☼ Ainun Ainuddin ☼ Lecture #2 ☼

CHAPTER 2:
Mechanical Test

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Content

• 2.1 Hardness testing

• 2.2 Tensile testing
• 2.3 Compression testing
• 2.4 Creep and Fatigue testing

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INTRODUCTION
• Materials used in engineering applications as structural
components are subject to loads, defined by the application
purpose.
• The mechanical properties of materials characterize the
response of a material to loading.
• The mechanical loading action on materials in engineering
applications may be static or dynamic and can basically be
categorized as tension, compression, bending, shear, and
torsion.
• The mechanical loading action and the corresponding response
of materials can be illustrated by the well-known stress–strain
curve.

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• Strength
is materials ability to withstand an applied stress
without failure
• Ductility
is a measure of the extent to which a material will
deform before fracture
• Toughness
is the ability of a metal to deform plastically and to
absorb energy in the process before fracture
(strength + ductility)
• Hardness
Hardness is the resistance of a material to localized
deformation
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LOADING ACTION

TENSILE
(STRETCH)

COMPRESSIVE
(CRUSH)

SHEARING
(TEARING)

TORSIONAL
(TWISTING)

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2.1 HARDNESS TEST

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HARDNESS

 the resistance of a metal to permanent (plastic) deformation.

 Usually measured by an indentation test, which consists of
applying a known load over a particular geometry and seeing
how far the material deforms.
 Always measured by applying a certain amount of pressure on
the surface of the solid sample being tested by using a harder
object of definite shape and size, that is, an indenter.
 The deeper the indentation, the softer the materials.

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 Examples of applications:
 surface treatments where surface hardness has
been much improved.
 Powder metallurgy
 Fabricated parts: forgings, rolled plates, extrusions,
machined parts
Types of hardness tests (3 groups):
i. scratch tests
o 10 different standards for Mohs hardness,
categorized into 10 levels from soft to hard
ii. rebound test
iii. Indentation tests

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 Brinell

Scratch Vickers

Hardness
Test

Rebound Rockwell

Knoop
 1
Scratch test

 Mohs Test
 hardness by testing a material’s resistance to surface
scratches

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 2
Rebound test

• Uses a standardized object of a given weight and shape

and drops it upon the sample surface from a given height.
• The height of the rebound is then measured
• A hardness value is determined from that measurement
• Hardness is expressed as the energy of impact
• The Shore Scleroscope is an instrument of this type.

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 3
Indentation test
• Static indentation hardness is determined by applying
pressure on the sample surface using a ball—or diamond-
shaped indenter

• Examples
 Brinell
 Vickers
 Knoop
 Rockwell

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13
1 INDENTATION

• Depth/size of resultant indent

2 measured
• Related to a hardness number

• Soft material: ??????? Indentation

3 • Hard Material: ??????? indentation

Hardness number:
4  /  depends on indent
 BRINELL HARDNESS
• The first standard hardness test to be widely accepted

• Has been superceded by other hardness tests, (Vickers or Rockwell tests)

• Uses a ball indenter:

• a standard 10-mm sphere of steel or tungsten carbide

• applied load of 3000, 1500 or 500 kg of force

• Typical range of Brinell hardness values is from 5 to 10,000

• Dimensions of Brinell hardness are force per unit area

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 BRINELL HARDNESS
• Indenter (hard metal ball with diameter D)
is forced into the surface of a test piece

• The diameter of the indentation d left in

the surface after removal of the force F is
measured

• Brinell hardness is proportional to the

quotient obtained by dividing the test force
by the curved surface area of the
indentation
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• F = load in kg
• D = diameter of ball indenter in mm
• d = diameter of indentation in the surface in mm
• t = depth of indentation

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• Brinell hardness is denoted by
HBW followed by numbers
representing:
Example. 600HBW1/30/20:
• the ball diameter
600 Brinell hardness value
• applied test force
HBW Brinell hardness symbol
• duration time of the test force
1/ Ball diameter in mm
30 Applied test force
(294.2N = 30 kgf)
/20 Duration time of test force
(20 s) if not indicated
in the designation (10–15 s)

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Examples:
• 150 HBW10/3000/30
• material with 150 Brinell hardness tested using a 10 mm diameter
steel tip with 3000 kgf (29.4 kN) over 30 s.

