Written Report in Biology 2

Republic of the Philippines
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

University Town, Northern Samar
1st Semester, S.Y. 2022-2023
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
BIO 211: GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
A WRITTEN REPORT IN
KINGDOM FUNGI ( WITH EMPHASIZE
MUSHROOM, MOLDS AND YEAST)
Course & Year: Bachelor of Science in Environmental Science 2-A
Submitted to:
Mr.Tom Jericho Abobo

Subject Professor
Class ID: 1710820
Date: January 8,2023
Submitted by:
Aljun C. Morillo
Kyle A. Merigeldo
Michelle R. Mahinay
Joreca E. Mijares
Malobago
Alexis J. Loyogoy
Mark Wendel Lipata
Darl Vin Julaton
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BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Department of BS Environmental Science
Table of Contents
Title Page............................................................................................................I
Table of Contents.............................................................................................II
Abstract.............................................................................................................. III
_________________________________________________________________
1.) Introduction.....................................................................................................1
Objectives of the study
Scope of the study
2.) Body ..................................................................................................................2-

14
Discussion
Finding or results of the study
3.) Conclusions..................................................................................................... 15-
16
4.) References....................................................................................................... 17
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Abstract
Kingdom fungi includes an enormous variety of living organisms collectively refereed to as Eumycota, or true
fungi. In general fungi are non-green organisms lacking chlorophyll. They cannot manufacture their own food
from simple inorganic materials, such as water, carbon dioxide, and nitrates, using energy from the sun, as is
the case with the green plants. They derive their food from complex organic materials found in dead or living
tissues of plants and animals. Those obtaining their nutrients from dead organic material, e.g., agricultural
crop residues, wood of dead trees, animal dung, etc., are referred to as saprophytic fungi. Those deriving their
food substances from living plants and animals and causing harm to the hosts are called parasitic fungi. Edible
mushrooms, yeasts, black mold, and penicellium notatum (the producer of the antibiotic penicellen) are all
member of the kingdom fungi, which belongs to the domain eukarya. There are three major classification of
fungi based on the phylum amastigomycota of kingdom fungi, and this three classes are class Zygomycota,
Basiomycota, and Ascomycota. The class zygomycota is mainly terrestrial, live in soil and compost and on
foods such as bread (e.g. black bread ), and class basiomycota have many different shapes, considerable
variation exists even within species (e.g. button mushrooms). whereas the class ascomycota found in all
terrestrial ecosystems world-wide, even in Antarctica, often involved in symbiotic relationships (e. g. baker’s
yeser). The three most common fungi such as mushroom, molds, and yeast is they have a distinct types and
classification and have some important roles in nature, such as they serve as decomposers that the one who
breakdown plants and animal debris and transporming it to nutrients, that where give availability for plants
nutrients necessities, and also fungi are essential to many household and industrial processes, notably the
making of bread, wine bear and certain cheeses, as well as they uses by human as medicine. Aside from their
important role in nature, it is also very important to identify their various types and classification, especially
since some non-edible fungi are sometimes misidentified as edible fungi, and not knowing that those types of
toxic fungi are dangerous to their health, which is why it is important to know some guidelines and rules when
it comes to the classification and identification of fungi.
Introduction
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Department of BS Environmental Science III
All life on Earth has distinct characteristics and origins, which define and are reflected in how life works and
exists on Earth, but due to different adaptations in the earth's atmosphere, there are some superior and inferior
living organism species that remain competitive through their own ways of survival on Earth. That's why all
things with life have a uniqueness value that sustains and supports other fellow living things, but depending
on how species interact and meet their own adapting necessities to live in their specific areas where they
belong, that's why God's creation is like a flower in a garden, with different color, origin, and peculiarity from
