RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

INTRODUCTION
X- Rays:

 Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen(1845-1923)

 He was professor of Experimental physics at wuerzburing (Munich)
University
 The date of the discovery is 8th November 1895

Gamma Rays:

 Marie Curie was born in warsaw on November 7th 1867

 Date of discovery is 1910

PRINCIPLE OF RT

SHADOW FORMATION DUE TO DIFFERENTIAL ABSORPTION

TWO TYPES OF SOURCE
ELECTRO MAGNETIC SOURCE

 X-RAY
 GAMMA RAY (g)

PARTICULAR

 β RAY, a RAY, g RAY.

RADIATION SOURCE
 RADIATION DUE TO EXTERNAL ENERGY

EX: X-RAY

RADIOACTIVE SOURCE
 IT IS OTHERWISE CALLED RADIOACTIVE ELEMENT
SOURCE.
 ALWAYS EMITS RADIATION.

EX : g RAY

BASIC CONCEPT
VELOCITY

 VELOCITY OF RADIATON = 3X10 10 CM/SEC

ATOM

 SMALLEST PART IN THE ELEMENT

MOLECUL

 TWO OR MORE THAN TWO ATOMS FORMS AN

MOLECULE

COMPOUND

 MORE THAN TWO MOLECULES.

BASIC FUNDAMENTALS OF AN ATOM

PROTON

 PROTON HAVING POSITIVE CHARGE IS FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS OF

THE ATOM

ELECTRON

 ELECTRON REVOLVE AROUND THE NUCLEUS AND HAVE NEGATIVE

CHARGE.

NEUTRON

 NEUTRON HAVING ZERO CHARGE IS ALSO FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS.

 THE ATOMIC NUMBER “Z”= THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IN A

NUCLEUS

 MASS NUMBER “A” = NUMBER OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

ISOTOPES
 ATOM OF THE ELEMENT CAN POSSES SAME ATOMIC NUMBER(z) BUT
DIFFERENT MASS NUMBER (A).
 ISOTOPES EMITTING RADIATIONS REFERS TO RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES.
GAMMA RADIATION
 WHEN NEUTRON IS ADDED TO AN ATOM, NEUTRON BOMBARDMENT TAKES
PLACE AND ALSO IT EMIT GAMMARAYS.

IRIDIUM 192

 Ir192 – (77 P +115 N)

COBALT 60

 Co60 – (27 P + 33 N)

IONIZATION
 THE PROCESS IN WHICH ELECTRONS ARE KNOCKED OFF OR REMOVED FROM
AN ATOM.

EXCITATION

 PROCESS IN WHICH ELECTRONS ARE RAISED FROM INNER ORBIT TO THE

OUTER ORBIT.

X Ray Machine
X Ray sources

USEFUL THICKNESS
 X- RAY ->BELOW 10 MM
g -RAY -> IRIDIUM 192 à 10MM TO 60 MM
 COBALT 60 à 50MM TO 200MM

TYPES OF CAMERA
 PORTABLE – ONE MAN

UPTO 20 Kg

 MOBILE – TROLLEY MOUNTED

50 Kg TO 500 Kg

 FIXED -- > 500 Kg

DRIVING UNIT

CAMERA
RADIOGRAPHY SETUP

Iridium 192
Cobalt 60

HALF LIFE PERIOD

 Half life of radioisotopes used in
 industrial radiography :
 Thulium 170 128 days
 Ytterbium 169 32 days
 Iridium 192 75 days
 Cesium 137 30 years
 Cobalt 60 5.27 years
 Sodium 24 14.9 hours
 Selenium 75 119.8 days

DECAY LAW
 A = A0e-λ T
WHERE,

A -> PRESENT ACTIVITY

A0-> INITIAL ACTIVITY

λ -> DECAY CONSTANT

T ->TIME

RADIATION OUT PUT AT ONE METER/CURIE

Ir192 – 1 Ci 1 meter 0.5 R/hr

1 hour (or) 500mR/hr

Co60 – 1 Ci 1 meter 1.3R/hr

1 hour (or)
1300mR/hr

Safe Distance

 The distance between source and person should maintain to

avoid overdose
 Using Inverse Square Law

RADIATION SYMBOL
Inverse Square law

 The intensity of radiation varies inversely with the square

of the distance from the source.

