WOLLEGA UNIVERISTY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTITIONAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

RESEARCH PAPER SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY FOR THE

FULFILLMENT OF BACHELORS DEGREE IN BIOLOGY

IDENTIFYING BIRD SPECIES DIVEERSITY IN NEKEMTE CITY

By

1. FAYE MITIKU

2. HAYAT

3. EBISE CHALA

Advisor: MANGISTU. ( Mr)

June 2017
Mekelle, Ethiopia

Contents
Chapter one.................................................................................................................................................4
1.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................4
Back ground of the study.............................................................................................................................4
1.3 Objective of the study............................................................................................................................7
1.3.1 General objective................................................................................................................................7
1.3.2 Specific objective...............................................................................................................................7
1.4 Significant of the study..........................................................................................................................7
Chapter Two................................................................................................................................................8
2.0 Literature review...................................................................................................................................8
2.1 Birds spices diversity.............................................................................................................................8
2.1.1 Bird’s species diversity in globe.........................................................................................................8
2.1.2 Bird’s species diversity in Ethiopia....................................................................................................9
2.2 Factor That Affect Birds Diversity Abundance Richness Evenness....................................................10
2.2.1Topography.......................................................................................................................................10
2.2.2Climate..............................................................................................................................................11
2.2.3Habitat...............................................................................................................................................11
2.2.5 Food and predator.............................................................................................................................13
2.3 Taxonomy and evaluation....................................................................................................................13
2.6 Anthropogenic Impact on birds’ diversity...........................................................................................15
2.6.1 Deforestation....................................................................................................................................16
2.6.2Urbanization......................................................................................................................................17
Chapter Three............................................................................................................................................18
3.1.2 Climates....................................................................................................................................18
3.1.3 Temperature tables...........................................................................................................................18
3.1.4 Annual rain fall.................................................................................................................................19
3.1.5 Population.........................................................................................................................................19
3.2.5 Vegetation survey.............................................................................................................................20
3.4 Data analysis........................................................................................................................................21
Chapter four...............................................................................................................................................21
4.0 Result...................................................................................................................................................22
4.1 Characteristics of churches..................................................................................................................22
4.2 Total bird diversity and richness from Mekelle city churches.............................................................22
4.3 Total plant diversity and richness from church forest..........................................................................23
4.4 Bird Spices richness and abundance of churches forest separated.......................................................24
5 Chapter Five...........................................................................................................................................31
5.1 Discussion...........................................................................................................................................31
5.2 Conclusion And Recommendation......................................................................................................31
Chapter one

1.1 Introduction

Back ground of the study

Biodiversity is among the issues of most human concern of this century and a lot of discussions
are going on throughout the world on the conservation and sustainable use of the existing
biodiversity. This is mainly due to the fact that the rapid alteration of the earth's environment
may lead to a loss of stability of the ecosystems which will be detrimental to the survival of
mankind in this universe (IGBP, 1990). Biodiversity deals with biological and geographical
entities such as genes, chromosomes, species, families, and habitats or bio geographical regions.
This means that in order to understand nature it is essential that we have to understand both
distinction and description of these biological and bio geographical entities (Valk, 1999). Due to
the reality of the rapid disappearance of species, this problem has come to be regarded as the
worst situation that the earth’s environment has had to face. Thus, species loss is related as being
more serious than pollution and global warming (Wiggins et al., 1991).

Patterns of species composition and diversity are the results of historical, evolutionary and
ecological processes. The species composition in a given area is mostly explained by historical
factors such as dispersal events, geographical isolation, and extinction due to past climatic and
geological events, and in much less extent by some ecological factors such as competition and
predation (Barrantes and Sandoval, 2009). A number of variables have been found to influence
bird species diversity within a landscape. These include the area of habitat patch in which the
species nests, the amount of habitat within the landscape, degree of fragmentation and vegetation
characteristics of the habitat (MacArthur, and MacArthur, 1961).

Both individualistic and interactive factors may be involved in maintaining species richness and
composition of an area. Differences in species richness and composition among localities within
a landscape and among landscapes may be due to species interactions as well as the interaction
of each species with the abiotic environment. Environmental heterogeneity in the form of spatial
variation in habitat and local climate can affect species distributions (Veech and Crist, 2007).
The abundance and distribution of animals are also affected by scale-dependent hierarchical
processes that disturb the links between habitat suitability and their numbers (Telleria et al.,
2009.

Birds are beautiful animals and many people enjoy watching them. In our contemporary
societies, wild birds, in addition to the pleasures they provide with their compelling physical
forms, colors, and behaviors, are perhaps increasingly significant because of the continuing
connection they give us to the natural world. Among larger wild animals, birds are the ones most
town- and city-dwellers still encounter frequently so birds have assumed an essential role in
allowing us, even in our usual paved and built-up surroundings, a degree of exposure to wildlife
and nature. Regular exposure to wild animals, often in the guise of wild bird sightings, may also
help motivate us to take part in efforts to preserve the world’s threatened animal species and
remaining unspoiled wilderness.

Forest fragmentation, originally conceived from the theory of Island Biogeography (MacArthur
& Wilson 1967), has been characterized by reduced patch size and increased patch isolation,
each of which has distinctive impacts on biodiversity (Fahrig 2003; Martensen et al. 2008;
Sekercioglu 2007; Sekercioglu & Sodhi 2007). For instance, it is broadly understood that certain
avian parameters like density, abundance, richness and diversity are usually positively correlated
with remnant habitat amount in a fragmented landscape (Fahrig 2003). This means that as
fragmentation keeps on reducing habitat amount, though the effects may vary from species to
species or among functional groups, one can generally expect reduction in avian species
richness, density, abundance, diversity or other parameters like mobility (e.g., of forest
specialists). This can affect species persistence, population dynamics and ecological interactions
within and among avian communities thus leading to local extermination of avian species and
functional groups in small fragments (Lens et al. 2002; Sekercioglu et al. 2004).

