CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

The problem of ruminant animal disease has been a continued problem throughout all the epochs

of human existence. It is a well-known fact that ruminant animals contribute a lot to human

existence as they serve as source of meat, milk and even as raw materials for manufacture many

other products such as belts, cloths, shoes etc. Ruminant animal disease which has constituted a

major factor in the loss of animals and low yield in ruminant animals which we are considering

two major diseases: Helminthiasis and Liver fluke disease respectively can be efficaciously and

effectively treated traditionally at Gidan Tafiyau community in Kafur Local Government of

Katsina State.

The use of local medicaments in treatment of ruminant animal is important because it has a direct

benefit on the people in the community as we know most of ruminant animal keepers are people

in rural areas with low access to finance and modernized medicaments as the result of that the

use of local herbs is cost effective and efficacious as everyone has access to it and at the same

time it requires no finance in getting herbs in the bush. Unfortunately, various challenges are

facing the use of local medicaments in treatment of Helminthiasis and liver fluke disease in

Kafur local government of Katsina state today. This work examines the challenges that are

militating against use of local medicaments in treatment of ruminant animals. Some practical

ways to overcome and increase the level of ruminant animal productivity and high yield in Gidan

Tafiyau of Katsina State which will have positive influence on economic community

1
development and high ruminant animal yield. We will finally compare Gidan Tafiyau

community in ruminant animal production with a few other communities in Nigeria.

1.2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The challenges affecting animal production at Gidan Tafiyau in Kafur local government of

Katsina State have been a historical and persistent one. Ruminant animals play a significant role

in development of the community at all levels and in production of food to the community.

Ruminant animals that have received local medicaments gets to have the following advantages of

being naturally healthy, absence of too much chemicals in the body, become more consumable

in the best way, decrease in their mortality rate, and most times even decrease or eradication of

such disease from the community.

It is glaring that the use of local medicaments in the treatment of Helminthiasis and liver fluke in

ruminant animals is still affected by many challenges such gradual wearing away of the desired

herbs for treatment due to farming activities such as bush burning and use of herbicides, lack of

detective machines to know early stage of contraction of disease and a host of many others.

1.3. AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

This research work is aimed at examining the efficacious and effectiveness of the use of local

medicaments in the treatment of Helminthiasis and liver fluke disease in ruminant animals as a

means of fostering community development and increased food production in Gidan Tafiyua in

Kafur local government of Katsina State following the challenges involved in using local

medicaments in treating Helminthiasis and liver fluke disease in ruminant animals in the

twenty-first century, and this shall be done with the following objectives:

2
• Identify the number of animals that are treated with modern medicaments and those

treated with local medicaments.

• To examine the challenges that are involved in using local medicaments in the treatment

of Helminthiasis and liver fluke disease at Gidan Tafiyau in Kafur local government of Kastina

State and how it can be efficacious and cost effective.

• Assessing the number ruminant animals treated locally of Helminthiasis and liver fluke

disease and those that are not treated at all.

• Evaluating proposed changes of death rate of locally treated ruminant animals and

ruminant animals treated with modern medicaments.

• Monitoring changes in the empowerment nature of women from different years and

governments

1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

However, this research work becomes necessary as it draws the consciousness of Gidan Tafiyau

indigenes that the only remedy to our development and increased animal production for food and

shelter is by using local medicaments.

It will also be important to the general public as it will serve as a tool for all peoples seeking

community development and increased animal production for food and shelter regardless of their

differences in culture and other accidental factors.

Finally, the essay will contribute to the existing literatures on the concept of animal science

ranging from ancient period running through medieval period and to the contemporary times.

1.5. METHODOLOGY

3
There are many methods used to collect or obtain data for statistical analysis but for our case

study which will involve more of questionnaire, interviews and historical data, we shall consider

survey method as the most suitable for this research.

Survey method is defined as the act of examining a process or questioning a selected sample of

individuals to obtain data about a service, product, or process. Data collection surveys collect

information from a targeted group of people about their opinions, behaviour, or knowledge.

This work shall depend on primary sources i.e. basic sociological and secondary sources, hat is,

related textbooks, encyclopaedias, journals and downloaded pdf documents from the internet and

other related material.

1.6. SCOPE AND LIMITATION

This research work covers local medicaments and animal diseases alongside some contributions

from great minds of animal science and how it could achieve community development and high

animal production for food and shelter amidst diverse culture and religions we have in Nigeria

today.

However, like every other human endeavour, this work is not devoid of limitations. Primarily it

is limited by time factor and secondly, the scarcity of some material even finance.

1.7. ORGANIZATION OF STUDY

This project is divided into five chapters, chapter one deals with the introduction, which states

the problem the study, tries to address, the method used, stating boundaries of the work and why

the work is necessary.

4
Chapter two journeys through the corridors of different literatures works and an attempt to

review their contributions on local medicaments in the treatment of Helminthiasis and liver fluke

disease.

Chapter three gives an idea of efficacious and the effectiveness of the use of local medicaments

in the treatment of Helminthiasis and liver fluke disease in ruminant animals and its contribution

to community development at all levels and animal production for food and shelter.

Chapter four presents the relevance of the efficacious and effectiveness of local medicaments in

treating Helminthiasis and liver fluke disease in ruminant animals, its criticisms, advantages,

challenges and finally the evaluation.

Chapter five gives summary of the study, the conclusion, and what the study recommends. All

works cited in the course of the work are provided after the study.

1.8. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

1.8.1. EFFICACY

The word efficacy is used in pharmacology and medicine to refer both to the maximum response

achievable from a pharmaceutical drug in research settings, and to the capacity for sufficient

therapeutic effect or beneficial change in clinical settings. (Holford , Sheiner, 1981).) Efficacy is

the ability to perform a task to a satisfactory or expected degree. The word comes from the same

roots as effectiveness, and it has often been used synonymously, although in pharmacology a

distinction is now often made between efficacy and effectiveness (Porta M, ed. 2008).

1.8.2. COST EFFECTIVENESS

5
Cost-effectiveness analysis is a form of economic analysis that compares the relative costs and

outcomes of different courses of action. Cost-effectiveness analysis is distinct from cost–benefit

analysis, which assigns a monetary value to the measure of effect (Black, 1990). In the context of

pharmacoeconomics, the cost-effectiveness of a therapeutic or preventive intervention is the ratio

of the cost of the intervention to a relevant measure of its effect. Cost refers to the resource

expended for the intervention, usually measured in monetary terms such as dollars or pounds.

The measure of effects depends on the intervention being considered. Examples include the

number of people cured of a disease, the mm Hg reduction in diastolic blood pressure and the

number of symptom-free days experienced by a patient (Asaria, et al, 2005).

1.8.3. LOCAL MEDICAMENTS

A medication used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease in animals (Whitney, 2006) Local

medicaments are used in the treatment of apical periodontitis between appointments to eliminate

the residual microbes that escape the effect of chemomechanical preparation (web).

1.8.4. TREATMENT (THERAPY)

Therapy or Medical treatment is the attempted remediation of a health problem, usually

following a medical diagnosis. As a rule, each therapy has indications and contraindications.

There are many different types of therapy. Not all therapies are effective. Many therapies can

produce unwanted adverse effects (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy).

1.8.5. HELMINTHIASIS

Helminthiasis, also known as worm infection, is any macroparasitic disease of humans and other

animals in which a part of the body is infected with parasitic worms, known as helminths. There

are numerous species of these parasites, which are broadly classified into tapeworms, flukes, and

6
roundworms (Albonico, TE AL 2008).They often live in the gastrointestinal tract of their hosts,

but they may also burrow into other organs, where they induce physiological damage.

1.8.6. LIVER FLUKE

Liver fluke is a collective name of a polyphyletic group of parasitic trematodes under the

phylum Platyhelminthes. They are principally parasites of the liver of various mammals,

including humans. Capable of moving along the blood circulation, they can occur also in bile

ducts, gallbladder, and liver parenchyma (Xiao, et al, 2015).

1.8.7. COMMUNITY

A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as norms,

religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given

geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighbourhood) or in virtual space through

communication platforms (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community).

7
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Parasitic worms are among the most common cause of chronic infection in humans; in

developing countries it is more common to be infected than not (Awasthi et al 2003). Infection

thrives and persists in communities in need of better housing, clean water, appropriate sanitation,

better access to health care, education and increased personal earnings (Crompton 1999). This is

typical of most rural communities and urban slums in Nigeria. Children growing up in these

communities can expect to be infected soon after weaning, and to be infected and re-infected

constantly for the rest of their life (Awasthi et al 2003). Helminth infection is a major cause of

disease burden among children in developing countries (World Bank 1993), especially in sub-

Saharan Africa. This high infestation mirrors severe shortage in health care, education, transport,

and chronic poverty (Crompton 1999). Following improvements in child survival, and the

constant increase in the proportion of children living beyond the age of five in many developing

countries, attention is now focused on the health of schoolage children (Bundy and Guyatt 1995).