each other, and that's what we think about what life is. Non-vascular and vascular plants are among the most
valuable living organisms on the planet. The way they differ in kingdoms and species is how other living
organisms relate to and are similar to them. Humans sometimes unconsciously fail to recognize the risk when
consuming various resources derived from the environment, such as a variety of fungi, because they do not
know how to properly classify and identify them. As a result, incidents involving toxic or poisonous fungi
have occurred. As a result, knowing how to classify and identify fungi can help us understand which types are
edible and which are not.
Consequently, the analysis and identification of fungi are the main foci of this report. The emphasis is placed
on the edible unicellular (such as yeast) and multicellular fungi (molds, mushrooms). The three major
divisions of fungi are phylum mastigomycota, phylum amstigomycota (which has three classes such as
zygomycetes, ascomycetes, and basidiomycetes), and phylum deuteromycota. These divisions are based on
the type of spore-bearing structure that each type of fungus produces. This report aims to understand how to
recognize various types of edible and non-edible fungi in nature. The three-fold division of the kingdom fungi
is used to identify and classify where the mushrooms, mold, and yeasts belong in the three different major
classifications of fungi.
Body (Discussion, Method, Results)
Fungi are a distinct kingdom of Eukaryotic or Prokaryotic, mostly multicellular organisms lacking
chlorophyll; they are not plants, and the majority of them are saprobes (living on dead organisms), which
makes them consumers and primary decomposers in ecosystems. There are thousands of different types of
fungi in our environment, and we are constantly exposed to them through the air we breathe, the food we eat,
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Department of BS Environmental Science Page 1
and the water we drink. Yeasts, rusts, smuts, mildews, molds, and mushrooms are examples of fungi. Fungi
have many uses in humans, such as food, medicine, and alcohol beverages, but some of them act as pathogens
of man, animals, and crops, such as ringworm, athletes foot, yeast infections, and some forms of respiratory
illness, and plant diseases such as Dutch elm disease, peach scab, and gray mold on strawberries. Most fungi
live in moist environments and reproduce both sexually and asexually. Fungi are classified into three groups
based on the type and shape of the spore-bearing structure, the common fungi found in nature such as
mushroom, mold, and yeast, and their distinguishing characteristics.
Table 1. Classification of fungi based on the type of spore bearing structure they produce = sporangium.
1.) Phylum Mastigomycota - Ex) Water Molds
• Motile spores _ flagella with cellulose cell walls
• Mainly saprophytes
• Sexual and asexual reproduction
2.) Phylum Amastigomycota
• Non – motile spores _chitin cell walls
Three (3) Classes of Amastigomycota
Class Zygomycetes (Lower Class Ascomycetes (Sac Fungi) Class Basidiomycetes (Club
fungi) Example: Yeast Fungi)
Example: Bread mold Example: Mushroom
• Form zygospores (sexual • SAC fungi (sac shaped sporangia) • CLUB fungi
reproduction)
• Sexual and asexual spores • No asexual spores (sexual
• Some saprophytes spores only = basidiospores)
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• Sexual and asexual spores Sexual spores called ascospores. • LONG dikaryotic stage
• NO dikaryotic stage • SHORT dikaryotic stage • Many are pathogens ex) smuts
& rusts
• Many pathogens of plants ex)
Dutch Elm’s disease
3.) Phylum Deuteromycota (Imperfect fungi) - Ex) Athlete’s foot, ringworm, thrush, yeast infections
• Imperfect fungi – resemble sac & club fungi
• NO sexual spores (asexual spores only)
• Pathogens of animals ⇒ ringworm, Athlete’s foot
To better understand the classification of fungi, three common examples of fungi have been provided, each
with a distinction between classification and identification.
Mushroom
- Fungi that belong to the mushroom category are characterized by their umbrella-shaped fruiting bodies. True
mushrooms are characterized by gill-like structures on the bottom surface that release spores. True
mushrooms usually belong to the biological order Agaricales, but the term mushroom is commonly used to
describe any sporophore, which is the spore-bearing fruiting bodies of some fungus species. Many species of
mushrooms are edible and delicious, but others can be very toxic.
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Department of BS Environmental Science Page
Page43
Even expert mushroom gatherers can have trouble in distinguishing between edible and poisonous species
closely resembling themselves. Classification and identification of the edible and non-edible mushrooms are
presented in Table 2 and Figure 1 for sample pictures of actual specimens 1.
Table 2. Classification and identification of the edible and non-edible mushrooms
1
Taylor, S. (2021) Mold Study Guide: www.inspiritvr.com/general-bio/protists-and-fungi.