Environmental changes due to forest loss and fragmentation are highly likely to affect 102 bird
dispersal ability (Kennedy & Marra 2010) and resource use (Lehouck et al. 2009) as well 103 as
the role of birds in ecosystem functioning such as pollination, seed dispersal and insect 104 pest
controls amongst others. These changes eventually impair proper ecosystem functioning, which
in turn compromises ecosystem benefits enjoyed by humankind. The mechanisms behind these
could be better understood by investigating the associated responses of bird functional traits or
groups (Petchey & Gaston 2006) because functional traits of species and communities are
important indicators of biodiversity (Vandewalle et al. 2010) that could provide better
information for species conservation. In particular, traits such as habitat use, dietary guild,
foraging strata, nest type, nesting strata and flocking guild may be better predictors of species
responses to fragmentation processes in human dominated landscapes (Kennedy et al. 2010;
Sigel et al. 2010; Vetter et al. 2011).

Birds range in size from thumb-sized hummingbirds to ostriches larger than a big man. Most
birds, of course, fall somewhere between these two extremes. Birds walk, run, hop, swim, perch,
cling, fly and even dig. They live in woodlands, open areas, cities, farms, lakes, and swamps --
even the open ocean. They lay their eggs and raise their young in holes in the ground, in nests of
varying complexity in vegetation or on the ground, in holes in trees, in human-constructed nest
boxes, and in or on various parts of buildings. (Wallace and Mahan, 1975; Padian and Chiappe,
1998). Fjeldså, Jon; Niels Krabbe. (1990).

The forests are said to be necklaces around the church, and the tree canopy is believed to prevent
prayers from being lost to the sky. According to the Alliance of Religions and Conservation, an
estimated five to ten percent of wild lands across the globe are currently held by religious
organizations. Ranging in size from five acres to more than 1,000, some of Ethiopia’s church
forests are more than 1,500 years old. All are remnants of the country’s Afromontane forests, are
cooler and more humid than the surrounding lowlands, and many have fresh water springs. These
church forests have become the centerpiece in the struggle to conserve what remains of northern
Ethiopia’s biodiversity. “They are native seed banks for the future of that landscape,” says Dr.
Wassie.

The ecology of Ethiopia is vastly understudied and also degrading rapidly due to human
activities. Much of the natural landscape has been cleared for agriculture, with one notable
exception: the sacred landscapes surrounding komto forest. These komto forests comprise local
as well as global “hotspots” as critical conservation areas for a large portion of Ethiopia’s
remaining biodiversity. Vegetation surveys of komto forests indicate that komto forests house a
large proportion of the endangered plant species of Ethiopia. Komto forests provide important
ecosystem services to local people, including fresh water, pollinators, honey and, shade,
1.3kmation for further study.

1.3.2 Specific objective

 To assess bird species richness in komto forests around Wayu Tuqa woreda
 To identify bird species diversity and their abundance in komto forests.
 To determine the effect of habitat on bird species diversity and abundance in the
komto forest study .

1.4 Significant of the study

Birds are important as bio-indicators and in ecosystem functioning such as pollination, seed
dispersal and insect pest controls and they are the most attractable creature and have creational
value. This study meanly focused on bird’s species richness and their biodiversity in Mekelle
city churches. Churches in Ethiopia not only have spiritual value the are hotspot areas contenting
diver’s amount species of plants as well as birds and other living organisms. Thus have both
ecological and economical relevance from economical perspective endemic bird’s spices not
only endemic which is native to our country attract many tourists around the globe from
ecological perspective birds have play great role in maintaining the environmental food web and
have good environmental status further from the result of this study could be used in future urban
planning and development projects to give the value of this churches in to environment.
Chapter Two

2.0 Literature review

2.1 Birds spices diversity

Bird’s spices diversity and abundance around the globe are not uniform. Due to the climatic
condition, habitat and topography and (deforestation and urbanization) human being innervation
with in the environment it determines bird’s spices diversity and abundance along the landscape.

2.1.1 Bird’s species diversity in globe

Birds live in the globe and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents, reaching
their southern extreme in the snow petrel's breeding colonies up to 440 km (270 mi) inland in
Antarctica. The highest bird diversity occurs in tropical regions. It was earlier thought that this
high diversity was the result of higher speciation rates in the tropics; however recent studies
found higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by greater extinction rates than
in the tropics. Several families of birds have adapted to life both on the world's oceans and in
them, with some seabird species coming ashore only to breed and some penguins have been
recorded diving up to 300 meters 980 ft deep.

2.1.2 Bird’s species diversity in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is a vast ecologically diverse country blessed with extensive and unique environmental
conditions1. The elevation variations that is as low as 110 m a.s.l., at the Danakil of Afar
depression and as high as 4500 m at the summit of Ras Dajen has given rise to the wide
variations in climatic conditions2. This in turn has led to the formation of diverse ecosystem from
moist rain forest to desert ecosystems contributing to the formation of diverse plants and animals
assemblages3.

Ethiopia has 857 species of birds, of which 20 are endemic, 31 are globally threatened ones 4 and
13 species restricted to the geographical region of Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands and thus,
shared only by Ethiopia and Eritrea 5. Birds are important bio indicators of climate change and
water quality and also potential tourist attractions 6. Particularly, birds have been shown to be
effective bio indicators for monitoring habitat change in Abijata-Shala lakes National Park,
Ethiopia. For instance, the abundance of the birds as bio indicator species showed strong and
significant positive correlations with both tree abundance and cover in each vegetation type in
Abijata-Shala lakes National Park, Ethiopia7.