Currently, there is a care gap in local medicament in the treatment of helminthiasis and Liver

Fluke diseases affecting low-income and underserved communities, resulting in decreased

nonhuman-animal health and welfare at Gidan Tafiyau community in Kafur Local government of

Katsina State. The use of low-price and community medicaments in underserved populations is a

strategy to improve companion-animal health through preventative care, spay/neuter, and other

low-price treatment and services. It seeks to review current trend of infection, the cultural, socio-

8
economic and environmental factors contributing to their prevalence and needed efforts for

control.

2.1. Methods

Information for this review came from a comprehensive search of titles related to intestinal

helminthiasis in Nigeria using PUBMED and other bibliographic databases conducted between

2011 and 2020, using the key words “Nigeria”, “intestinal helminthiasis”, “soil-transmitted

helminths”, “epidemiologic trends”, “chemotherapy” and “school-based control”. The abstracts

of relevant articles and full articles available on line were accessed. Full texts were then obtained

from hand search of journals held in stock by the Lister Hill Library of the Health Sciences at the

University of Alabama at Birmingham. Further searches were conducted based on links from the

articles cited and was limited to publications from 2011 to 2020. Relevant websites such as that

of the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Children Emergency Fund

(UNICEF), were also searched. Information was also obtained from websites related to relevant

agencies in Nigeria like the Federal Ministry of Health, Federal Ministry of Education and the

National Population Commission.

2.2. Results

After excluding duplicate studies, 48 articles and 5 reports were retained for this review. Selected

cited articles on prevalence studies were summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Prevalence estimates of intestinal helminthic infections and Liver fluke disease in Kafur

in Nigeria from 2011-2020.

Year Geographical Sample Sample Parasites Prevalence Comments

9
 Area Size Setting (%)

2011 Dantutture 6,213 Urban Hookworm 16.9 Infection

Ascaris 19.5 due to poor

Trichuris 5.9 dispose of

animal

excreta

2012 Dutsin 6,842 Urban Hookworm 71.1 Infection

Kura/kanya Ascaris 20.6 highest in

Trichuris 7.6 young

animals

especially

during

raining

season

2013 Gamzago 5,595 Urban Hookworm 29.5 Need to

Ascaris 74.2 resuscitate

Trichuris 75.8 the public

sanitary

inspection

act

advocated

2014 Gozaki 478 Rural Hookworm 46.0 Multiple

Ascaris 70.0 infection

10
 Trichuris 4.0 due to

inadequate

health

education

2015 Kafur 6913 Urban Hookworm 18.4 Mixed

Ascaris 39.9 infection

Trichuris 21.9 observed ,

animal

health

education

needed

2016 Mahuta 396 Rural Hookworm 36.0 Infection

Ascaris 11.0 highest in

Trichuris 4.0 young

animals.

Multiple

infection

due to

inadequate

health

education

2017 Masari 1,166 Rural Hookworm 71.1 Infection

Ascaris 74.2 highest in

11
 Trichuris 75.8 young

animals

especially

during

raining

season

2018 Sabuwar Kasa 2,345 Rural Hookworm 36.1 Infection

Ascaris 4.0 due to poor

Trichuris 1.0 dispose of

animal

excreta

2019 Yari Bori 567 Rural Hookworm 75.8 Infection

Ascaris 29.5 highest in

Trichuris 74.2 young

animals

especially

during

raining

season

2020 Yartalata/rigoji 893 Urban Hookworm 16.9 Need to

Ascaris 5.9 resuscitate

Trichuris 19.5 the public

sanitary

12
 inspection

act

advocated

2.3. Discussion

2.3.1. Epidemiology of soil-transmitted Helminthic and liver fluke infections in Nigeria

Reported prevalence studies of soil transmitted helminths since the 1970s have indicated that the

triad of Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and the hookworm species are common

infections in Nigeria (Table 1). It has been reported that the prevalence of these parasites

especially Ascaris has not changed in the past 50 years (Akogun 1989), and poly-parasitism with

these nematodes is also a common occurrence (Ayanwale et al 1982; Arene 1984). Most authors

commented on the unhygienic and common practice of people defecating indiscriminately or

dumping excrement at refuse depots, nearby bushes, underneath bridges, along bush tracks,

motor highways, river banks and even on open fields in the 1980s (Nwosu 1981; Adeyeba and

Dipeolu 1984).

Unfortunately, the situation has not changed much, as there has been little success in the

introduction of latrines to rural Nigeria (Holland and Asaolu 1990). Many houses lack lavatory

facilities and public latrines are scarce (Nwosu 1981; Adeyeba and Dipeolu 1984). The drainage

systems in most cities don’t function effectively, and are often blocked by refuse which leads to

widespread dispersal of ova and larvae of these helminths especially during the raining season

(Obiamiwe 1977; Obiamiwe and Nmorsi 1991). Nwosu’s findings indicated a high degree of

contamination with human faeces in the rural environment (Nwosu 1981). In the urban

13
environment a survey of faecal samples collected from playgrounds, markets, motor parks,

residential and recreational areas revealed that 96.3% of the samples contained ova of Ascaris

lumbricoides (Fashuyi 1983). These natural grazing have been reported as a major source of

infection for animals (Akogun 1989; Umeche 1989). Low level of education and poor socio-

economic status of parents has been associated with helminthic infection in children (Nwosu

1981; Ayanwale et al 1982). In Nigeria, helminthic infections are still a disease of poverty, as

there exist a strong correlation between parental socioeconomic status and intestinal parasitosis

in children. Adekunle et al (1986), found a higher prevalence of helminthic infections in children

whose parents are unemployed or are petty traders, compared to children of professionals and

middle class workers.

2.3.2. Control strategies and need for community-based intervention through sesitization

There is no evidence of countrywide control program for helminthiasis in Nigeria as community

health services are rudimentary (Holland and Asaolu 1990; Ola and Oyeledun 1999) and

currently funding for public health programs are skewed in favour of HIV/AIDS prevention.

Researchers in parasite control had over time advocated for improved sanitation and health

education to achieve an effective reduction of transmission and intensity (Adeyeba and Dipeolu

1984; Alakija 1986; Nwaorgu et al 1998; Smith et al 2001). Nwosu (1981) specifically

emphasized the need to target the younger age groups for health education and behaviour

modification in order to reduce environmental contamination with parasite infective stages. It has

also been suggested that most heavily infected animals in a community should be identified and

treated over a period of years, especially during the dry season, when transmission conditions are

least favourable (Nwosu 1981). These suggestions, if implemented at all, have not achieved

much, as the prevalence of helminth infection still remain high across the country. Lately,

14
targeted chemotherapy solely for high risk groups (school-age children) has been advocated and

has been found to be highly effective in studies carried out at various sites in the country (Udonsi

and Ogan 1993; Nwaorgu et al 1998; Holland et al 1996). Udonsi and Ogan (1993) reported the

operational and clinical effectiveness of community-wide mass expulsion campaign using

primary health care intervention, but the cost-effectiveness of the intervention was not assessed.

Helminth control using chemotherapy can be introduced at relatively low cost into established

health care programs (World Bank 1993; de Silva 2003), and Drake (2001) has suggested school

health services as the most feasible. School health programs offer the opportunity to deliver

public health interventions to a great number of beneficiaries at a relatively low cost. School-

based programs have therefore attracted growing interest by policy makers in developing

countries and donor communities (Curtale et al 2003). There is a growing body of evidence that

in many developing countries schoolbased health services such as treatment of intestinal

nematode infections can be delivered at low cost (World Bank 1993; PCD 1997; de Silva 2003).

For these reasons, de-worming has now become an essential component of school health

programs in many developing countries (Savioli et al 1992). School-based programs also reach

children who are not enrolled in school, usually the most affected group (Beasley et al 2000), and

serve to transmit health education to the whole population.