• 500 HBW5/750
• Material with hardness value of 500 tested by a 5 mm tungsten
carbide tip with 750 kgf (7.355 kN) over 10 ∼ 15 s

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Standard test forces for the different testing conditions

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PRECAUTION DURING TEST
• Sample thickness should be
at least 10X times larger than
indentation depth.
• If sample thickness allows, a
10 mm indenter is preferred
• During load application, the
sample and the indenter
should be perpendicular to
ensure an even application of
the load
• Avoid any shock or vibration
during the indentation.
• Loading time is also a function
of the material being tested.
 Softer material requires longer
loading time
 Harder metals and alloys, =
typically 10–15 s
 Softer metals = 30 s of loading
time
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 ADVANTAGES
• Suitable even under rough workshop conditions if
• large ball indenters
• high test forces are used.
• Suitable on inhomogeneous materials due to
• large test indentations
Provided: extent of inhomogeneity is small in comparison to the test indentation.
• Suitable on large blanks
• forged pieces, castings, hot-rolled or hot-pressed and heat-treated components.
• Relatively little surface preparation is required
• if large ball indenters and high test forces are used.
• Measurement is not affected by movement of the specimen in the direction in which
the test force is acting
• Simple, robust and low-cost indenters.

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 DISADVANTAGES
• Restriction of application range to a maximum Brinell hardness of
650HBW

• Restriction when testing small and thin-walled specimens.

• Relatively long test time

• due to the measurement of the indentation diameter

• Relatively serious damage to the specimen

• due to the large test indentation

• Measurement of many indentations can lead to operator fatigue and

increased measurement error
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ROCKWELL HARDNESS
• HR is the unit for Rockwell hardness
• Different indenters with different loads leads to different
Rockwell test standards
• Indenters: ball-, diamond-
• Loads of 15 to 150 kg
• Most widely used are the A, B, and C standards
• C is the most common
• Hardness values of each standard are denoted by HRA, HRB,
and HRC
• ASTM E 18 – 03: Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness
and Rockwell Superficial Hardness of Metallic Materials (ASTM
Int., West Conshohocken 2003)

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Common Rockwell Hardness Testing Standards and Applications

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• Sample requirement:
 surface of samples should be flat without any cracks, pits, or visible machining
marks
 sample thickness should be 8X the indentation depth
 loading should be stable without vibrations or sudden impacts
 indentation time is usually around 4 ∼ 6 s.

• Rockwell hardness is defined as a unit less quantity and has a

linear relationship with h
• So enables Rockwell hardness charts to be made and installed
directly onto the testing machine
• After the load has been removed, the hardness values can be
read directly from the machine

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 SOFTER MATERIALS
 After the main load has been applied, dial will
continue to increase slowly (slow increase in
indentation depth after load application)
 the load should be maintained for a longer time, 10 ∼
60s

MEDIUM MATERIALS
 after the main load is applied and the dial has
stabilized—the loading should be maintained for
around 2 s before removal

HARDER MATERIALS
 load could be removed instantly without
affecting testing results.
 The Rockwell hardness formula

• A diamond cone-shaped indenter tip has a K value of 100; a steel tip has a K
value of 130;
• h2 is the indentation depth (mm) resulting from the preload of 10 kgf;
• h1 is the indentation depth after the main load has been removed;
• S is another constant with the value of 0.002 mm, which defines a unit depth
for indentation.

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• t = penetration depth measured in mm
• M = maximum allowed value of the particular scale in use
• M = 100 for diamond indenters used on the Rockwell scales A, C, and D
• M = 130 for ball indenters used on the Rockwell scales B, E, M, and R

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• Rockwell hardness is denoted
by HR followed by numbers
representing:
 letter indicating the scale, and
either an S or W
 indicate the type of ball used
• S = steel
• W= hard metal, tungsten carbide
alloy
Example: 70HR30N W
70
Rockwell hardness value
HR
Rockwell hardness symbol
30N Rockwell scale symbol
W Indication of type of ball used,
S = steel, W= hard metal
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 Advantages
• Relatively short test time
• the hardness value is automatically
displayed immediately following the
indentation process
• Relatively low costs for the testing
machine
• because no optical measuring device is
necessary
• No operator influence of evaluation
• because the hardness value is displayed
directly
• Relatively short time needed to
train operator.
Disadvantages
• Possibility of measurement errors
• due to movement of the test piece and poorly
seated
• Less possibility of testing materials
with surface layer hardening
• as a consequence of relatively high test forces.
• Sensitivity of the diamond indenter to
damage
• producing a risk of incorrect measurements
• Relatively low sensitivity on the
difference in hardness
• Significant influence of the shape of
the conical diamond indenter on the
test result (especially of the tip).
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VICKERS HARDNESS
• A diamond indenter in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and with a specified
angle between opposite faces at the vertex is forced into the surface of a test piece

• Measurement of the diagonal length of the indentation left in the surface after removal of
the test force

• The diameter of the indentation d left in the surface after removal of the force F is
measured

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• Vickers hardness test uses a square-base diamond pyramid as the
indenter with the included angle between opposite faces of the
pyramid of 136o.
• The Vickers hardness number (VHN) is defined as the load divided
by the surface area of the indentation.
• Vickers hardness was developed on the basis of Brinell hardness and
Rockwell hardness testing.
• Vickers hardness testing is especially suited for hardened surfaces or
thin samples.
• Similar to Brinell hardness and Rockwell hardness, loading during
the Vickers hardness test should be stable and without impact.
• The loading time for steels are typically 10 ∼ 15 s and 30 ± 2 s.