Despite the rich diversity of birds in Ethiopia, habitat destruction, fragmentation and loss have
been observed for decades and severely impacted the survival of bird species 6. Forest loss and
forest fragmentation have been widely recognized for their significant impacts on avian
biodiversity8. For example, a study carried out in Bale mountains National Park, Ethiopia
revealed that birds diversity and abundance significantly differed between habitat types, the
abundance of bird species was positively correlated with shrub and grass height 9. Furthermore,
environmental changes due to forest loss and fragmentation are highly likely to affect bird
dispersal ability and resource use as well as the role of birds in ecosystem functioning such as
pollination, seed dispersal and insect pest controls8,10.

However, the ornithology of Ethiopia is still in its infancy, because of its limited observers and
clearly not for lack of birds. Only few researchers have conducted studies on the diversity and
ecology of avian species in some parts of Ethiopia 11-14. Birds diversity and distribution and their
role to ecosystem functioning have been over looked by avian studies especially in developing
countries like Ethiopia. As a result, the bird’s check list of Ethiopia is still far from complete.

2.2 Factor That Affect Birds Diversity Abundance Richness Evenness

2.2.1Topography

Bio geographers and ecologists are well aware of the tendency for mountains to harbour large
numbers of species. The pattern has been documented for various taxa, especially in tropical
regions where mountains usually are biodiversity hotspots due to a combination of evolutionary
and ecological forces (e.g. plants and vertebrates: Myers et al. 2000; mammals: Simpson 1964;
birds: Rahbek and Graves 2001, de Klerk et al. 2002, Hawkins and Diniz Filho 2006, Davies et
al. 2007; amphibians: Poynton et al. 2007, Lomolino 2001 for review). A two-fold effect of
topography on species diversity is usually recognized. First, topographic complexity (=
topographic heterogeneity) is believed to generate local geographic isolation that may promote
speciation through allopatry and the drift of populations. Second, as complex topographies
usually also define complex climatic gradients; this may also contribute to species richness and
distribution patterns, promoting speciation through phenotypic divergence or ecological
differentiation of parapatric populations (Orr and Smith 1998, Schluter 2000; see Graves 1985
for Andean birds). A recent resurgence of interest in the relationship between topography and
species richness patterns at broad geographic scales (Kerr and Packer 1997, Rahbek and Graves
2000, 2001, Davies et al. 2007, Rahbek et al.2007) has stimulated debate concerning underlying
mechanisms. However, although geographic isolation has been hypothesized to drive speciation
and to generate diversification patterns in mountain faunas (e.g. Andean birds: Vuilleumier 1969,
Graves 1985, 1988), the relative contributions of geomorphologic heterogeneity and altitudin
ally generated climate gradients to account for mountain species richness patterns have rarely
been evaluated (but see Patton and Smith 1992 for Akodon mice and Garcia-Moreno and
Fjeldsa* 2000 for Andean birds). Most often topography has been measured by elevation range
(Rahbek and Graves 2000, 2001, Jetz and Rahbek 2002, Hawkins et al. 2005, Davies et al. 2007,
Rahbek et al. 2007), or more rarely by the standarddeviation in elevation (Ruggiero and
Kitzberger 2004). Although both measures are valid, they also implicitly represent different
mechanisms. Elevation range is the difference between the highest and lowest elevations
occurring within an area (cell), and although it is often claimed to be a measure of topographic
heterogeneity, it is in fact only a measure of overall strength of the gradient within the cell
(McCarroll and Nesje 1996). Hence, the use of elevation range actually emphasizes the effect of
altitudinal climatic gradients and the associated changes in habitat on species richness and
distributions, and McCarroll and Nesje (1996) have shown that the standard deviation of the
differences between adjacent elevations is a more meaningful measure of true topographic
roughness than is elevation range. To our knowledge, no previous studies have attempted to
disentangle these two effects of topography on broad scale patterns in species richness (i.e. the
strength of mesoscale climatic gradients vs topographic heterogeneity per se), and thus the
possible mechanisms underlying correlations between richness and elevation cannot be
distinguish.
2.2.2Climate

Spring migration of birds is generally considered more important than autumn migration because
it determines their arrival timing at breeding grounds, which is in turn crucial for mating and
territory choice. The number of successful spring migrants also directly affects breeding
population size (DEFRA, 2005). A timing mismatch between predator and prey could cause
major species declines if birds are unable to complete their life cycles (Both et al., 2006). For
example, migrant birds may be unable to breed successfully because their arrival time no longer
coincides with peak food availability. Biologists refer to this as “phonological mismatch”. It may
occur because birds, and the species on which they depend, are driven by different cues. For
example, one animal’s behavior may be cured by day length, the other by temperature (Pew,
2004; Visser et al., 2004). Climate change is emerging as the greatest threat to natural
communities in many, if not most, of the world’s ecosystems in coming decades, with mid-range
climate change scenarios expected to produce greater extinction rates than habitat loss, currently
deemed the top threat to biodiversity” (Thomas et al., 2004; Malcolm et al., 2006).

2.2.3Habitat
Birds select habitats that fit their requirements for successful reproduction and survival though
some generalist species may utilize several habitats (Rodríguez-Estrella, 2007). Differences in
requirement among bird species have caused specificity on habitat requirement (Buckley and
Freckleton, 2010). For example, Mountain plover (Charadrius mountainus) feeds primarily on
insects (grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, flies, ants); uses ground for nesting and prefer short grass
while Mongolian sand plover (Charadrius atrifrons) feeds on invertebrates (molluscs, worms,
crustaceans especially crabs and insects), uses tree for nesting and prefer shore of the lakes.
Therefore, habitats, either terrestrial or aquatic restrict bird species distribution and diversity
(MacLean, 1970). In most habitats, plant communities determine the physical structure of the
environment, and therefore, have a considerable influence on the distributions, abundance and
diversity of birds and interactions of other animal species. For example, for bird species diversity
in forests, Tewes et al. (2004) evidenced that the physical structure of a plant community, i.e.
how the foliage is distributed vertically, may be more important than the actual composition of
plant species. Ranganathan et al. (2007) found that farmland also has been an important habitat
for farmland bird showing that some bird species are habitat specific though some are generalist.
Currently, due to land uses changes it is difficult to find forest habitat covering large areas. For
example, near towns, most of the land has been converted to settlement and farmlands. The study
of bird species diversity, distribution and abundance become important not only for knowledge
but also for conservation purposes as birds has been used as ecological indicators (Rittiboon and
Karntanut, 2011).