2.3.3. Recent developments in global helminth control

In 2001, the World Health Assembly set a goal of attaining a minimum target of regular

administration of chemotherapy to at least 75% and up to 100% of all school-age children at risk

of morbidity by 2010 (WHO 2001). To achieve this global target, the WHO advocated a

partnership for parasite control (PPC), involving organizations of the United Nations system,

bilateral agencies, non-governmental organizations, and the private sector (PPC 2002). A

15
consensus framework was developed, codenamed FRESH (Focusing Resources on Effective

community and animal Health, Hygiene and Nutrition Program) (PPC, 2002). School-based anti-

helminth control is simple and inexpensive - costing as little as US$0.03 a dose (PPC 2002). The

effectiveness of this approach has been demonstrated in many resource constrained countries. In

2004, Cambodia became the first country to reach the WHO target by regularly providing

antihelminthic drugs to 84% of its school-aged children (WHO 2004). Some countries in Africa

like Burkina Faso, Cote d’Ivoire, Mali, Uganda, and Zambia among others are also

implementing this program (PPC 2002). Helminthic infections, neglected in the past, are now

back on the public health agenda and their control will have a lasting impact on the health of

children in endemic countries (WHO 2001). Nigerian children certainly stand to benefit from this

renewed interest in helminthic infection control. It is particularly noteworthy that school-based

helminth control programs have been shown to be practicable and well-received at the

community level in Nigeria. Nwaorgu et al. (1998) in their study demonstrated that members of

the community were willing to contribute to drug purchase and assist with the dissemination of

health awareness messages thereby engendering a sense of ownership and ensuring

sustainability.

16
 CHAPTER THREE

Methodology

3.1. Description of the study Area

Katsina State is a state in the northwestern geopolitical zone of Nigeria. Katsina State was

created in 1987, when it split from Kaduna State. Today, Katsina State borders Kaduna,

Zamfara, Kano, and Jigawa States. Nicknamed the "Home of Hospitality", both the state capital

and the town of Daura have been described "ancient seats of Islamic culture and learning" in

Nigeria With over 5,800,000 residents as of 2006, Katsina State is the fifth largest state in the

country by population, despite the fact that it only ranks 17th out of 36 states in terms of area.

Demographically, the Fulani people are the largest ethnic group in the state.

Kafur local government area is Katsina state which is domiciled in the Northwest geopolitical

zone of Nigeria. The headquarter of the LGA is in the town of Kafur with the LGA comprising

of a number of towns and villages such as Unguwar Danyawa, Malumfashi, Gamzako,

Malamawa, Yar-talata, Kuraku, Dan kwaro, and Barakai. It has a land area of 1,106km2 and the

estimated population of Kafur LGA is put at 202,884 inhabitants (2006 population census) with

the vast majority of the area’s dwellers being members of the Hausa and the Fulani ethnic group.

17
The Hausa and the Fufulde languages are extensively spoken in the LGA area. Notable

landmarks in Kafur LGA include the Government Girls Secondary School Malumfashi, National

Open University, Pilot Secondary school, Kafur General Hospital Tsamiya and Kafur Police

station Division among others.

Further information about the population structure:

Males/Females 50%50%Gender Persons

Males 104,620

Females 104,740

Gender (C 2006)

Males 104,620

Females 104,740

0-14 years15-64 years 65+ years49.4%47.8%

Age Groups Persons

0-14 years 103,503

15-64 years 100,041

65+ years 5,816

Age Groups (C 2006)

0-14 years 103,503

15-64 years 100,041

18
65+ years 5,816

0-9 years10-19 years20-29 years30-39 years40-49 years50-59 years60-69 years70-79 years80+

years

Age Distribution Persons

0-9 years 79,948

10-19 years 43,585

20-29 years 33,387

30-39 years 22,135

40-49 years 13,750

50-59 years 7,530

60-69 years 4,234

70-79 years 2,360

80+ years 2,431

The current Governor of Katsina State is Aminu Bello Masari a member of the All Progressives

Congress and ally of President Muhammadu Buhari. The state is considered a political

stronghold of Buhari, a native of Daura, who won the state in the 2019 Presidential Election with

almost 80% of the vote.

In recent years, Katsina has been one of the Nigerian states hit hardest by Terrorism. In 2020,

over 300 children were kidnapped by the terrorist group Boko Haram in the town of Kankara.

19
3.2. GEOGRAPHY OF KAFUR

Kafur LGA occupies a total area of 1,106 square kilometres and has an average temperature of

34 degrees centigrade. The LGA witnesses two distinct seasons which are the rainy and the dry

seasons. The average wind speed in Kafur LGA is estimated at 11 km/h while the total

precipitation in the LGA is put at an estimated 900 mm of rainfall per annum. Furthermore,

Gidan Tafiyau Community is located in Kafur Local Government of Katsina State. A bout

15KM away from Kafur main Town with a population of about 5000 people according to the

LGA Community Development Management Department

3.3. ECONOMY OF KAFUR

Farming is a key feature of the economy of Kafur LGA with crops such as onions and sorghum

grown in large quantities within the area. Trade also flourishes in the LGA with the area hosting

a number of markets such as the Sabuwar Kasa cattle market and the Kafur main market. Other

important economic activities engaged in by the people of Kafur LGA include hunting, pottery,

and leather works.

Therefore, as stated above, Chapter three gives description of the study area, an idea of

efficacious, the effectiveness of the use of local medicaments in the treatment of Helminthiasis

and liver fluke disease in ruminant animals and its contribution to community development at all

levels and animal production for food and shelter..

Sample size and method of sampling:

Thirty (30) ruminant Animal farmers were selected using multi stage sampling technique. The

first stage involved purposeful selection of two (2) wards in the LGA (i.e Masari and Kafur)

given their prominence in Ruminants Animal Production perhaps due to the climatic condition of

20
the areas favouring raising animals. This is based on the information provided by Kafur LGA of

Katsina State (KLAGKS).The second stage was random selection of three communities

(villages) in the selected ward, 2 from Kafur 1 in Masari ward of the LGA putting proximity and

purpose into consideration. The third stage involved random selection of 10 Ruminant farmers in

each of the 3 villages or communities selected forming a group of 30 Ruminants farmers in the

area and the group was used through the study to promote Use of local medicament to treat

Helminthosis and Liver fluke diseases in Ruminants animal.

Considering gender balance, 7 women, 3 younger women, 13 Adult and 7 youth were selected

for the purpose of the research work making up a sampled size of 30 Farmers. They were all

trained on the various method of drugs administration, the objectives of the project and it aims

and formulation of the drugs.

Similarly, all the participants have at least an animal for experimental purpose and the

administration of the drugs was done in the space of 3 days after administration for a period of

14 day (2weeks). Two herbs expertise was contacted in the community for the raw materials they

used to prepare herds drugs. The raw materials are namely:

1. Arabrabi

2. Madachi

3. Kanya

4. Manshanu

21
I often visit the communities and carried out experiments and research which included interviews

too among the community members as you can see me with the community members in the

picture below:

Sunday Emmanue Danladi of Federal University Dutsinma with the people of Gida Tafiyau
community in Kufur local government of katsina State
3.1. TREATMENT OF DAIRY COWS WITH SUBCLINICAL KETOSIS

Treating dairy cows with subclinical ketosis (SCK) at 4 DIM. Healthy cows had blood p-

hydroxybutarate (BHB) concentrations<1.2mM/L and did not receive treatment. Treatment

(TRT) cows were deemed with SCK, defined by a blood BHB of 1.2 to 2.9mM/L, and received

250mL of 50% dextrose solution intravenously and 300mL propylene glycol (PPG) orally for 3

d. Cows that also were subclinical (same criteria as TRT) but did not receive the PPG and

dextrose were designated as "NTRT”. Cows with >2.9mM/L BHB were not enrolled in the trial.

Milk yield was similar for healthy and TRT cows, but milk yield was lower for NTRT cows

22
compared to healthy cows. Milk yield tended to be higher for TRT versus NTRT the increased

milk yield was an average over 90 DIM, so the return over cost of treating SCK was $30

(N11100)/cow for this period. These results provide evidence that it is cost-effective to treat

SCK in recently fresh dairy cows using the protocol in this study, even without the consideration

in reduced risk for other metabolic diseases.

Dairy Cows treated with subclinical ketosis at Gida Tafiyau community in Kufur local

government of katsina State

3.2. TREATMENT OF DAIRY COWS WITH NATURAL HERBS

Since ancient times, medical plants and simpler herbal remedies have been used in all parts of

the world for the treatment and alleviation of various ailments. Although the use of medicinal

plants is as old as mankind itself, their controlled application, the isolation and characterization

of active substances, started only in the early nineteenth century. It is a known fact that the

extractive plant isolates and isolated active substances played a major role in the development of

23
modern pharmacotherapy. Many of the isolated compounds are still used today, or they have

served as a model for the synthesis of a large number of drugs. The use of plants as medicines

has a long history in the treatment of various diseases. Plants especially those with

ethnopharmacological uses have been the primary sources of medicine for early drug discovery.

Sunday Emmanue Danladi of Federal University Dutsinma with the people of Gida Tafiyau
community in Kufur local government of katsina State during sensitization on animal disease.

