of addition 9.7–30%) as main additive. Two broad sets of samples

have been mixed with varying proportions of moorum, silver sand, fly ash mix

with stabilizer, i.e. lime and gypsum (percentage of addition from 2 to 3%) for one

set, and another set of samples where it consists of moorum, silver sand and soil

mix (percentage of addition 10–30%) without fly ash and stabilizer. For each set

of sample, the main broad constituent materials have been taken as moorum and

silver sand which have percentage of variations 47.53–70% and 20.37–30%,

respectively, because they are the main constituents for pavement subgrade

material. To investigate the effects of addition of these stabilizers to assess

whether it improves the performance of pavement subgrade materials Proctor

tests, CBR and UCS tests have been done on both types of soil samples. The

test results have shown that lateritic soil like moorum with silver sand used with

addition of stabilizer as a sub-base materials of pavement can be used as a

better replacement of commonly used graded traditional coarse aggregate and

fly ash used as fines has shown better replacement of local soil. A high

correlation coefficient indicates that the CBR value can be well predicted from

UCS test results.

According to Hong-zhu Quan and Hideo Kasami (2014) in the

Experimental Study on Durability Improvement of Fly Ash Concrete with

Durability Improving Admixture. In order to improve the durability of fly ash

concrete, a series of experimental studies are carried out, where durability

improving admixture is used to reduce drying shrinkage and improve freezing-

thawing resistance. The effects of durability improving admixture, air content,

water-binder ratio, and fly ash replacement ratio on the performance of fly ash

concrete are discussed in this paper. The results show that by using durability

improving admixture in nonair-entraining fly ash concrete, the compressive

strength of fly ash concrete can be improved by 10%–20%, and the drying

shrinkage is reduced by 60%. Carbonation resistance of concrete is roughly

proportional to water-cement ratio regardless of water-binder ratio and fly ash

replacement ratio. For the specimens cured in air for 2 weeks, the freezing-

thawing resistance is improved. In addition, by making use of durability improving

admixture, it is easier to control the air content and make fly ash concrete into

nonair-entraining one. The quality of fly ash concrete is thereby optimized.

According to Toniolo and Boccaccin (2017) in the study of Fly ash-based

geopolymers containing added silicate waste. This review summarizes different

types of industrial wastes such as biomass ash, red mud, recycled glass and
heavy metals waste, in their application for geopolymer production. These

wastes, which are currently abundant and urgent to dispose of, cannot be used

alone in the geopolymer process because they do not provide a suitable

SiO2/Al2O3 molar ratio for this technology. For this reason, these by-products

are commonly used in addition to other aluminosilicate sources such as fly ash or

metakaolin. Important parameters which affect the properties and performance of

fly ash based geopolymers with addition of a variety of wastes are discussed

based on a comprehensive literature review.

According to Hemalathaa and Ramaswamy (2017) in the study of A

review on fly ash characteristics – Towards promoting high volume utilization in

developing sustainable concrete. The use of fly ash in concrete dates back to the

late 20th century and its advantages and disadvantages had been widely

researched. Despite the broad based research carried out across the globe in

utilizing fly ash as a cement replacement material 16 in concrete, the level of

replacement is still limited to a maximum of 35% of cement by mass. In view of

increasing the level of fly ash replacement in cement to minimize the carbon

footprint, this work summarizes the following: firstly, the current state of fly ash

applications in concrete by considering about 200 papers published since 1980

to till date. Secondly, the analysis of form-structure-property of fly ash reported in

various literature and its correlation with strength and durability characteristics.

Thirdly, the contradictions reported in literature regarding the performance of fly

ash, particularly, in the context of shrinkage, high temperature curing, water

demand etc. Overall, this review brings to light that, apart from chemical
composition, the influence of other factors such as morphology, crystallinity, size

etc. have major influence in altering the hydration mechanism which in turn bring

changes in mechanical and durability properties of fly ash concrete. The critical

examination of properties of fly ash provides insight for wider utilization of fly ash,

facilitating a higher replacement of cement possibly upto 60% in a scientific way

rather than by trial-and-error basis. Further, this review recommends for the

classification of fly ash apart from the existing ASTM classification of fly ash as

Class F and Class C. Furthermore, amendments in existing codes are

recommended for high volume utilization of fly ash.

This is related for our research study because of the composition of fly

ash. It can be used in place of cement and other binder ingredients that are

commonly utilized today. Fly ash is a low-cost material that is used in concrete to

increase its workability.