Habitat changes particularly affect less abundant and range-restricted birds and forest specialists
(Brooks, Pimm & Oyugi, 1999; Raman, 2001). The main effect of habitat fragmentation and
degradation is the reduction in population size and increased vulnerability to extinction
(Simberloff, 1994). This exposes risks to many tropical species as they are narrowly distributed
and cannot tolerate conditions outside the forest (Turner, 1996).

2.2.4 Habitat features

Habitat features such as floristic complexity, cover and density of vegetation are the important
factor in bird habitat selection. When these features are correlated they show positive correlation,
since they provide food, nesting material and cover for predator (Marone, 1991; Whittingham
and Evans, 2004). Heterogeneity of the habitat features can play a big role in the determination
of specie abundance and occurrence within a habitat type (Pennington and Blair, 2011). Removal
or reduction of vegetation reduces the total area of contiguous habitat available to birds and
increases the isolation of the habitat which results in fragmentation. The fragmented habitat
provide way to various predators that can successfully exploit by eating bird eggs, young and
even adults which impact bird populations (Schlossberg and King, 2008).

2.2.5 Food and predator

The availability of food resources is important in determining community structure, including
species richness and relative abundances (Tilman 1982). Birds may feed on plants, fruit, seeds,
insects, other invertebrates, or vertebrates, according to their dietary guild (Hamel et al. 1982).
Any change in these food resources is likely to impact the avian community. Studies of
urbanization in the tropics have found that avian dietary guilds respond differently to
development; in these studies, low density residential areas favor omnivorous (often including
fruit in the diet) and frugivorous (feeding predominantly on fruits) birds, while all urban
development negatively affects insectivorous and carnivorous birds (Canaday 1996, Lim and
Sodhi 2004). Food resources seem to play a role in the impacts of urbanization on avian
diversity, but have not been studied in temperate regions.

2.3 Taxonomy and evaluation

The evolution of birds is thought to have begun in the Jurassic Period, with the earliest birds
derived from tetrapod dinosaurs. Birds are categorized as a biological class, Aves. The earliest
known species of class Aves is Archaeopteryx lithographica, from the Late Jurassic period,
though Archaeopteryx is not commonly considered to have been a true bird. Modern phylogenies
place birds in the dinosaur clade theropods. According to the current consensus, Aves and a
sister group, the order crocodilian, together are the sole living members of an unranked "reptile"
clade, the Archosauria .

Phylogenetically Aves is usually defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor
of a specific modern bird species (such as the Passer domestics), and either Archaeopteryx
(Padian K & Chiappe LM (1997). "Bird Origins", in Currie PJ & Padian K: Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs. San Diego: Academic Press, 41-96 ) or some prehistoric species closer to Neonates
(to avoid the problems caused by the unclear relationships of Archaeopteryx to other theropods).
(Gauthier, J (1986)) If the latter classification is used then the larger group is termed Avialae.

The phylogenetic classification of birds is a contentious issue. Sibley & Ahlquist's Phylogeny
and Classification of Birds (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds (although
frequently debated and constantly revised). A preponderance of evidence suggests that most
modern bird orders constitute good clades. However, scientists are not in agreement as to the
precise relationships between the orders; evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA
have all been brought to bear on the problem but no strong consensus has emerged. As of the
mid-2000s, new fossil and molecular data provide an increasingly clear picture of the evolution
of modern bird orders, and their relationships. For example, the Charadriiformes seem to
constitute an ancient and distinct lineage. Our understandings of the interrelationships of lower
level taxa also continue to increase, particularly in the massively diverse perching bird order
Passeriformes.

2.4 Komto forest and plant biodiversity in Ethiopia

As in so many developing countries, much of Ethiopia’s natural landscape has been cleared for
agriculture, and for harvesting timber and firewood. Fortunately, there are still hundreds of
notable exceptions: bright-green patches of forest surrounding the country’s churches. Protected
as sacred sanctuaries, some of these forests are over 1,500 years old. They range in size from just
five acres to more than 1,000. A direct result of the Orthodox Church‘s mission to retain a green
necklace around the place of worship — a veritable “home for all God’s creatures” — these
forests have become the centerpiece in the struggle to conserve what remains of northern
Ethiopia’s biodiversity. (Yeraswork Admassie, 1995).

The threats to Ethiopia’s church forests are many. Villagers harvest timber, cattle invade and eat
seedlings, and farmers till around the forest edges often pushing across the perimeter and
chipping away at the whole. In a country where resources are extremely scarce, few funds exist
to buy fences to safeguard these biological treasure troves.

Planting new trees especially fast-growing species might seem like an obvious solution. In fact,
this idea did take hold in Ethiopia and elsewhere more than a century ago. But like so many
similar biological experiments, the solution has become a curse. Eucalypt trees, which are native
to Australia, were first introduced in the late 1800s as a source of firewood and construction
timber. In the absence of native pests and predators, the eucalypts (or gum trees, as the Aussies
call them) grew fast and reproduced quickly. They seemed to be a perfect response to the rapid
deforestation of native species, but then they started to out compete the already-struggling native
trees.

Today in Ethiopia’s church forests the blue-green hue of gum trees increasingly interrupts the
bright-green canopy of the natives. Like so many invasive species, they grow and reproduce
unchecked. Local Orthodox priests now call them the “evil tree,” not only because they are
invading their forests but because gum trees require up to four times more water than native tree
species.