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Scientific name of mushroom Agaricus bisporus Page 5
Division Eumycota
Class Hemenomycetes (open gills)
Gasteromycetes (closed basidiocarp
untilmaturity/ puffballs
Class Homobasidiomycetes (for both)
Order Agaricales( arrange gills)
Polyporales (network gills)
Sclerodermatales Aphyllophorales
Lycoperdales
Auriculariales
Tremellales
Family Agaricaceae
Chanterellaceae
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Lepiotaceae
Page 6
Genus Agaricus
Amanita
Ganoderma
Polyporus
Chanterella
Species Campestris
Cibarius
Cepaestipes
Table 3: Poisonous mushrooms and their effects on humans.
Toxin Level of Toxicity Effect when consumed
Alpha- Deadly Liver damage 1–3 days after ingestion. Principal toxin in genus
amanitin Amanita
Phallotoxin Non-lethal Gastrointestinal upset. Found in poisonous Amanitas
Orellanine Deadly Kidney failure within 3 weeks after ingestion. Principal toxin in genus
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Cortinarius.
Page 7
Muscarine Potentially Deadly Respiratory failure. Found in genus Omphalotus.
Gyromitrin Deadly Neurotoxicity, gastrointestinal upset, and destruction of blood cells.
Principal toxin in genus Gyromitra.
Coprine Non-lethal Illness when consumed with alcohol. Principal toxin in genus Coprinus
Ibotenic acid Potentially Deadly Neurotoxicity. Principal toxin in Amanita muscaria, A. pantherina, and
A. gemmata
Muscinol Non-lethal CNS depression and hallucinations. Principal toxin in Amanita
muscaria, A. pantherina, and A. gemmata .
Psilocybin Non- Poisonous CNS arousal and hallucinations. Principal effects in psilocybin
and psilocin mushrooms, many belonging to the genus Psilocyb.
Arabitol Non-lethal Gastrointestinal irritation in some people.
Bolesatine Non-lethal Gstrointestinal irritation, vomiting, nausea .
Ergotamine Deadly Affects the vascular system leading to loss of limbs and death. An
alkaloid found in genus Claviceps.
Table 4: Differences between Poisonous and edible mushrooms
Poisonous mushroom Edible mushroom
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When you cut the mushroom it turns either green or When you cut the mushroom it does not stain green
purple. or purple
When you taste a piece of the mushroom, it burns or When you taste a piece of the mushroom, it does not
stings the tongue. burn or sting the tongue.
Poisonous mushrooms have bad odour. Edible mushrooms have pleasant odour.
It tastes bitter. It has sweet taste
There is no presence of worms There is presence of worms.
There is presence of scales on the cap There is no scale on the cap.
Molds
- is the term used to describe fungus species that form large, fuzzy masses of mycelium and fruiting structures.
The presence of conspicuous, filament-like hyphae that form a mycelium is why molds are termed
multicellular filamentous fungi. Molds are characterized by the presence of conidia, which are asexual spores
born directly from the hyphae.
Many mold species that are associated with food spoilage and agricultural diseases belong to the Aspergillus,
Penicillium, or Rhizopus genera. The green-grey fuzz seen on old loaves of bread is an example of mold
caused by the species Rhizopus stolonifer2.
Types of Mold
There are three main classifications of mold, depending on its how hazardous they are to our health:
1. Allergenic: Causes an allergic reaction such as eye irritation, skin irritation, or asthma.
2. Pathogenic: Can cause disease, and it's often hard to pinpoint this type.
2
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Department of BS Environmental Science Page89
Page
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3. Toxigenic: Produces substances that are toxic and can lead to dangerous or deadly health conditions.
Table 6: The common examples of mold, and where they are usually found are explained below.
Page 6
Example of Mold Description
Acremonium • This is a mold that's commonly found in buildings that have been affected by water
seepage.
Page 9
• It is slow-spreading, making it easier to detect and remove compared to other molds.
Alternaria • Is found both indoors and outdoors.
• It is usually observed in damp places such as dead plant material, grass with dew, and
overwatered soil.
• This mold variety spreads during dry and windy conditions.
Aspergillus • These molds range from yellow-green to blue-green hues.
• Aspergillus has a cotton or wool texture.
• This mold produces allergic reactions, and its effects can lead to serious conditions
such as Aspergillosis - a type of lung disease.
Aureobasidium • Aureobasidium have colors ranging from black to softer cream or pink hues.
• They are commonly found in bathrooms and kitchens, growing in the tile grout or
caulking.
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Chaetomium • Colonies of Chaetomium are found in damp and humid locations of buildings or
areas that don't get sunlight and have poor ventilation.
• Chaetomium mold can have both allergenic and pathogenic effects.
Cladosporium • This type of mold is found in basements or attics.
• Cladosporium has a velvet texture and is olive-gray.