The inverse square law is expressed as

I1D12 = I2 D22
where,

I 1 =radiation intensity at distance D 1

I 2 = radiation intensity at distance D 2

Radiation intensity, produced by a radioisotope at 1 meter is,

Ci X RHM in Roentgen / hr.

RADIATION ATTENUATION
-m t
I = I 0e
WHERE,

I = PRESENT INTENSITY

I0 = INITIAL INTENSITY

E = EXPONENTIAL

 = ABSORPTION CO-EFFICIENT OF A MATERIAL

t =JOB THICKNESS

GEOMETRICAL UNSHARPNESS (Ug)

 Unsharpness may produce gradual change in density with complete
loss of image outline.

 Unsharpness in a radiograph can be defined as the blurring of image

edges, with a resultant loss of definition of fine cracks, image detail
and penetrameter detail.

 In practice, Ug can never be zero. Film unsharpness is also recorded.

Ug can only be minimized by controlling exposure setup
The main causes of unsharpness

CALCULATION FOR Ug
Up = F X T / ( SFD -T )

or, SFD = { ( F X T ) / Ug } + T ,

the required source to film distance to limit a certain Ug.

where,

Ug = unsharpness [ width of the

shadow zone ].

F = effective source size.

T = thickness [ height ] of the object.

SFD = source to film distance.

FILM
 As mentioned previously, radiographic film consists of a transparent, blue-
tinted base coated on both sides with an emulsion.
 The emulsion consists of gelatin containing microscopic, radiation sensitive
silver halide crystals, such as silver bromide and silver chloride. When x-
rays, gamma rays or light rays strike the the crystals or grains, some of the
Br- ions are liberated and captured by the Ag+ ions.
  In this condition, the radiograph is said to contain a latent (hidden) image
because the change in the grains is virtually undetectable, but the exposed
grains are now more sensitive to reaction with the developer.

TYPES OF FILM
 SLOW FILM
 MEDIUM FILM
 FAST FILM

CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

FILM DENSITY
 FILM ON EXPOSURE TO RADIATION AND PROCESSING PRODUCES BLACK
DEPOSITS OF SILVER. THIS BLACKENING OF THE FILM IS CALLED
“OPTICAL DENSITY”.
 IT IS DENOTED BY D.
  DENSITY MEARSURING DEVICE

1)DENSITOMETE

2)DENSITOSTRIP

STANDARDS DENSITY LEVEL

 X-Rays Film Density 1.8 to 4

 Gamma Rays Density 2 to 4
 Preferable Density level 2.3 to 2.8

FACTORS WHICH CONTROL THE OPTICAL DENSITY

 TYPE OF FILM
 ENERGY OF RADIATION
 AMOUNT OF EXPOSURE
 PROCESSING CONDITION

FILM FACTOR
Ir 192 D2 9.5 R

D4 4.0R

D7 1.2R

Co 60 D2 19.6R

D4 8.0R

D7 2.5R
FILM PROCESSING

 +DEVELOPER

 STOP BATH

 FIXER

 WASHING

 REMOVING WATER MARKS

 DRYING

DEVELOPER
 HYDRoclorid + WATER
 18 –230 C
 DEVELOPING TIME -> 5 TO 8 MINS
STOP BATH
 ACETIC ACID + WATER
 TO REMOVE THE DEVELOPER CHEMICAL
 FURTHER DEVELOPMENT IS STOPPED
 TIME LIMIT IS 1 TO 2 MTS

FIXER

 CONSISTS OF SODIUM THIO SULPHATE

 UNWANTED SILVER IS REMOVED
 TIME LIMIT IS 10 TO 15 MTS
 FIXATION TIME / CLEARING TIME
WASHING
 USING RUNNING WATER
 TIME LIMIT IS 15 MTS
 TO REMOVE THE TRACES OF FIXING CHEMICALS
 IMPROPERLY WASHED FILMS BECOME BROWN WITH AGE.

REMOVING WATER MARKS

 Water droplets remaining on the films after washing can be surface
removed by dipping the films in wetting agent solution before drying.

DRYING
 Films are finally dried uniformly by evaporation or by circulating hot
air in a temperature controlled drying cabinet.