2.5 Biodiversity

Biodiversity is defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

((http://www.cbd.int/convention/articles)) as “the variability among living organisms from all
sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems.” The term ‘biodiversity’ was originated form the conference of ‘National Forum on
Biological Diversity’ in 1986 organized by the National Research Council (Wilson, 1988).
Generally, biodiversity includes three distinct levels, genetic diversity, species diversity and
ecosystem diversity (Hooper et al., 2005; Larsson, 2001). Some studies include landscape
diversity as a further distinct level of biodiversity (Fu & Chen, 1996; Romme & Knight, 1982),
while others consider landscape diversity within the concept of ecosystem diversity at large
geographical scales (Lapin & Barnes, 1995).

2.6 Anthropogenic Impact on birds’ diversity

Anthropogenic factors can have major impacts on ecosystem functioning and stability, which are
often reflected in changes to biodiversity that includes wild life. Biological community is an
assemblage of populations of two or more different species occupying the same geographical
area and characterized by type of species present, species diversity and their relative abundance
(Ricklefs andMiller, 2000). Land-use is a dynamic process that changes in space and time
depending on prevailing socio-economic and biophysical conditions (Esikuri, 1998); and
changes in land-use have strong impacts on biological communities (Brambilla et al.,2010).
Different literature has noted that changes in surface water as a result of land-use changes, have
made a significant impact on local biodiversity like birds, other wildlife species and subsequently
erode local economies reliant on those resources (Ayenew, 2001; Sisay, 2003; and Esikuri,
1998). Among wildlife, birds have been more susceptible to and affected by environmental
changes such as land-use changes (Kolecek et al., 2010). Particularly, alteration of environment
of freshwater lakes by land use changes is known to have negative effect on water-bird
community structure (Hill-Lukkarinen et al., 2011).

2.6.1 Deforestation
Of the total land area of Ethiopia, only 4 percent is covered with forests, with an estimated
natural deforestation rate of 8 percent per year as of 2000 (World Resources Institute: Earth
Trends: Forests, Grasslands, and Drylands 2003). The reasons for this deforestation are both
direct—such as the production of charcoal and timber and indirect such as lack of management
capacity and population pressures.

Deforestation also occurs on land that is being cleared by increasing populations for agriculture.
Additionally, with use rights being codified only for agricultural lands, forests may be cleared so
agricultural use rights can be officially bestowed. Fires also present a threat to forests, whether
they are set intentionally to clear land for agriculture, to encourage new grass growth, and kill
woody species that are unfavorable for grazing (it is illegal to set a fire, despite traditions of
using fire to manage grazing lands), or are driven naturally by fire suppression and frequent
droughts, which set favorable conditions of dry and abundant fuel. Even if a fire is natural, once
forest land is cleared, agriculturalists normally plant the area, thereby ensuring that the forest will
not return to its former state.

Human activities such as urbanization and logging have already cleared about 24% of all tropical
lowland rainforests (FAO 1993). Because of this heavy deforestation, many tropical lowland
rainforests now occur in small patches (remnants or fragments) (Turner and Corlett 1996). This
heavy rainforest loss and fragmentation can be detrimental to biodiversity because of factors
such as negative edge effects (e.g. high nest predation in fragmented forest) and reduced habitat
quality and quantity. Considering that a large number of endemic bird species could go extinct
because of heavy deforestation (Brooks et al. 1997)

2.6.2Urbanization
The urbanization processes lead to a reduction in biodiversity (Blair, 1996; McKinney and
Lockwood, 1999) due to the transformation of natural habitats into agricultural, industrial and
urbanized areas. Thus, urban development reduces available habitat and has resulted in declines
in animal populations (Foster 1996; Kahn and McDonald, 1997; Hostetler and Knowles-Yanez,
2003).

Urban development has been linked to a decline in species richness and an increase in the
abundance of urban-associated species (Camet al. 2000, Crooks et al. 2004). Remaining habitat
patches in a developed area typically support fewer species. Development also facilitates the
spread of urban-associated species along corridors of urban land use, potentially leading to a
homogenization of bird communities within and among regions (Blair 2004, McKinney and
Lockwood 2001). Given the current rate of land development, understanding the factors
affecting bird diversity is critical to developing and implementing appropriate conservation
strategies.

Land use changes over time and space impact the composition of wildlife. Habitat in a region
this leads to changes in the wildlife community, through variation in the availability of different
habitat classes, as well as specific nesting requirements for various species (Mills et al. 1989,
Blewett and Marzluff 2005).

Fragmentation of natural areas decreases core habitats and increases habitat edges. In recent
years, both grassland and forest interior species groups have been identified as a high
conservation concern (Aldrich and Coffin 1980). This suggests that urban development may
affect bird communities according to their habitat requirements, by changing the quantity or
quality of the habitats. Urban development may also affect bird communities according to their
Foraging guild. The availability of food resources is important in determining community
structure, including species richness and relative abundances (Tilman1982). Birds may feed on
plants, fruit, seeds, insects, other invertebrates, or vertebrates, according to their dietary guild
(Hamel et al. 1982).
Chapter Three

3.0 Material and methods

3.1 Description of the study area

3.1.1 Location

Mekelle is situated in South Tigray, Ethiopia which is located around 780 kilometers north of the
Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa, at a latitude and longitude of 13°29′N 39°28′E / 13.483°N
39.467°E / 13.483; 39.467Coordinates with an elevation of 2084 meters above sea level the
climate in this area is characterized by relatively high temperatures an73d evenly distributed
precipitation throughout the year.

3.1.2 Climates
The annual rainfall is averagely 614.5 millimeter per year and the temperature at the study area is
from 11.11-24.1oC during the cool and warm time respectively The Kppen Climate
Classification subtype for this climate is as all month’s average above 18 °C, source (Mekelle
metrology station, 2015) The climates conditions of the study area is characterized by woinadega
ecological zones.