Page 10
• It causes an allergic reaction, especially in infants. It is also known to cause
infections in the fingernails, toenails, and eyes.
Fusarium • Fusarium can be found in various colors, from tans and whites to brighter pinks and
purples.
• Fermented fusarium, also called Quorn, is used as a meat substitute by many
vegetarians and vegans.
Mucor • Mucor is a yellow or white mold with a cottony texture
• It's usually found in the air in schools, offices, and homes.
Penicillium • Penicillium can be identified by its musty odor.
• It's often found in blue-green, white, yellow, or pink hues and has a powdery texture.
• It can be found indoors with moisture and often contaminates leather and cloth items.
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• By studying penicillium, scientists found a component of the fungi named Penicillin -
an antibiotic commonly used to treat infectious diseases.
Yeast
- is the term used to describe unicellular (single-celled) fungi. They are very small, measuring only about
0.075 mm in diameter, but are larger than most bacterial cells, and thrive in sugar-rich environments like
overripe fruits or the nectar inside flowers. Yeasts most commonly belong to the phylum Ascomycota, but
some also belong to the Basidiomycota phylum.
Yeast is the term generally applied to a unicellular fungus, and there are hundreds of species now identified.
One of the most notable and well-known species of yeast in health and wellness is known as Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, which is also known by its more common names, brewer's yeast or baker's yeast. Typically,
brewer's yeast is used as a protein supplement, energy booster, immune enhancer, or other vehicle where other
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compounds can be inserted to create a commercialized health product. Candida albicans is another example of
a yeast species that is associated with yeast infections in humans 3.
Table 7: Classification and Identification of Yeast
Kingdom: Fungi
Page 12
Scientific Name of Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Phylum Ascomycota (Sac fungi)
Subphylum Saccharomycotina
Class Saccharomycetes are single celled fungi called yeast
and don't possess a fruiting body. They feed on sugar.
(Malloch 2009).
Family Saccharomycetaceae are related based on their DNA
sequence
Order Saccharomycetales feed on primarily plant sugars
Genus Saccharomyces posses both a metabolism pathway
and a fermentative pathway in respiration. They are
usually very easy to culture and manipulate.
(Mycology Guidebook 1974)
3
Moyad, Mark. (2008) Brewer's/baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and preventive medicine: Part II,
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18335702/
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Species Saccharomyces cerevisiae are commonly used in labs
and in food products such as breads and beers.
(Mycology Guidebook 1974).
Yeast is a type of single-celled fungus that is used in the production of bread, beer and wine. Yeast is a
microorganism that consists of single-cell fungi with the same species of edible mushroom. Yeast is an
essential component of the human body for more than a decade. Yeast has a positive effect on the health of
your gut. There are two main types of yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces yeast. Wine yeast
is a strain of S. cerevisiae that is used to ferment grape juice into wine. Bread yeast is a strain of S. cerevisiae
that is used to leaven bread. A yeast is a plant that is commonly found in plants. Beer is the same for all of
them, as it is for beer. It is not necessary to dismiss something simply because it has never been heard of
before. There are approximately 50 different types of wine and champagne yeasts available as well as 100
different types of beer yeasts available. When it comes to making bread, it may surprise you to learn that it is
made using a variety of yeasts. “
In the world of bread yeast, dry active yeast and instant yeast are the two most common types. When
comparing wine yeast and bred yeast, you’ll notice differences in stains and properties.
What Is The Difference Between Instant and Active Dry Yeast?
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Instant and active dry yeast are essentially the same ingredient, just in slightly different forms and
applications. You should keep sealed packets of both yeast types at room temperature and store partially used
packets in an airtight container in the refrigerator. The main differences between the two are:
Active yeast needs rehydration. Instant yeast can be mixed directly into dry ingredients, whereas active dry
yeast must first be dissolved and rehydrated in warm water.
Instant yeast needs less time to rise. Since instant yeast has a finer texture than active dry yeast, it’s possible to
skip the initial rise time and shape loaves immediately after kneading. Loaves made with active dry yeast
require longer rising times for the yeast to work its way through the dough.
Conclusion
Fungi are crucial microbes in our ecosystems, there is no question about that. Because fungus can
produce their own nourishment from organic substances in the environment, they differ strangely
from plants and mammals in this regard. Mushrooms, which have long been highly appreciated as
food, tonics, and, in some circumstances, medicines, are the most helpful fungi to people. The rising
demand for bigger production volumes demonstrates
how popular mushrooms have become in recent years.
Their popularity stems from three highly desirable
qualities as foods: (I) they have a remarkable taste and
flavor; (II) they are nutritious, both for what they do
contain (high protein contents with significant amounts
of lysine and methionine, which are low in plants),
fibers, minerals, and vitamins; and (III) they can be
processed, dried, pickled, and canned easily to allow for
mass production.
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Page15
14
In communities where people gather mushrooms, ethnomycological information is passed down
orally from generation to generation, which is not a dependable security measure. Every year, a
number of intoxications are reported in nations where mushrooms are widely consumed, primarily as
a result of misidentification of mostly wild species. These species contain dangerous poisons that,
depending on the dosage consumed, can result in a variety of symptoms that can be lethal. It is
challenging to prevent accidental mushroom consumption, especially in nations where consuming
wild species is common. The success of treatment depends on early detection of symptoms and signs
of intoxication. Proper identification is crucial to prevent accidents.
As a result, the researcher/reporter suggests in this report to those people who are unaware of the
classification of any division of the kingdom fungi that they should have an awareness and be
civilized enough to determine what some edible and non-edible/poisonous fungi are in the
environment, particularly those types of mushrooms that people now mistake for edible. That is why
it is critical to have a solid understanding of all types of fungi, particularly how we consume them
and how we recognize them.
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Page 1615
References
Solanki, N. Hartsock A, (2021) Fungi types and Examples and description : https://study.com.
Ukwuru MU, Muritala A, Eze LU (2018) Edible and Non-Edible Wild Mushrooms: Nutrition, Toxicity and
Strategies for Recognition. J Clin Nutr MetKingdom
Bear, R. Rintoul, D. (2019,Nov. 11) Kingdom fungi: Principles of Biology, OpenStax, Steve Altaner, and Eva
Home, Page 407-407.
Ware, M. (2016, Jan 12). Mushrooms: Health Benefits, Facts, Research
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Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