Herbal remedies, from simple to complex forms, should be made of the raw materials required

for quality, because only then they could be safe and effective for use. The Pharmacopoeia

monographs, Monographs European Medicinal Evaluation Agency (EMEA), which encompasses

monographs World Health Organization (WHO), European Scientific Cooperative on

Phythotherapy (ESCOP), and Commission E (The German Commission E is a scientific advisory

board of the "Bundesinstitut für Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte" formed in 1978. The

24
commission gives scientific expertise for the approval of substances and products previously

used in traditional, folk, and herbal medicine) national regulations, precisely defined parameters

of control quality.

Herb yarrow Achillea millefolium L. is highly regarded medicinal and aromatic plant and has a

long traditional use. According to vertinery monograph, yarrow exhibits antibacterial,

anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antipyretic, antispasmodic, and antiviral activity.

According to the Commission E monograph and the EMEA, yarrow is traditionally used only for

temporary loss of appetite, mild spasmodic complaints of the digestive organs, bloating,

flatulence, and externally as a bath with problems in the lower abdomen in women, and with

superficial wounds. (Web)

The process of making herbal solution from yarrow takes place in the following stages:

1. Purchase of high-quality herbal material (overground top part of the blooming herb),

which meets the quality parameters as prescribed by Pharmacopoeia.

2. Grinding the herb up to a prescribed degree of fragmentation. Grinded herbal drug as a

semi-final product is controlled on the microbiological safety, which is performed in accordance

with the relevant regulations for tea and Pharmacopoeia requirements.

3. Following the positive results obtained from the pharmaceutical and microbiological

laboratories, chopped herbal drug is placed in packaging.

4. Final product of the solution is sent for the control to pharmaceutical and microbiological

laboratories. Pharmaceutical laboratory confirms the authentication and filling volume.

25
5. When a controlled product receives the confirmation that corresponds to the standard

quality, it is dispatched to the warehouse of final products and further distributed to communities

and other places.

The user manual is adapted to the prescribed use as a traditional herbal medicinal: as a means of

relieving complaints of the digestive system, improve appetite, eliminate gases, regulating the

secretion of bile, pains and cramps in the stomach, with the amenorrhea.

A cow treated with natural herbal solution at Gida Tafiyau community in Kufur local
government of katsina State
EVALUTION

The process of drafting a new herbal remedies is very complex and strictly defined phase. Each

step in the process is important, from the initial idea, market analysis, selecting high-quality

plant material and ancillary pharmaceutical raw materials, recipe formulation, production

preparation, quality control of product, preparation of documentation, protection of intellectual

property rights, to the introduction of herbal drug in regular production.

26
The two treatments carried out above in the treatments of helminthiasis and liver fluke disease

shows that both of them were very effective but the cost involved in the modernized treatment

was higher than the cost of the traditional treatment. The community members also expressed

that they lacked access to getting the modern treatment because their location had no access to

vertinary clinics so they adopted the local medicaments in the treatment of helminthiasis and

liver fluke disease for decades and the managing and treatment of their animal diseases.

Sunday Emmanue Danladi of Federal University Dutsinma with the people of Gida Tafiyau
community in Kufur local government of katsina State during lecture with the community
members.
3.3. OBSERVATION OF OTHER RUMINANT ANIMALS

3.3.1. Sheep

Sheep (Ovis aries) are quadrupedal, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Like most

ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates. Although the

name sheep applies to many species in the genus Ovis, in everyday usage it almost always refers

to Ovis aries. Numbering a little over one billion, domestic sheep are also the most numerous

27
species of sheep. An adult female is referred to as a ewe, an intact male as a ram, occasionally a

tup, a castrated male as a wether, and a young sheep as a lamb. (Alberto, Florin, et al, 2018)

Sunday Emmanue Danladi of Federal University Dutsinma with the people of Gida Tafiyau
community in Kufur local government of katsina State during data analysis and interviews on
helminthiasis and liver fluke disease in sheep.

Sheep are most likely descended from the wild mouflon of Europe and Asia, with Iran being a

geographic envelope of the domestication center. One of the earliest animals to be domesticated

for agricultural purposes, sheep are raised for fleeces, meat (lamb, hogget or mutton) and milk. A

sheep's wool is the most widely used animal fiber, and is usually harvested by shearing. Ovine

meat is called lamb when from younger animals and mutton when from older ones in

Commonwealth countries, and lamb in the United States (including from adults). Sheep continue

28
to be important for wool and meat today, and are also occasionally raised for pelts, as dairy

animals, or as model organisms for science. (Hiendleder , Kaupe, et al 2002)

Sheep husbandry is practised throughout the majority of the inhabited world, and has been

fundamental to many civilizations. In the modern era, Australia, New Zealand, the southern and

central South American nations, and the British Isles are most closely associated with sheep

production. (Chessa, Pereira, et al 2009)

In the course of my experiment, interviews and research at Gida Tafiyau community in Kufur

local government of katsina State I decided to take close and serious observation on other

ruminant animals which included sheep, the same experiment was carried on them and found out

that the result was same and the traditional method was more efficacious and cost effective

among the people of Gida Tafiyau community in Kufur local government of katsina State and

therefore should be adopted by other communities too to help reduced the death and low

productivity in ruminant animals.

Sheeps been observed after basic treatment of helminthiasis and liver fluke disease at Gida
Tafiyau community in Kufur local government of katsina State

29
3.3.2. Goats

The domestic goat or simply goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) is a subspecies of C. aegagrus

domesticated from the wild goat of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of

the animal family Bovidae and the subfamily Caprinae, meaning it is closely related to the sheep.

There are over 300 distinct breeds of goat. It is one of the oldest domesticated species of animal,

according to archaeological evidence that its earliest domestication occurred in Iran at 10,000

calibrated calendar years ago. Goats have been used for milk, meat, fur, and skins across much

of the world. Milk from goats is often turned into goat cheese. (Hirst, 2008)

Female goats are referred to as does or nannies, intact males are called bucks or billies, and

juvenile goats of both sexes are called kids. Castrated males are called wethers. While the words

hircine and caprine both refer to anything having a goat-like quality, hircine is used most often to

emphasize the distinct smell of domestic goats. (Coffey, Linda, et al 2007)

In 2011, there were more than 924 million goats living in the world, according to the UN Food

and Agriculture Organization. While goats are generally considered hardy animals and in many

situations receive little medical care, they are subject to a number of diseases. Among the

conditions affecting goats are respiratory diseases including pneumonia, foot rot, internal

parasites, pregnancy toxosis, and feed toxicity. Feed toxicity can vary based on breed and

location. Certain foreign fruits and vegetables can be toxic to different breeds of goats.

(Calvert,et al 1975)

30
Sunday Emmanue Danladi of Federal University Dutsinma with the people of Gida Tafiyau
community in Kufur local government of katsina State after research on goats and animal
statistics

Goats can become infected with various viral and bacterial diseases, such as foot-and-mouth

disease, caprine arthritis encephalitis, caseous lymphadenitis, pinkeye, mastitis, and

pseudorabies. They can transmit a number of zoonotic diseases to people, such as tuberculosis,

brucellosis, Q-fever, and rabies. A goat is useful to humans when it is living and when it is dead,

first as a renewable provider of milk, manure, and fiber, and then as meat and hide. Some

charities provide goats to impoverished people in poor countries, because goats are easier and

cheaper to manage than cattle, and have multiple uses. In addition, goats are used for driving and

packing purposes. (Belanger, et al 2010)

The intestine of goats is used to make "catgut", which is still in use as a material for internal

human surgical sutures and strings for musical instruments. It is also important to note that the

horn of the goat, which signifies plenty and wellbeing (the cornucopia), is also used to make

spoons. (Taylor 1988)

In my experiment and evaluation in the course of my research at Gida Tafiyau community in

Kufur local government of katsina State, I took out special time to observe goats the same
31
method was used and the result showed that the local medicaments were more cost effective

among the community.

Goats been observed after basic treatment of helminthiasis and liver fluke disease at Gida
Tafiyau community in Kufur local government of katsina State
EVALUATION

A comprehensive approach to these problems, the state of the field of medicinal plants and

herbal remedies, can be repaired. A better education of people is involved in the collection and

cultivation of medicinal plants on the necessity of obtaining plant raw material of high quality. In

particular, it should encourage the concept of organic production herbal products. Producers

should be required to produce only quality-assured medicines.

Improved harmonization of regulatory classification of herbal preparations in the world would

inevitably lead to greater transparency and consistency of the market. Special attention should be

paid to improving knowledge about the benefits of rational phytotherapy, particularly evidence-

based phytotherap, health workers, especially doctors.