3.1.3 Temperature tables

Average temperatures across the year in degrees Celsius. The cells that are the red color show
the coldest months.

Month: Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Au Sep Oct Nov Dec
g

Average Temperature in 19.5 20. 21.5 22. 23.5 23.5 20.5 20 21.5 20. 19.5 18.5
°C 5 5 5

Max Temperature in °C 23 24 25 26 27 27 23 23 25 24 23 22

Min Temperature in °C 16 17 18 19 20 20 18 17 18 17 16 15
3.1.4 Annual rain fall

Below is the climate graph for Mekelle. It shows both the average temperatures throughout the
year in degrees Celsius and also the average total rainfall in millimeters

3.1.5 Population

3.2 Research Methods

3.2.1 Sampling design

The study was conducted in oromia region Nekemte city in stratified komto forest. the data were
collected within the last two week visit in forest. two times in week during morning, midday and
night walking around the komto forest drawing a transect line.

3.2.2 Bird’s survey

Birds survey carried out by drawing two transect line in opposite side of the forest. Walking in
transect line observing the birds left to right side identifying using filed guide book and album
pictures of birds with their common name.
3.2.3 Systematic sampling

At its simplest, a line transect involves traveling a predetermined route and recording birds on
either side of the observer. The distance a bird is seen or heard from the transect line is normally
recorded as an absolute measure, or in distance bands.

3.2.4 Selection of study site

Primary data was collected by interviewing komto forest administrative burro “Sebeka Gubae”
about the age of the churches their current situation current status. Identifying churches which
found in Mekelle city observing their area coverage

3.2.5 Vegetation survey

In each study site for to investigate vegetation coverage plots a quadrat 50*25 square depending
up on the churches distance 5-7 quadrats plotted.

3.3 Data collection

In komto forest birds were counted with in two transect lines. The same methods were
conducted in komto forest. Up on each transect lines distance is estimated by eye from the line
walking straight ahead counting birds with visualized their movement and hearing there voice
each side of recorder. The data was collected during within the last two month visiting churches
two wise in month.

3.4 Data analysis

Species diversity was determined using 2016 Microsoft excel and Shannon-Weiner diversity
Index. Shannon-Weiner diversity Index takes into account the number of species richness as well
as evenness.

…………………………………………………………..(1)

Where; H’ = Shannon-Weaver Index

 Pi = Proportion of the ith species

ln = Natural logarithm

Species evenness, which measures the pattern of distribution of the bird populations present in
the area, was evaluated using Shannon-Wiener Evenness Index (E) as follows:

E = H’/ H max where:

E = Shannon-Wiener Evenness Index

H’ = Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index

H max = ln S= natural logarithm of the total number of species (S) in each month (Tramer, 1969)

pi The relative abundance of each species, calculated as the proportion of individuals of a given
species to the total number of individuals in the community.

Chapter four

4.1 Characteristics of komto forest

Based on secondary data, a total of 18 churches were recorded with in the vicinity of Mekelle
city. Out of which 8 churches were selected based on purposive stratified sampling using
distance from residential areas and forest cover. Methodology section….. The general
characteristics of churches used in this study is presented in table 1

Table 1. The general characteristics of selected churches from Mekelle vicinity.

Church year of construction Area Distance to Tree coverage

(km ) 2
residence
Near out Densely Sparsely
Aba Gabir 1692 58,000 √ √
7th day Adventist XXXX 120 √ √
Enda Eyesus 16th 35,000 √ √
St. Georgies 1962 14,000 √ √
St. Marry XXXX 30,000 √ √
St. Mariam(Adi-hawsi) 1996 40,000 √ √
Silasie church 1901 492 √ √
Tekle Haymanot church 1884 24,000 √ √

4.0 Result
A total of 1780 birds with 29 spices were recorded. These birds belong to XXX families and XX
orders ( cf. Table 2). total we constructed 25 quadrats and within quadrat 1585 plants counted
and identified 38 species of plants. To plant section

Table 2. List of birds recorded in the church forests with in the vicinity of Mekelle

Species family Order

Common name scientific name
1
29

4.2 Total bird diversity and richness from Mekelle city churches

Table 3. XXXXX diversity and species richness form

Church Shannon diversity richness

4.3 plant species diversity and richness

A total of XXXX plant species that belong to XXX families and XXX order were recorded from 8 churches
(cf. Table 4).

Table 4. plant species diversity and richness

Species
Common name Scientific name Family Order
The total plant species richness and diversity were XXX and YYY respectively.

4.4. correlation studies

Fig and table. XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx

5. Discussion and conclusion

High bird species diversity (H=) was recovered for the churches with in Mekelle vicinity. This is in
agreement with previous results Haile Mariam et.al 2012 who reported XXX diversity from XXX churches.
Furthermore, churches are known to be hot spot of biodiversity esp. plant diversity (XXXXXXXXXX).

XXXX ( uraban area are know to affect diversity because of habita mofication (XXXX) unlike this previous
result our specis is high. This is bacuse1 forster, idtance urbanization diensity

No Ni Pi ln pi -(Pi*ln pi)
1 23 0.01 -4.61 0.005
2 84 0.05 -2.9 0.15 XXXXX
3 341 0.19 -1.7 0.32
4 7 0.004 -5.52 0.02 References
5 208 0.12 -2.12 0.25
6 4 0.002 -6.21 0.01
7 73 0.04 -3.22 0.13
8 28 0.02 -3.91 0.1
9 149 0.08 -2.53 0.2
10 320 0.18 -1.71 0.3 Appendices
11 88 0.05 -3 0.15
12 193 0.11 -2.21 0.24 Apx 1.
13 2 0.001 -6.91 0.007
14 37 0.02 -3.9 0.01
15 2 0.001 -6.91 0.007
16 121 0.07 -2.7 0.18
17 20 0.01 -4.6 0.05
18 2 0.001 -6.91 0.007
19 4 0.002 -6.21 0.012
20 2 0.001 -6.91 0.007 H = 2.4
21 7 0.004 -5.52 0.022
H max = ln (29) = 3.4
22 10 0.01 -4.6 0.01
23 18 0.01 -4.6 0.01 Evenness
24 3 0.002 -6.21 0.01
25 10 0.01 -4.6 0.01
26 1 0.001 -6.9 0.01
27 1 0.001 -6.9 0.01
28 1 0.001 -6.9 0.01
29 5 0.003 -5.8 0.02
Total 1764 2.4
H / H max = 2.4 / 3.4 = 0.71