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 HV = symbol for Vickers hardness (the units are
kgf/mm2, but it is usually shown as unitless)
F = the load applied (kgf)
S = the indentation area (mm2)
d = the average diagonal length of the indent (mm)

• Indenter: a 136° diamond pyramid shaped indenter

• 6 different loads are possible: 5, 10, 20, 30, 50, and 100 kgf
• Loading time for steels are typically 10 ∼ 15 s and 30
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 A perfect square indentation (a) made with a perfect diamond pyramid
indenter would be a square.
 The pincushion indentation (b) is the result of sinking in of the metal
around the flat faces of the pyramid. This gives an overestimate of the
diagonal length (observed in annealed metals).
 The barrel-shaped indentation (c) is found in cold-worked metals,
resulting from ridging or piling up of the metal around the faces of the
indenter. Produce a low value of contact area giving too high value.
Precaution during TEST
• Suited for hardened surfaces or thin • If the hardened surface thickness
samples cannot be determined, begin with
the minimum load and increase the
• Hardened surface and sample surface
load slowly
should have a minimum thickness of
• dramatic drop in hardness is seen upon a
1.5 d load increase, then a smaller load should be
• If sample thickness is large enough, used until two consecutive loads yield the
same hardness value
• Higher load should be used to minimize the
surface effects and error in determining the
diagonal of the indentation area,
• Results in increasing the accuracy

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• Vickers hardness is denoted
by the symbol HV followed
by numbers representing
 the applied test force
Example: 640HV30/20
 the duration time of the test
640 Vickers hardness value
force
HV Vickers hardness symbol
30 Applied test force
(294.2N = 30 kgf)
/20 Duration time of test force
(20 s) if not indicated in
the designation (10–15 s)

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ISO : allow lengths of indentation diagonals of 0.020–1.400 mm

ASTM International: allows indentation diagonals below 0.020 mm

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 Advantages
• Practically no limit to the use of the method
• due to the hardness of the test piece
• Testing thin sheets, small test pieces or test
surfaces, thin-walled tubes, thin, hard and
plated coatings is possible.
• In most cases, the small indentation has no
influence on the function or appearance of
tested materials or products
• The hardness value is usually independent
of the test force in the range of HV 0.2 and
above
• No incorrect measurement
• if the test piece yields to a limited extent in the
direction of the test
Disadvantages
• High effort in preparing a suitable test
surface.
• Relatively long test time
• due to the measurement of the diagonal lengths
• Sensitivity of the diamond indenter to
damage.
• If the test indentations are small,
• dependence of the hardness on the shape deviations
of the indenter and the preparation of the test
surfaces.
• Very sensitive to effects of vibration
• Relatively large variation in measurement
• depending on the operator of microscope.
• Especially for low force hardness testing
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 KNOOP MICROHARDNESS
• A diamond indenter, in the form of a rhombic-
based pyramid with specified angles between
opposite faces at the vertex, is forced into the
surface of a test piece

• Measurement of the long diagonal of the

indentation remaining in the surface after
removal of the test force F

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• Indenter :
• elongated pyramid shape with an angle of 172.5°,
• the indenter angle at the short diagonal side being 130°

• Long diagonal of the indent is 7X as long as the short

diagonal

• Possible to just measure the longer diagonal length,

and increasing the accuracy and precision of the
measurement

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• HK denotes Knoop hardness
(units of kgf/mm2, but often shown as unitless)
• F = applied load during testing (kgf)
• l = length of the diagonal of the indentation area in mm

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• The Knoop hardness is
denoted by the symbol HK
followed by numbers
representing:
• the applied test force
• the duration time of the test
force
Example: 640HK0.1/20
640 Knoop hardness value
HK Knoop hardness symbol
0.1 Applied test force
(0.9807N = 0.1 kgf)
/20 Duration time of test force
(20 s) if not indicated in
the designation (10–15 s)
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 ADVANTAGES
• Suitable for narrow test pieces
• due to the large diagonal length ratio of
approximately 7 : 1
• E.x: wire
• Better suited to thin test pieces or platings
than the Vickers test method
• because the indentation depth is smaller by a factor
of four for the same diagonal length.
• Particularly suitable for brittle materials
• because of lower tendency to cracking
• glass, agate, and other brittle materials with much
higher accuracy
• Particularly suited to investigating the
anisotropy of a material
• because the Knoop test is dependent on the
direction selected for the long diagonal in such
cases
• In most cases, the small indentation has
no influence on the function or
appearance of tested materials or
products.
• Practically no limit on the application of
the method from the hardness of the
material tested.
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 DISADVANTAGES
• Time effort to achieve a sufficiently fine test surface.