32
The aim of all efforts would be to improve the overall awareness of the possibilities of choice in

prevention and treatment and can judge the effectiveness of the use of medicinal herbs and

herbal preparations.

33
 CHAPTER FOUR

The relevance of the efficacious and cost effectiveness of local medicaments in treating

Helminthiasis and liver fluke disease in ruminant animals has ebbed and flowed over the past

years of human existence. For many practitioners and rural animal breeders, it remain a

significant contributor to understanding and production of high breed of animals. It is easy to

forget how the use local of local medicaments have become pervasive in the contemporary

modernized culture. The use of local medicaments has also continue to guide academic studies

and research in the school of animal disease and prevention. Many consider local medicaments

to be metaphysical and unstable, while others see it as an efficacious and cost effective method

in the treatment of helminthiasis and liver fluke disease in ruminant animals especially at Gidan

Tafiyau in Kafur local government of Katsina State.

4.1. The Relevance Of The Efficacious And Cost Effectiveness Of Local Medicaments In

Treating Helminthiasis And Liver Fluke Disease In Ruminant Animals

Cattle are parasitized by various helminth species, the most important being gastrointestinal

nematodes (GIN), lungworms and liver fluke. These pathogens can cause severe disease, affect

productivity in all classes of stock, and are amongst the most important production-limiting

diseases of grazing ruminants. Essentially all herds/flocks in a grass-based production system are

affected. Infections with GIN and liver fluke are more chronic and the major economic impact is

due to sub-clinical infections causing reduced growth, milk yield and fertility. Infections with

lungworm are more acute and can place a sudden high economic burden on a farm due to

mortalities and sharp decreases in milk yield. (Lim, 2011)

34
Over the last decade, the pressure on farm income has further increased due to higher production

costs and fluctuating output prices. Subtle changes in production efficiency can make the

difference between profit and loss. Efficient farming with an optimal management of inputs such

as stock, feed, and labour has therefore become increasingly important. Animal health decisions

have a significant impact on production efficiency, but are also subject to resource scarcity and

budget constraints. Veterinarians are thus increasingly challenged to consider the economic

aspects of their work for a farmer. Hence, economic evaluation frameworks are needed that can

be integrated in decision making.

Once the economic value of specific animal health interventions can be demonstrated,

veterinarians are faced with a second problem. How can they convince the farmer to implement

their advice? Often the claim of an economic benefit will not be sufficient to induce a real

change in farm management, even if it is grounded on solid scientific evidence. In other words,

we need to understand the complete rationality of farmers’ behaviour in order to improve

compliance with the provided advice.

In recent years, research in these 2 fields (i.e. economics and socio-psychology) is emerging in

the field of animal health in general as well as in the field of helminth control in ruminants. In

this paper, we discuss the diagnostic tools and methods that are available to assess the economic

impact of helminth infections on (dairy) cattle farms as well as recent insights in farmer attitudes

and behaviour that can help in the development of effective communication strategies to increase

the uptake of proposed intervention strategies.

35
4.1.1. Diagnosis to Assess Production

Over the last decade, an important paradigm shift occurred in the diagnosis of parasitic helminth

infections in cattle. There has been a shift in focus from merely detecting presence/absence of

infection towards detecting its impact on production. This is important because i) helminth

infections are highly prevalent (“a cow without parasites is not a cow”) and ii) not every

infection is of economic relevance. For example, fasciolosis is mostly a chronic disease, and

often it is already known when the infection is around on the farm. Instead of demonstrating

presence/absence of infection in a cow or herd, it is more relevant to identify the associated

production losses to convince farmers that further diagnosis, and control measures, are worth

considering. This paradigm shift has been made possible by epidemiological research that

observed consistent negative correlations between helminth diagnostic test results and measures

of productivity.

In first-season grazing cattle, the serum pepsinogen concentration can be used to discriminate

between different levels of Ostertagia ostertagi-infection and morbidity and associated

production losses. However, the lack of standardization between laboratories, the relatively high

cost of the test and the fact that much of its informative value is lost soon after housing of the

animals, when there is no new exposure to incoming infective larvae, are important constrains to

its widespread uptake. Consequently, current research is investigating the value of O. ostertagi

serum antibody levels in assessing production impacts, as it could overcome some of these

drawbacks. Faecal egg counts (FECs) of GIN correlate well with initial infection rates

approximately 2 months after turnout on pasture for first-season grazing animals. However, after

that period, host immunity reduces the correlation with actual worm burden and it seems

impossible to indicate what weight gains are obtained by the end of the first grazing season, from

36
FECs measured early in the season. Therefore, FECs are primarily considered useful for

understanding epidemiology rather than assessing infection levels or production impact.

In adult cattle, consistent negative relationships have been demonstrated between antibody levels

to GIN or liver fluke in bulk tank milk and herd-average milk production. In beef cattle, the

quantification of antibody levels against GIN and liver fluke in meat juice obtained in the

abattoir has been proposed, showing negative correlations with carcass weight and conformation

score. Studies have also shown negative relationships between helminth-specific antibody levels

and reproduction and mortality indices at the herd level. Most recently, negative correlations

have been established between a bulk tank milk ELISA for lungworm infection and milk

production. Results showed a difference in milk production and milk fat of 1.0–1.7 kg/cow per

day and 0.08–0.14 % between lungworm positive and negative herds, respectively, providing for

the first time evidence of the economic importance of subclinical lungworm infections.

These established relationships can be used to indicate helminth-induced production losses

associated with a test result of a specific farm. Several limitations with this approach remain,

such as the lack of species-specificity of the measured antibody levels and the rather weak

relationship between detected antibody levels and production responses after anthelmintic

treatment. Nonetheless, it provides an ally to communicate to farmers on the importance (or not)

of a helminth infection and to help monitor potential production losses.

4.1.2. Economic Impact

The impact of helminths on animal productivity is increasingly well understood, but the

economic impact depends on multiple other factors such as farm-specific input and output prices

and local regulations. The established links between diagnostics for different helminth infections

37
with production losses, now allow including this information in models that aim to assess the

economic impact of the infection at regional or even farm-level. Such economic models of

animal diseases are important because they contribute to balance expenditures on disease control

with the actual disease costs and to evaluate the economic attractiveness of animal health

interventions compared to other investment opportunities.

Considerable progress has been made in recent years with models to estimate the cost of

helminth infections and/or interventions measures at the farm level. Some of these models are

available to veterinarians at www.ParaCalc.com. First, there is a deterministic spread-sheet

model (“cost of worm infections”) where results from diagnostic methods (i.e. pepsinogen assay

and serum ELISA for growing cattle and bulk tank milk ELISAs for adult cattle) to monitor the

helminth infection status on a dairy herd and anthelmintic usage are used as input parameters.

It produces a report with the expected annual loss due to infections with GIN and liver fluke to

discuss with the farmer. The model is useful to evaluate the general importance of the infections,

to monitor the evolution of costs across different years and to benchmark the results with peers.

However, it does not consider the principle of “recoverable loss”. How much of the total costs

induced by helminth infections can be avoided by intervention measures? This is often difficult

to determine because: (i) it is impossible to eliminate the infection from a farm; (ii) there can be

remaining tissue damage after effective treatment or (iii) re-infection can occur at varying levels.

Obtaining such information requires the set-up of experiments, by preference under commercial

farming conditions that evaluate the impact of specific intervention measures. Such information

is increasingly available, especially to evaluate the production effects of strategic anthelmintic

usage e.g. , and this information was used to develop the second tool “treatment strategies

against gastrointestinal worms” on ParaCalc.com. It estimates the likely economic benefit and

38
uncertainty of a number of anthelmintic treatment strategies of adult cows and produces a report

to discuss with the farmer. (Giner, 1978)

Most recently, the farm-specific economic impact of helminth infections has also been studied

using efficiency analysis. Efficiency analysis studies the conversion of input(s) into output(s) and

compares the current performance level of a farm with the performance level of peer farms with

similar production technologies. Using this approach, GIN infections appeared to mainly

constrain the efficient transformation of pasture, health related costs and labour into milk. The

inefficiency related with GIN infections was reduced when both high levels of concentrates and

also high levels of roughage were supplied. Efficiency analysis has the potential to identify

different improvement paths depending on the farm-specific production process and this was

recently investigated by van der Voort et al. Farms were clustered in 3 groups depending on

technical efficiency (TE) and input use. In low TE farms with a relatively low use of

concentrates, there was no correlation between TE and level of exposure to GIN. Therefore, they

are unlikely to improve economic performance by lowering the exposure to GIN infections.