Image quality indicators

[ IQI]
 ASTM HOLE/PLAQUE TYPE PENETRAMETER
 ASTM WIRE PENETRAMETER
 DIN TYPE PENETRAMETER

ASTM HOLE TYPE PENETROMETER

Quality level Equivalent sensitivity

1 - 1T .7 %

1 - 2T 1%

2 - 1T 1.4 %

2 - 2T 2 % [ standard
ENETROMETERS
PENETRAMETER PLACEMENT

IQI Selection table as per ASME V / Art 2.

Weld Thk inch Source side Film side

Upto .25 12 10

Over .25 thr .375 15 12

Over .375 thr .50 17 15

Over .5 thr .7520 17

Over .75 thr 1.00 25 20

Over 1.00 thr 1.50 30 25

Over 1.50 thr 2.00 35 30

Over 2.00 thr 2.50 40 35

Over 2.50 thr 4.00 50 40

Over 4.00 thr 6.00 60 50

Over 6.00 thr 8.00 80 60

Essential hole 2T

Wire Penetrameters

 ASTM wire penetrameters

The diameter ratio between two successive wires is 1 : 1.25

ASTM wire diameter in Inches :

Set A Set B Set C Set D

1- .0032 6 - .010 11 - .032 16 - .100

2 - .004 7 - .013 12 - .040 17 - .126

3 - .005 8 - .016 13 - .050 18 - .160

4 - .0063 9 - .020 14 - .063 19 - .200

5 - .008 10 - .025 15 - .080 20 - .250

6 - .010 11 - .032 16 - .100 21 - .320

IQI SELECTION

Selection of wire = 2 /100*JT

% OF SENSITIVITY
min visible wire dia

S = ------------------------------*100
object thickness

DIN wire penetrameters

 DIN SETS

Wire Diameter in (mm)

S.No 1-ISO-7 6-ISO-12 10-ISO-16

1 3.2 1 0.4
2 2.5 0.8 0.32
3 2.0 0.63 0.25
4 1.6 0.5 0.2
5 1.25 0.4 0.16
6 1.0 0.32 0.13
7 0.8 0.25 0.1

• 10 ISO 16 for 5 to 20 mm thickness.

 • 6 ISO 12 20 to 50 mm.

• 1 ISO 7 40 to 160 mm.

IQI SELECTION

% wire = 2 /100*JT

% OF SENSITIVITY
min visible wire dia

S = ------------------------------*100
object thickness

TECHNIQUES IN RADIOGRAPHY
 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE

àECCENTRIC

àPANAROMIC

 DOUBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE

àTouching shot

 DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE

àSuper impose

àElliptical Shot

EXCENTRIC
PANAROMIC

DOUBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE

DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE
DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE
Exposure equation :

FF x 2 thk / hvt x SFD 2 x 60

Exp Time = ----------------------------------

[ in minutes ] Ci x RHM x 100 2

FF = film factor of the film for a target density.

thk = thickness to be radiographed.

hvt = half value thickness of the material.

SFD= source to film distance in cm.

Ci = source strength [ curie ] of the isotope.

RHM=radiation out put at 1 meter / curie.

 100= 1 meter = 100 cm.

60 = hour ® minute.

POCKET DOSIMETER

RADIATION SURVEY METER

ACUTE DOSE
 LARGE DOSE IN A SHORT PERIOD.

CHRONIC DOSE
 DOSE RECEIVED FOR A LONG PERIOD.

 BARCà Bhaba Atomic Research Centre

 BRITà Board of Radiation & Isotope Technology

 ICRPà International Commission for Radiological Protection

 REMà Roentgen Equivalent Men

2000 milli Rem /year

200 milli Rem /month

 40 milli Rem /week

5 milli Rem /day

1 milli Rem /1 hour

DOSE OF RADIATION

MILD DOSE
 25 REM TO 50 REM

MODERATE DOSE
 50 REM TO 200 REM

MEDIAN LETHAL DOSE

 200 REM TO 600 REM

LETHAL DOSE
 600 REM TO 800 REM

ADVANTAGES
 PERMANENT RECORD
 MOBILITY
 VOLUMETRIC NDT
 NO NEED OF POWER SUPPLY FOR GAMMA RAYS

DISADVANTAGES

 HAZARDOUS TO HUMAN BODY

 DEPTH OF THE DEFECT CANNOT BE FOUND
 TIME CONSUMING & COST EFFECTIVE