Water

According to ATA Olugbenga (2014) in the study of Effects of Different

Sources of Water on Concrete Strength: A Case Study of Ile-Ife. This research

investigated the effect of different types of mixing water on the compressive

strength of concrete. It analysed the effect of impurities such as salts of sodium,

manganese, tin, zinc, copper and lead on the compressive strength of concrete.

The effects of the presence of some other impurities like silt and suspended

particles on concrete strength were also investigated. Samples of water from six

sources in Ile-Ife environ were chemically analysed to ascertain their chemical

constituents. 100mm cube samples were cast with these water samples.
Compressive strength test was carried out on the cubes and the findings were

statistically processed. The results indicated that sources of water used in mixing

concrete have a significant impact on the compressive strength of the resulting

concrete. It concluded by suggesting that river water could be used for mixing

where tap water is scarce. However, other properties such as durability and

shrinkage should be considered before use. Keywords: compressive strength,

concrete, mixing water

According to Mr. K. J. Kucche, Dr. S. S. Jamkar and Dr. P. A. Sadgir

(2015) in the study of Quality of Water for Making Concrete: A Review of

Literature. This paper reviews the literature related to quality of water for making

concrete. The allowable limits of physical and chemical impurities and the test

methods of their evolution are compiled. The limits of impurities as per Indian,

Australian, American and British standards represented. From the literature it is

seen that, the reaction between water and cement affect the setting time,

compressive strength and also lead to softening of concrete. All the impurities

may not have adverse effect on the properties of concrete. The use of impure

water for concrete mixing is seen to favourable for strength development at early

ages and reduction in long term strength.

According to Comak (2016) in the study of Effects of use of alkaline mixing

waters on engineering properties of cement mortars. In this study, the effect of

pH level of mixing water on physical, mechanical and microstructure properties of

cementitious mixtures was examined. In order to adjust the pH level of mixing

water, various ratios of NaOH were added to ultra-pure water. Therefore, in total,
six different mixing waters were obtained including the reference mixing water,

pH10, pH11, pH12, pH13 and pH14. Mortar samples were produced using the

obtained mixing waters with CEM I 42.5R Portland cement, then physical and

mechanical properties of the cement mortars were determined on the 7th, 14th,

28th and 90th days. In addition, microstructure properties of the cement mortar

specimens were determined after the 28 days curing period. Porosity

measurements by mercury intrusion porosimetry were also examined after the 28

days cure periods. At the end of study, it was determined that the alkaline mixing

waters (up to pH13) have positive effects on the compressive strength and

workability of the cement mortars. The best result was obtained with pH12 mixing

waters.

According to Babar Ali, Rawaz Kurda , Jorge de Brito and Rayed

Alyousef (2021) in the study of A Review on the Performance of Concrete

Containing Non-Potable Water. Construction industries consume huge amounts

of potable water during activities such as washing of aggregates, stone crushing,

manufacturing, and curing of concrete, mortars, grouts, and wetting of masonry

bricks. It is also responsible for wastewater generated during the finishing and

cleaning of buildings and construction equipment. Therefore, the water-footprint

of construction industry cannot be ignored to reach the state-of-the art

sustainability. This study reviewed the technical properties of construction

materials made with non-potable water (NPW), i.e., domestic and industrial

sewage. The study identified the positive and negative effects of non-potable

water on the fresh- and hardened-state properties of concrete. This study also
identified the gaps in the literature that can be analysed in order to produce

reliable information related to the use of different types of NPW on the properties

of concrete.

According to Shafeek et.al. (2017) in the study of Impact of cooling water

types on the cement clinker properties. This paper studied the influence of the

different water types on clinker properties. It concern with cement plants which

are using the water for cooling the clinker (El-Minia white cement plant). The

water types are Nile, ground and deionized water. The analysis of water showed

that the concentration of dissolved salts in groundwater is higher than Nile water.

The concentration of algae gave opposite direction; the algae concentration in

Nile water is higher than groundwater. While the deionized is completely free

from dissolved salts and algae. The cement tests for clinker which treated by the

different water types showed that the cement strength was reducing when used

the Nile water with high algae count. From another side, the high concentration of

dissolved salts in groundwater does not affect on strength. The water contained

the algae prevent the complete crystallization of calcium silicate for clinker.

This is related for our research study because of the property of water.

Water is the most commonly utilized liquid binder in construction materials due to

its high-heat vaporization, high polarity, and attraction to polar molecules.