Analysis suggested they could best improve economic performance by making more use of

concentrates. In farms with an intermediate TE and relatively high use of concentrates, there was

a strong negative correlation between GIN exposure and TE. In addition, analysis showed that

economic performance could be improved by substituting part of concentrates by grazing, which

could lead to a higher infection pressure. (Verson, 1984)

This makes monitoring GIN infection and intervening by anthelmintic treatment when

significant GIN exposure is observed, crucial in this group. In farms with the highest TE and

intermediate use of concentrates, there was also a negative correlation between TE and GIN

exposure. Analysis suggested that the economic performance could be improved by both

39
reducing input use and reducing infection. In conclusion, efficiency analysis allows establishing

links between animal disease and input use and inputting transformation. It can detect trade-offs

and synergies between animal health interventions and input-output transformation. Whereas the

implications of a vet’s advice are traditionally restrained to animal health issues and the

improvement of technical key performance indicators, with this technique, we should be able to

place our advice better in the whole-farm economic context. This approach is still in the research

phase, but it is to be expected that it will be integrated in practical decision support tools for herd

health management in the medium term. (Castrol, 1969)

4.1.3. Non-Economic Factors that Drive Animal Health Decisions

Suppose that we have a high quality economic assessment report at hand to discuss with the

farmer and that we are able to distil clear suggestions to improve his/her animal health

management. Will this be sufficient for the farmer to implement our proposed strategies? It is

now well understood that farmers’ decisions about their enterprises are not solely based on

financial and business criteria. Farmers’ motives are rooted in deeply held values and also

influenced by attitudes, beliefs and social norms. Understanding all the values that drive farmer

behaviour requires socio-psychological research, aimed to increase understanding of a farmer’s

rationality and more effective advisory interventions.

In the field of helminth control, Vande Velde et al. investigated farmers’ intention to adopt

diagnostic methods before implementing anthelmintic drugs in cattle. Based on two fundamental

theories in the fields of behavioural and health psychology, a survey was carried out in 574

Flemish dairy farms to investigate the influence of the following variables: ‘attitude towards

preventive use of anthelmintics’, ‘attitude towards diagnostic tools’, ‘subjective norms’,

‘behavioural control’ and ‘perceived risk’. The results showed that ‘attitude towards diagnostic

40
methods’ and ‘subjective norms’; i.e. the influence of significant others, had the strongest,

positive influence on adoption intention of diagnostic methods. ‘Attitude towards the preventive

use of anthelmintic drugs’ had a negative effect on adoption intention of the diagnostic methods.

‘Perceived risk’, which was defined as the perceived susceptibility and severity of anthelmintic

resistance on their farm, had no effect on the intention to adopt diagnostic methods. These results

implicate that if we want to persuade farmers to make more use of diagnosis before anthelmintic

treatment decisions are made, we should reinforce their positive attitude towards diagnosis and

make use of their social network, which could implicate family, peer-farmers and the

veterinarian. At present, the argument of anthelmintic resistance has no or little effect on dairy

farmers’ intention to use diagnostics for helminth diseases, at least in this study population.

(Alabi, 1988)

In order to investigate how veterinarians can improve their communication, we can learn from

socio-psychological studies that have been conducted on different topics such as bio-security,

notification of modifiable diseases, antimicrobial usage and mastitis management. Although the

results cannot be extrapolated beyond their scope, similar patterns often emerge. Identification of

different behavioural types is a first step towards better adapted advice and increased

compliance. In the UK, (Rehman et al.1987) differentiated farmers with a family orientation

from entrepreneurs, life-stylers, hobbyists and independent farmers, respectively. In Brazil,

(Pereira et al. 1987) were able to classify beef farmers that were considered receptive towards

novel technology adoption based on their main sets of goals and values: the professional farmer,

the committed environmentalist, the profit maximiser and the aspirant top farmer. The study

showed a considerable diversity of values and goals even within this subset of progressive

farmers.

41
This diversity should be taken into account, because the advice that is in accordance with and

reinforce the farmer’s core values will have the highest uptake. Age may also be an important

criterion as (Hamilton, 1987) showed that young farmers (<45 years) tend be more

entrepreneurial and amenable to change. Finally, the subjective norms, i.e. the social network

surrounding the farmer, are often one of the most influential factors in driving animal health

decisions. This can be exploited by the organization of farmer groups to provide a forum where

farmers can explore management options and learn from each others’ views and experience.

Group learning is most successful if it includes experiential learning, group autonomy and builds

on ongoing relationships and learning opportunities. A catch can be that endemic livestock

disease can be viewed as a problem for ‘bad’ farmers and not an issue for those individuals who

manage their stock well. As such, there may be a low motivation to form groups to address what

is largely perceived as an individual problem.

Several diagnostic tools and methods are now available to assess the economic impact of

helminth infections on (dairy) cattle farms. These include herd anamnesis in combination with

serum pepsinogen assay and bulk tank milk ELISA for O. ostertagi, F. hepatica and D. viviparus.

The use of these diagnostics is being integrated in decision support tools that should allow the

veterinarian to estimate the economic consequences of his/her interventions and advice regarding

helminth control. This can contribute in general to a ‘diagnosis before treatment’ approach and

thus increase the sustainability of anthelmintic control by a better grounded and selective

treatment. (Ostertagi, 1997)

Besides economic evaluations, more emphasis will have to be put on how advice is most

effectively communicated. With the current plethora in websites, blogs and other communication

channels, farmers are looking for trustworthy sources where they find reliable information that

42
fits their situation. Private veterinarians are widely seen as such credible sources of information.

Yet it appears that our communicative skills can still be improved. Farmers in general do not

voluntarily communicate on their needs regarding animal health and, therefore, veterinarians

should actively seek those needs. Further, being more explicit during farm visits in discussing the

farmer’s goals and priorities and providing a clear summary at the end of the visit of any advice

given, would mean a significant step forward towards improved veterinary communication. By

understanding the core goals and values of different types of farmers, advice can be better

targeted and framed in order to achieve higher compliance and farmer satisfaction. (Bernard,

1998)

4.2. Advantages Of The Use Of Local Medicaments

4.2.1. Endometritis

After calving, all cows have a uterus which is contaminated with bacteria, which in most cases is

eliminated within a few weeks. However in a minority of cows, this contamination is not

eliminated and the uterus becomes infected. In most cases the infection is mild but chronic,

meaning it doesn't affect the cow but does results in infertility. Some cows may have an obvious

vulval discharge, but many will not.

Only two treatments have shown any evidence of effectiveness - prostaglandins and intra-uterine

antibiotics. Antibiotics have the best evidence of an economic benefit, and seem to be effective

in cows and without a CL, whereas the data suggest that PG works best in cows with a CL. There

is no good evidence that injectable antibiotics are useful for the treatment of endometritis.

Variations between cows in the severity and chronicity of endometritis means that there are no

simple calculations as there are for treating missed heats, as the response is cow dependent.

43
However, in large scale studies, antibiotic treatment of cows with endometritis has been shown

to decrease calving to first service interval, increase first service conception rates, and decrease

calving to conception intervals. Based on these results it would be a reasonable expectation that

cows with endometritis that are treated with intra-uterine antibiotics get pregnant 10 days earlier

than untreated cows - a return of £20 for an £8 cost.

The key to effective antibiotic treatment is to not treat too early or too late. Treatment under 10

days after calving is unlikely to be beneficial as many treated cows would have had normal

fertility (due to 'self-cure') and in some cows may do more harm than good. If treatment is

delayed until after 56 days then it will be less effective, partly because the uterus has less time

before breeding to become normal, but also because the longer a cow is infected for, the less

responsive to treatment the endometritis will be.

PG treatment is cheaper than antibiotic treatment, but whereas intrauterine antibiotics seem to

work whatever the ovarian status of the affected cows, PG seems to work most effectively in

cows with a CL. Recent work in New Zealand has shown that treating cows with a CL with PG

and treating the rest with antibiotics was as effective as treating all cases with an antibiotic. Such

a protocol takes more time but it suits a UK situation where treatment is focussed on individual

cows better than the seasonal New Zealand system and also has the benefit of reducing antibiotic

use.

No matter what treatment is used, the fertility of cows with endometritis will still be worse than

that of their normal untreated compatriots. It is important, therefore, to focus on preventing

endometritis by ensuring transition cows are managed well, i.e. BCS is both too high nor too

low, dry matter intakes are high in the last 2-3 weeks and the risk of metabolic disease,

particularly milk fever, is reduced. Dystocia is another crucial risk factor, particularly in heifers.

44
To reduce the risk of dystocia avoid over-fat cows and choose bulls which score highly for

calving ease.