4.3 Total plant diversity and richness from church forest

No of Ni Pi Ln pi -(ln pi * pi)
species
1 23 0.015 -4.2 0.06 H = 2.71
2 373 0.24 -1.43 0.34
3 92 0.1 -2.3 0.23 H max = ln (38) = 3.64
4 183 0.1 -2.3 0.23
5 41 0.03 -3.5 0.12 H evenness H / H max = 2.71 / 3.64 =
6 67 0.04 -3.2 0.13 0.74
7 56 0.04 -3.2 0.13
8 23 0.01 -4.6 0.05
9 2 0.0013 -6.6 0.01 4.4 Bird Spices richness and
10 2 0.0013 -6.6 0.01
11 44 0.03 -3.5 0.12 abundance of churches forest
12 11 0.01 -4.6 0.05 separated
13 126 0.1 -2.3 0.23
14 59 0.04 -3.2 0.13
15 7 0.004 -5.5 0.02 Aba gabir
16 27 0.02 -3.9 0.1
17 14 0.01 -4.6 0.05 No of Ni Pi Ln pi -(pi * ln
18 2 0.001 -6.91 0.01 species pi)
19 6 0.004 -5.5 0.02 1 3 0.015 -4.2 0.06
20 2 0.001 -6.91 0.01 2 25 0.12 -2.1 0.3
21 1 0.001 -6.91 0.01 3 27 0.13 -2.04 0.3
22 18 0.011 -4.51 0.05 4 12 0.1 -2.3 0.23
23 51 0.011 -4.51 0.05 5 4 0.02 -3.9 0.1
24 110 0.07 -2.7 0.2 6 8 0.04 -3.22 0.13
25 1 0.001 -6.91 0.01 7 31 0.15 -1.9 0.3
26 5 0.003 -5.81 0.02 8 11 0.1 -2.3 0.23
9 50 0.25 -1.4 0.35
27 1 0.001 -6.91 0.01
10 14 0.07 -2.7 0.2
28 1 0.001 -6.91 0.01
11 1 0.005 -5.3 0.02
29 1 0.001 -6.91 0.01
12 4 0.01 -4.6 0.04
30 1 0.001 -6.91 0.01
13 1 0.005 -5.3 0.02
31 1 0.001 -6.91 0.01
Total 203
32 5 0.003 -5.81 0.02
33 54 0.034 -3.4 0.12
34 62 0.04 -3.2 0.13
35 10 0.01 -4.6 0.05
36 7 0.004 -5.5 0.02
37 88 0.1 -4.6 0.05
38 4 0.003 -5.81 0.02
Total 1581
H = 2.3
H max = ln (13) = 2.6

Evenness

H / H max = 2.3 / 2.6 = 0.9

4.5 Adventist

No of Ni Pi ln pi -(pi * ln pi)
Specie
s H = 1.62
1 3 0.02 -3.8 0.1
2 87 0.44 -0.8 0.4 H max = ln (9) = 2.2
3 26 0.13 -2 0.3
4 1 0.005 -5.03 0.03 Evenness
5 10 0.05 -2.9 0.14
6 24 0.12 -2.12 0.25 H / H max = 1.62 / 2.2 = 0.74
7 26 0.13 -2.04 0.26
8 10 0.05 -2.9 0.14 4.6 Enda eyesus
Total 198
No of Ni Pi ln pi -(pi * ln pi)
specie
s
1 3 0.01 -4.6 0.05
2 23 0.1 -2.3 0.2
H = 1.94 3 34 0.12 -2.12 0.3
4 4 0.01 -4.6 0.05
H max = ln (16) = 2.8 5 44 0.2 -1.6 0.03
6 7 0.03 -3.5 0.1
Evenness 7 5 0.02 -3.9 0.1
8 37 0.14 -2 0.1
H / H max = 1.94 / 2.8 = 0.7
9 29 0.1 -2.3 0.2
10 14 0.1 -2.3 0.2
11 21 0.1 -2.3 0.2
12 6 0.02 -3.9 0.01
13 26 0.1 -2.3 0.2
4.7 Georgie’s
14 4 0.01 -4.6 0.05
15 5 0.02 -3.9 0.1
16 3 0.01 -4.6 0.05
Total 265
 No of Ni Pi ln pi -( pi * ln pi)
specie
s
1 3 0.014 -4.3 0.01
2 10 0.05 -2.9 0.15 H = 2.19
3 49 0.23 -1.5 0.33
4 19 0.1 -2.3 0.1
5 22 0.1 -2.3 0.1
H max = ln (18) = 2.9
6 3 0.014 -4.3 0.1
7 25 0.12 -2.12 0.3 Evenness
8 21 0.01 -4.5 0.05
9 10 0.05 -2.9 0.15 H / H max = 2.19 / 2.9 = 0.75
10 8 0.04 -3.22 0.13
11 1 0.01 -4.6 0.05
12 10 0.05 -2.9 0.15
13 17 0.01 -4.6 0.05
14 4 0.02 -3.91 0.01
15 2 0.03 -3.5 0.1
16 3 0.014 -4.2 0.1
17 2 0.03 -3.5 0.11
18 3 0.014 -4.2 0.1
Total 212