BIO 211: GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

Course & Year: Bachelor of Science in Environmental Science 2-A

Mr.Tom Jericho Abobo

BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

2.) Body ..................................................................................................................2-

3.) Conclusions..................................................................................................... 15-

BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

it comes to the classification and identification of fungi.

BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

edible and which are not.

Body (Discussion, Method, Results)

BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

mushroom, mold, and yeast, and their distinguishing characteristics.

1.) Phylum Mastigomycota - Ex) Water Molds

• Motile spores _ flagella with cellulose cell walls

• Sexual and asexual reproduction

2.) Phylum Amastigomycota

• Non – motile spores _chitin cell walls

Three (3) Classes of Amastigomycota

fungi) Example: Yeast Fungi)

Example: Bread mold Example: Mushroom

• Some saprophytes spores only = basidiospores)

BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Dutch Elm’s disease

• Imperfect fungi – resemble sac & club fungi

• NO sexual spores (asexual spores only)

• Pathogens of animals ⇒ ringworm, Athlete’s foot

with a distinction between classification and identification.

BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

presented in Table 2 and Figure 1 for sample pictures of actual specimens 1.

Table 2. Classification and identification of the edible and non-edible mushrooms

BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Class Hemenomycetes (open gills)

Gasteromycetes (closed basidiocarp

Class Homobasidiomycetes (for both)

Order Agaricales( arrange gills)

Polyporales (network gills)

BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Table 3: Poisonous mushrooms and their effects on humans.

Toxin Level of Toxicity Effect when consumed

Phallotoxin Non-lethal Gastrointestinal upset. Found in poisonous Amanitas

BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

Muscarine Potentially Deadly Respiratory failure. Found in genus Omphalotus.

Gyromitrin Deadly Neurotoxicity, gastrointestinal upset, and destruction of blood cells.

Principal toxin in genus Gyromitra.

Muscinol Non-lethal CNS depression and hallucinations. Principal toxin in Amanita

muscaria, A. pantherina, and A. gemmata .

and psilocin mushrooms, many belonging to the genus Psilocyb.

Arabitol Non-lethal Gastrointestinal irritation in some people.

Bolesatine Non-lethal Gstrointestinal irritation, vomiting, nausea .

alkaloid found in genus Claviceps.

Table 4: Differences between Poisonous and edible mushrooms

Poisonous mushroom Edible mushroom

BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi

stings the tongue. burn or sting the tongue.

It tastes bitter. It has sweet taste

There is no presence of worms There is presence of worms.

There is presence of scales on the cap There is no scale on the cap.

born directly from the hyphae.

caused by the species Rhizopus stolonifer2.

BIO211| Biology 2 : Kingdom Fungi