4.2.2. Cystic Ovaries

After endometritis, the most common abnormality diagnosed in cows presented to veterinarians

at routine visits is the ovarian cyst. These are large structures that persist on the ovary and

prevent normal function. In most cases, the result is a cow which doesn't show heat;

occasionally, an affected cow will come into heat every two or three days (nymphomania), but

such cows are rare. As with persistent CL, a single examination is not sufficient to confirm that

an ovarian structure is persistent, so most cows are diagnosed as 'cystic' on the basis of size and

clinical signs alone.

From a treatment perspective there are two types of cyst - those that will just respond to

stimulation of ovulation ('thin-walled' or follicular) and those which require luteolysis ('thick-

walled'). However, they can be difficult to separate and clinically there is often little difference,

therefore most common treatment regimes both induce luteolysis and stimulate ovulation.

Cystic ovaries can spontaneously cure without treatment; this occurs when ovarian function

begins again, even though the cyst may still be present. But the numbers are small - one study

showed 50% recovering within 60 days - and the recovery can take a long time (on average 30

days). So, not treating is not a good option.

Lactating dairy cows need to be exposed to progesterone before ovulation in order to ovulate and

produce a CL. (Gumen, Sartori et al 2002, Wilbank, Gumen et al 2002, Gumen and Wilbank

2005). Therefore, progesterone is the main component of treatment for cystic ovarian disease,

this can be a combination of inserting a progesterone device ('PRID Delta' or 'CIDR') and using a

45
GnRH injection to help form a CL and let the cow produce her own progesterone. The

progesterone device should be inserted for 7 to 12 days. These protocols allow for a FTAI and

therefore ensure the cow is served with no lost time.

4.2.3. Treating Anoestrus Cows

Anoestrus means not ovulating; cows in anoestrus are therefore not cycling normally and not

ovulating. There are two kinds of anoestrus cow: 1) Deep anoestrus where nothing is happening

on the ovary; and 2) shallow anoestrus where the ovary is functioning but none of the follicles

ovulate. The former kind is much more difficult to treat but less common. Poor body condition,

particularly excess loss of body condition between calving and mating is the key factor

underlying prolonged periods of anoestrus post-calving. Management of the transitional cow is

crucial in reducing the need to treat anoestrus with hormones.

In the US, where synchronisation programmes are more commonly used than in the UK, a wide

range of programmes have been tested as treatments for anoestrus. The evidence suggests that

the best results are achieved by a combination of a GPG ('Ov-synch') programme with a

progesterone device. The GPG programme alone stimulates ovulation in most cows, but

conception rates are often poor. It is likely that this is because of a lack of progesterone priming

in anoestrus cows (as they haven't had a period of high progesterone before they are

inseminated). The addition of a progesterone device to the programme primes the brain, ovaries

and uterus, increasing conception rate. Another hormone, equine chorionic gonadotrophin ('ecG')

is often used in anoestrus cows as it has been shown to increase conception rate.

4.3. CRITICISMS /CHALLENGES OF THE USE OF LOCAL MEDICAMENTS

4.3.1. Influence of Regulatory Policies on Safety of Herbal Medicines

46
It has been observed that most of the problems associated with the use of traditional and herbal

medicines arise mainly from the classification of many of these products as foods or dietary

supplements in some countries. As such, evidence of quality, efficacy, and safety of these herbal

medicines is not required before marketing. In the same vein, quality tests and production

standards tend to be less rigorous or controlled and in some cases, traditional health practitioners

may not be certified or licensed. The safety of traditional and herbal medicines has therefore

become a major concern to both national health authorities and the general public (Kasilo and

Trapsida, 2011).

Until 2011, there were three possible regulatory routes by which an herbal product could reach a

consumer in the UK. The unlicensed herbal remedy is the commonest route which does not have

to meet specific standards of safety and quality neither is it required to be accompanied by safety

information for the consumer (Raynor et al., 2011). Recently, the European Union (EU)

implemented a directive after a 7-year transition period to harmonize the regulation of traditional

herbal medicine products across the EU and establish a simplified licensing system in order to

help the public make informed choices about the use of herbal products. This requires that all

manufactured herbal products either gain a product license of the type needed to manufacture

“conventional” products or become registered as a “traditional herbal medicinal product”

(Routledge, 2008; Raynor et al., 2011).

4.3.2. Challenges Associated with Monitoring Safety of Herbal Medicines

With the enormous global consumption of herbal products and medicines, it is high time they

were included in pharmacovigilance systems. In terms of population exposure alone, it is

essential to identify the risks associated with the use of herbal medicines, and in this regard, the

safety of these products has become an issue of great public health importance (WHO, 2004,

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2005b). There is no doubt that the increasing cases of poisoning associated with the use herbal

medicines in many parts of the world in recent times, is necessitating the need to ensure thorough

toxicity assessment alongside active pharmacovigilance on these products in order to promote

their safe use and protect public health (Zhou et al., 2013).

The development as well as implementation of the regulation of traditional or herbal medicines

in different parts of the world is often confronted with several challenges. Challenges often

encountered and common to many countries are those related to regulatory status, assessment of

safety and efficacy, quality control, safety monitoring and inadequate or poor knowledge about

traditional, complementary/alternative, and herbal medicines within national drug regulatory

authorities (WHO, 2005b).

4.3.3. Challenges Related To the Regulatory Status of Herbal Medicines

The definition and categorization of herbal medicines vary from one country to another.

Depending on the regulations applying to foods and medicines, a single medicinal plant may be

categorized as a food, a functional food, a dietary supplement, or a herbal medicine in different

countries. This introduces serious difficulty in the definition of the concept of herbal medicines

for the purposes of national drug regulation while at the same time also confusing patients and

consumers (WHO, 2005b). In the United States, for example, natural products are regulated

under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994 (U.S. Food and Drug

Administration, 2012). By definition, a dietary supplement is a product that is ingested and is

intended to supplement the diet and contains a “dietary ingredient.” The dietary ingredients in

these products may include vitamins, minerals, herbs, or other botanicals (U.S. Food and Drug

Administration, 2011). Under the DSHEA, additional toxicity studies are generally not required

if the herb has been on the market prior to 1994 (National Institute of Health (NIH) Office of

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Dietary Supplements, 2011). In this regard, the FDA bears the burden to prove that a herbal

medicinal product or “dietary ingredient” is toxic or not safe for use. Additional major challenge

in many countries is the fact that regulatory information on herbal medicines is often not shared

between regulatory authorities and safety monitoring or pharmacovigilance centres (WHO,

2004).

4.3.4. Challenges Related To the Assessment of Safety and Efficacy

There is no gainsaying the fact that the requirements as well as the research protocols, standards

and methods needed for the evaluation of the safety and efficacy of herbal medicines are much

more complex than those required for conventional or orthodox pharmaceuticals (WHO, 2005b;

Zhou et al., 2013). A single herbal medicine or medicinal plant may contain hundreds of natural

constituents, and a mixed herbal medicinal product may contain several times that number.

Suppose every active ingredient were to be isolated from individual herb from which the herbal

medicine is formulated or produced, the time and resources required would be tremendous. Such

an analysis may practically be impossible especially where an herbal product is a mixture of two

or more herbs (WHO, 2005b).

4.3.5. Challenges Related To Quality Control Of Herbal Medicines

The quality of the source materials used in the production of herbal medicines determines to a

large extent the safety and efficacy of these herbal remedies. Generally, the quality of source

materials is dependent not only on intrinsic (genetic) factors, but also on extrinsic factors like

environmental conditions, good agricultural, and good collection practices (GACP) for medicinal

plants, including plant selection and cultivation. It is the combination of these factors that makes

it difficult to perform quality controls on the raw materials of herbal medicines (WHO, 2004,

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2005b). According to good manufacturing practice (GMP), correct identification of species of

medicinal plants, special storage, and special sanitation and cleaning methods for various

materials are important requirements for quality control of starting materials.

One of the major challenges often encountered in the quality control of finished herbal medicinal

products, especially mixture herbal products, is the difficulty in ascertaining the inclusion of all

the plants or starting materials (WHO, 2005b). Thus, the general requirements and methods for

quality control of finished herbal products remain far more complex than for other

pharmaceuticals (WHO, 2003, 2004, 2005b). To ensure safety and efficacy of herbal medicines,

therefore, WHO continues to recommend the institution of quality assurance and control

measures such as national quality specification and standards for herbal materials, GMP for

herbal medicines, labeling, and licensing schemes for manufacturing, import and marketing, in

countries where herbal medicines are regulated (WHO, 2004).