4.9 Mariam

No of Ni Pi Ln pi -(pi* ln pi)
specie
s
1 2 0.009 -4.7 0.04
2 8 0.04 -3.22 -0.13 H = 1.81
3 48 0.23 -1.5 0.34
4 28 0.13 -2.04 0.3 H max = ln (14) = 2.6
5 4 0.02 -3.9 0.1
Evenness
6 4 0.02 -3.9 0.1
7 8 0.04 -3.22 0.13 H / H max = 1.81 / 2.6 = 0.7
8 61 0.03 -3.51 0.11
9 4 0.02 -3.9 0.1
10 15 0.07 -2.7 0.2
11 7 0.03 -3.51 0.11
12 1 0.001 -6.91 0.01
13 18 0.01 -4.6 0.04 4.10 Mariam adehawesi
14 5 0.02 -3.9 0.1
Total 213
 No of Ni Pi Ln pi -(pi * ln pi)
specie
s
1 3 0.01 -4.605 0.04
2 9 0.04 -3.21 0.013 H = 1.83
3 13 0.05 -2.99 0.15
4 28 0.12 -2.12 0.3 H max = ln (15) = 2.71
5 3 0.01 -4.61 0.04
Evenness
6 7 0.03 -3.5 0.1
7 14 0.06 -2.8 0.2 H / H max = 1.81 / 2.71 = 0.66
8 94 0.42 -0.9 0.36
9 8 0.04 -3.21 0.013
10 5 0.02 -3.9 0.1
11 7 0.03 -3.5 0.1
12 12 0.05 -2.99 0.15
13 6 0.03 -3.5 0.1 4.11 Silasie
14 2 0.010 -4.6 0.015
15 11 0.05 -2.99 0.14 No of Ni Pi Ln pi -(pi * ln pi)
Total 222 specie
s
1 3 0.013 -4.34 0.05
H = 2.3 2 4 0.02 -3.9 0.1
3 54 0.23 -1.5 0.34
H max = ln (15) = 2.71 4 16 0.06 2.81 0.17
5 1 0.004 -3.21 0.03
6 8 0.03 -3.5 0.1
7 5 0.02 -3.9 0.1
Evenness
8 10 0.04 -3.2 0.12
H / H max = 2.3 / 2.71 = 0.85 9 34 0.14 -1.9 0.3
10 33 0.14 -2 0.3
11 55 0.23 -1.5 0.35
12 3 0.013 -4.34 0.1
No of Ni Pi ln pi -(ln pi * pi) 13 4 0.02 -3.91 0.1
specie 14 7 0.03 -3.5 0.1
s 15 1 0.004 -3.21 0.03
1 3 0.01 -4.6 0.05 Total 237
2 5 0.023 -3.8 0.1
3 29 0.14 -1.9 0.3
4 3 0.01 -4.6 0.05
4.11 Tekle haymanot
5 35 0.2 -1.6 0.32
6 2 0.01 -4.6 0.1
7 7 0.03 -3.5 0.1
8 37 0.2 -1.6 0.32
9 26 0.12 2.12 0.3
10 12 0.1 -2.3 0.2
11 18 0.1 -2.3 0.2
12 1 0.005 -5.3 0.03 H = 2.63
13 7 0.03 -3.5 0.1
14 1 0.005 -5.3 0.03 H max = ln (19) = 2.94
15 15 0.1 -2.3 0.2
16 6 0.023 -3.8 0.1
17 3 0.01 -4.6 0.05
18 3 0.01 -4.6 0.05
19 1 0.005 -5.3 0.03
Total 214
Evenness

H / H max = 2.63 / 2.94 = 0.9

site Diverstiy Eveness

Aba gabir 2.3 0.9
Adiventist 1.6 0.74
Enda eyesus 1.94 0.7
Georiges 2.19 0.75
Mariam 1.81 0.7
Mariam 1.83 0.66
Adehawesi
Silasie 2.3 0.85
Tekle haimanot 2.63 0.9

Table Birds diversity and richness of the churches

Diverstiy richness
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Aba gabir Adiventist Enda eyesus Georiges Mariam Mariam Silasie Tekle
Adehawesi haimanot

Chart bird’s diversity and evenness among churches

Correlation between churches bird’s diversity

Between Birds species and plant species

Site Birds species Plant Area of

species churches(km2)
Mariam 14 10 30,000
Aba gabier 14 11 58,000
Mariam 15 15 15,000
Adehawesi
Silasie 16 10 492
Tekle haymanot 19 11 24,000
Enda eyesus 16 17 35,000
Adventist 9 7 120
Georgise 18 23 14,000

Birds species
25
23
20
17
15 15

11 11
10 10 10
7
5

0
14 14 15 16 19 16 9 18

Table correlation between bird’s species and plant species

Area of churches and bird’s species diversity

Between residence and bird’s species

 Near and out to residence
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Adivientist Mariam tekle Georiges Enda eyesus Silese Aba gaber Mariam AH
haimanote
N R and D NR and S O and D O and S

Species

Chart correlation between relative abundance of bird spices with in to residence

5 Discussion and conclusion

5.1 DISCUSSION

5.2 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Churches in Ethiopia not only have spiritual value but they have a significate role in mantling the
environment as well as minting ecological balance. They have forest with in the forest insect and
other small vertebrate with in this ecosystem birds play significant role in seed germination and
pollution and they create a food web with their surrounding environment most of churches in
Mekelle they contain 9-19 range of counted species this result indict that they causal role of the
churches forest in ecology. From economic perspective point this churches have more attractable
because of the are a hot spot area.

In furfur urban development program and plan should consider the status and the territory of the
churches. From the government church need more conservation and not only birds also there is a
significant a number of plant species they need more conservation and protection. Nobody
notices the important of this birds to the environment from our observation we able to know that
in some churches worshiper they bring food to birds and they consider as birds a sign of peace
and prosperity. So the worshiper need more appreciation to continue their good work.

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