• Considerable dependency of the hardness on the test force, with an especially

strong influence of the preparation of the test surface.

• Sensitivity to damage of the diamond indenter.

• Expensive alignment of the test surface to achieve symmetrical test indentations.

• Relatively long test time due to the measurement of the diagonal length.

• Measurement of the diagonal length is more difficult than in the Vickers test
method due to the indenter geometry.

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Knoop Hardness and Vickers Hardness Comparison

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48
Hardness scales for the Brinell, Rockwell, and Vickers hardness tests

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SELECTING A CONVENTIONAL HARDNESS, TEST
METHOD AND HARDNESS SCALE
• Strength of the Test Piece
• Test-Piece Size, Shape, Weight, Accessibility, Dimensions and
Thickness
• Material Composition and Homogeneity
• Permissible Damage
• Test Surface Preparation
Strength of the Test Piece
• Appropriate test force and indenter must be chosen

• to produce a large enough indentation

• to enable the hardness testing machine’s measuring system to resolve and
measure the depth or size of the indentation with sufficient sensitivity
• to produce a meaningful hardness result, but at the same time to not penetrate
too deeply beyond the indenter’s useful depth
• avoid damage to the indenter

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Test-Piece Size, Shape, Weight, Accessibility, Dimensions, and
Thickness
•
DIMENSION
SIZES Very large/heavy/unusual
shaped test pieces :
Brinell & Rockwell
• Small (require mounting):
Vickers & Knoop
THICKNESS
• Thin samples:
• deformed material may flow at
the interface with the
supporting anvil, or the anvil
material may contribute to the
hardness measurement
• Narrow-width /thin /small area
material
• appropriate hardness test
and cale must be chosen that
produces indentations small
enough to prevent edge
interaction
• deformation surrounding the
indentation may extend to
the edge and push out the
material, thus affecting the
measured hardness value
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 Material Composition and Homogeneity

Material Composition Homogeneity

• Size and location of
metallurgical features within
the test material
• forgings and cast iron are
typically tested using the Brinell
method
• decarburization zone: small or
shallow indentation hardness
test
• Materials that are not
homogeneous:
• Must choose that will produce a
sufficiently large indentation
representative of the material as a
whole.

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Permissible Damage
• There are some applications for which a hardness indentation of a certain size
could be detrimental to a product’s service or appearance
Example:
• possible that an indentation could act as an initiation point for a fracture in a part
subjected to cyclic loading,
• large visible indentation could affect the appearance of a product
Solution:
• Apply hardness test with smaller indentations

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 Test Surface Preparation
Degree of surface roughness that can be tolerated by the different hardness
testing methods is generally dependent on
• the force levels to be applied
• indenter size
• resultant indentation size
Brinell /Vickers/Knoop
• Larger the indentation size and depth,
• less sensitive is the hardness test to the level of surface roughness and imperfections
• So measurement will represent the true hardness value of a material
• High-force scales of the Brinell test method requires the least surface preparation

ROCKWELL
• Hardness result on depth measurement rather than indentation size
• Application of preliminary force acts to push the indenter through minor surface
imperfections and to crush residual foreign particles present on the test surface.
• Allows testing of materials with slight surface flaws while maintaining much of the test
accuracy

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Permissible Measurement Uncertainty
• Measurement uncertainty of a hardness test is influenced by:
i. Operator
• the number of different operators to use the hardness machine should be
considered
ii. Machine’s repeatability and reproducibility
• variability between operators contributes to the measurement uncertainty by
increasing the lack of repeatability and reproducibility in the measurement
system
iii. Testing environment
• beneficial to use automatically controlled hardness machines or automated
indentation measuring systems, or to use the Rockwell hardness
• lessens the influence of the operator by basing the hardness result on
indentation depth as measured by the machine.

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Speed of Testing Desired
• Time to be considered for steps of a measurement are:
1) preparation of the test piece
2) indentation process
3) measurements needed to determine the hardness result
4) calculation of the hardness value

• Brinell, Vickers and Knoop methods are two-step processes:

1) the indentation process
2) measurement of the indentation

• Rockwell method quickly and automatically calculates and displays the

hardness result based on the machine’s measurement of indentation depth
- eliminate the second step of having to measure the size of the indent after the
indentation process.

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