4.3.6. Challenges Related To Safety Monitoring Of Herbal Medicines

In recent years, issues relating to increasing use of herbal products in developed countries,

dependence of many people living in developing countries on plants as a major source of

medicines coupled with absence or weak regulation of herbal medicines in most countries and

the occurrence of high-profile safety concerns, have increased awareness of the need to monitor

safety and deepen understanding of possible harmful as well as potential benefits associated with

the use of herbal medicines (Rodrigues and Barnes, 2013). Adverse events arising from

consumption of herbal medicines are attributable to several factors among which include the use

of the wrong species of plant by mistake, adulteration of herbal products with other, undeclared

medicines, contamination with toxic or hazardous substances, overdosage, misuse of herbal

50
medicines by either healthcare providers or consumers and use of herbal medicines

concomitantly with other medicines.

Although, the assessment of the safety of herbal medicines has become an important issue for

consumers, regulatory authorities, and healthcare professionals, analysis of adverse events

related to the use of these products is much more complex than in the case of conventional

pharmaceuticals (WHO, 2005b; Zhou et al., 2013). It is also recognized that evaluation of safety

is complicated by factors such as the geographical origin of plant material, different processing

techniques, route of administration, and compatibility with other medicines (Zhang et al., 2012).

Furthermore, there is lack of the knowledge and/or poor emphasis on the importance of

taxonomic botany and documentation by most manufacturers of herbal medicines and this poses

peculiar challenges during identification and collection of medicinal plants used for herbal

remedies (Farah et al., 2000).

4.4. EVALUATION

The global acceptance and use of herbal medicines and related products continue to assume

exponential increase. Issues relating to adverse reactions in recent times are also becoming more

vivid, increasing in prevalence and no longer debatable because of previous misconception of

regarding or categorizing herbal medicinal products as “safe” because they are derived from

“natural” source. The reality is that “safety” and “natural” are not synonymous. Therefore,

regulatory policies on herbal medicines need to be standardized and strengthened on a global

scale. Relevant regulatory authorities in different countries of the world need to be proactive and

continue to put in place appropriate measures to protect public health by ensuring that all herbal

medicines approved for sale are safe and of suitable quality.

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Providers of medicines, such as physicians, nurses, and pharmacists, often have little training in

and understanding of how herbal medicines affect the health of their patients. Many of them are

also poorly informed about these products and how they are being used. Adequate training is

now very essential since most patients are almost often on other types of prescription or non-

prescription medicines. In spite of the fact that the active involvement of orthodox healthcare

professionals is continuously solicited and huge responsibility lies with them in terms of their

valuable contributions to safety monitoring of medicinal products, it is also very important that

all providers of herbal medicines are sufficiently empowered to play a role in monitoring safety

of herbal medicines. This, however, should be in collaboration with the orthodox healthcare

professionals. For this to be effective, it would be essential to create an atmosphere of trust to

facilitate adequate sharing of knowledge about the use and safety of herbal medicines. In fact,

the education of healthcare professionals, providers of herbal medicines, and patients/consumers

is vital for the prevention of potentially serious risks from misuse of herbal medicines.

Of crucial importance also is an appropriate knowledge base relevant to diagnostic and treatment

decision-making. Furthermore, individual healthcare provider should also show sufficient

commitment toward understanding the use of herbal medicines. This can be by asking relevant

questions about the use of these herbal remedies among others whenever they encounter patients

who are taking these medications. Health professionals who work in poisons centers and health

information services also need to be informed about herbal medicines. Finally, as with other

medicines for human use, it has become mandatory that herbal medicines are covered in every

country of the world by a drug regulatory framework to ensure that they conform with required

standards of safety, quality, and efficacy.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

5.1. SUMMARY

The basic elements of discussion is animal disease and Helminthiasis and Liver Fluke diseases

were discovered to be responsible for economic losses in ruminant animals and are characterized

by reduced milk production, decreased working efficiency, and even death at Gidan Tafiyau

community in Kafur Local government of Katsina State. There are other animals disease which

are also causing a lot of harm in the above named community but the two predominant diseases

were experimented and a better way was found which could be efficacious and at the same time

be cost effective to the community.

The most important aspect of this study is that, the effect of different helminthiasis and liver

fluke local anthelmintic treatments on ruminant animals control in different parity cattle (Friesian

crossbreds) at calving and their effect on milk yield were evaluated. The economics of

helminthiasis and liver fluke and farm benefits in terms of increased milk production after

deworming was also calculated. This experiment helped me a lot in discovering that natural

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treatment of animals can make them healthier and better meat for human consumption and

commercial purposes.

Through the use of a questionnaire survey which was carried out to document traditional

remedies used in the treatment of helminthiasis and liver fluke disease in cattle wounds and

myiasis in Gidan Tafiyau community in Kafur local government of Kastina State. Eighty-three

cattle farmers from nine villages were interviewed. The majority of respondents (67.9%) use

traditional remedies for treatment of these conditions. However, 25.9% of them use a

combination of traditional remedies with conventional medicines. The survey revealed that 13

medicinal plants belonging to 11 families were used. Aloe ferox, Prunus persica and Phytolacca

heptandra were, however, the most commonly used. Leaves are the most frequently used plant

part, often prepared as an infusion. Other non-plant remedies used include disinfectants,

antiseptics as well as diesel and petrol. Manual removal of maggots from wounds was also

practise and treatment is usually continued until the wound heals. The administration of the

questionnaires among the community members gave me a better feedback as to gathering of data

from community participants as shown in chapter three of the research above.

There were many methods available to choose for this study, but for the sake for the general

understanding of the community which predominantly is dwell by uneducated animal rearers , ,I

used the analytical and the expository approaches. The analytical approach will be used in

bringing to limelight the basic local treatments of helminthiasis and liver fluke disease to a

reasonable extent while the expository approach will be used in exposing the present increase in

the rate of helminthiasis and liver fluke disease among Gidan Tafiyau community in Kufur local

government of katsina State both on its dangers and economic effects to the community. Finally,

this work draws the consciousness of Gidan Tafiyau Community that the only efficacy and cost

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effective treatment of ruminant animals through the application of local treatment methods as

shown above on both the efficacy and cost effectiveness of the local medicaments in the

community.

Despite the criticism of the use of local medicaments in the treatment of helminthiasis and liver

fluke disease in ruminant animals in Gidan Tafiyau community of Kastina State, local

medicaments continue to have variety of advantages that helped to expand our psychological

understanding of local treatment of animals and limitations that have spurred further research

and the expansion into the realm of community development. Animals serve different purpose to

man and improves the economic value of different communities.

5.2. RECOMMENDATION

On the basis of the research findings discussed above, I have the following recommendation to

make

• The use of local medicaments in the treatment of ruminant animals should be given

serious attention because it is at the local communities that ruminant animals are predominantly

raised and the community members have better local medicaments than the modern

medicaments.

• Local medicaments should not just be left in the hands of individuals. This is because

some local individuals lack the better knowledge or information to treat animals with the local

medicaments. The government should therefore provide adequate sensitization to these

communities at periodic seasons to help improve animal production through local medicaments.

• Since the use of local medicaments is mostly done in rural areas, the government should

empower some community members who could serve as animal care givers and enlighteners in

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those communities to help them constantly get enlightened and improve on the quality and

quantity of animal production. Such trainings should be handled by the elites in those

communities.

• Animal production generally should be encouraged mostly in the rural communities as it

serve as meat, raw materials for production and even as shelter to man. High level of animal

production would help boost economy of different communities.

• Using local medicaments in animal treatment also saves a lot of cost to the animal’s

keepers and increases his/her profit for commercial purposes. Those are use local medicaments

tend to have more money when the go to make sales of their animals.

CONCLUSION

With the use of local medicaments in the treatment of helminthiasis and liver fluke disease in

ruminant animals at Gidan Tafiyau community of Kastina State, I came to understand that herbs

are very strong and natural medicaments that render quick and active relief to ruminant animals.

It is also pertinent that these thinkers in the animal science contributed immensely especially for

these intellectual consumption to educate people on the proper and cheaper ways of treating

ruminant animals and to avoid low animal production and low yield thereafter. For majority of

people in the rural areas, have been taking usefulness of local medicaments for granted in the

past and that is why many communities experience different kinds of disease infecting their

animals at different intervals and at the same time lacking the knowledge on how best to treat the

animals and save higher cost. There is doubt about the fact that implementing that use of local

medicaments in all communities especially where people claim to be civilized is faced by diverse

challenges. However, what needs to come to our mind is that there is no problem without a

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solution. This is to say that there are ways out of these challenges. Some practical steps, which

have been put forward in this paper, would need to be given adequate consideration by relevant

stakeholders and the government if the use of local medicaments be fully implanted among

communities in Nigeria. Therefore, people should know that animals have great value in

economic development and sustainability.

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