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QUADRANGULATIONAL
COMPARISON FOR GLOCAL
SUSTAINABILITY STUDIES
Emmanuel Jean Francois

Journal of Global Research in Education and Social Science

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Journal of Global Research in Education and Social Science
14(1): 33-41, 2020
ISSN: 2454-1834

QUADRANGULATIONAL COMPARISON FOR GLOCAL

SUSTAINABILITY STUDIES

EMMANUEL JEAN-FRANCOIS1*
1
302T McCracken Hall, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, United States of America.

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION
The sole author designed, analysed, interpreted and prepared the manuscript.

Received: 17 February 2020

Accepted: 24 April 2020
Published: 28 April 2020 Method Article
__________________________________________________________________________________

ABSTRACT

This paper introduces a framework for glocal sustainability studies, as well as constructs for analyses through
quadrangulational comparisons. Glocal sustainability studies aim to investigate sustainability issues, challenges,
policies, or practices using customized global constructs or/and trends or patterns, through quadrangulational
compararisons. A quadrangulational comparison is used to analyze at least two units based on their uniqueness,
sameness, uniquesameness, and sameniqueness. The quadrangulational analytical conceptual framework has the
potential to offer multifaceted comparisons that the traditional framework of analyzing through similarities and
differences may fail to capture.

Keywords: Comparative research; comparative education research; international studies; sustainability

education; global education; international education; transnational education.

1. INTRODUCTION system approach to scholars regarding studies on

According to the International Council for Science
[1], the grand challenges in global sustainable
research concern the need to (a) improve the
usefulness of forecasts of future environmental
conditions and their consequences for people; (b)
develop the observation systems needed to manage
global and regional environmental change; (c)
determine how to anticipate, recognize, avoid and
adapt to abrupt global environmental change; (d)
determine what institutional, economic and behavioral
changes can enable effective steps toward global
sustainability; (e) encourage innovation (coupled with
sound mechanisms for evaluation) in developing
technological, policy, and social responses to achieve
global sustainability. The identification of these
challenges was based on criteria of scientific
importance, global coordination, relevance to decision
makers, and leverage; and aimed at providing a
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
global sustainability. In a transnational context, the
United Nations [2] had developed 17 sustainable
development goals to achieve by the year 2030, based
on criteria related to people, planet, prosperity, peace,
and partnership. From a practitioner viewpoint, The
Nature Conservancy [3] had compiled the
perspectives of global and regional leaders on the
biggest environmental challenges of 2017. The
following were among the challenges identified:
ensuring a low-carbon future, maximizing nature’s
role as a climate solution, improving management of
the world’s fisheries, expanding sustainable
agricultural practices, and creating a green urban
future. Despite the existence of global frameworks to
address sustainability challenges, global sustainability
initiatives do not always align with perceived local or
national interests. The withdraw of the Trump
administration from the Paris Climate Change
Agreement signed by his predecessor, Obama, in

*Corresponding author: Email: jeanfran@ohio.edu;


2016, is an illustration of a potential conflict or
differential between the global and the local with
respect to sustainability. Jean-Francois [4]
recommended glocal sustainability studies to
reconcile the global and the local. Glocal
sustainability studies involve the investigation of a
global sustainability topic in a local context, or a local
sustainability topic based on specific interrelations
with a global, transnational, or transcultural context
[5,6,7]. The purpose of this scholarly paper is to
introduce a framework for such glocal sustainability
studies, as well as constructs for analyses through
quadrangulational comparisons.
2. GLOBAL SUSTAINABILITY
In simple terms, global sustainability refers to how
resources are being exploited globally. Gale, Ascui
and Lovel [8] asserted that global sustainability
governance in contemporary times have shifted from
the 1990s, when it was regulated by global standards
setting organizations and accredited certifying bodies,
to governance and rationalization in the contemporary
period. The last wave of its transformation involves
the use technology, which revolutionized the sharing
and dissemination of information to foster global
sustainability. Other scholars invoked the cultural
dimension of global sustainability discourse. For
example, Werlen [9] examined the cultural
perspectives of global sustainability and the
challenges faced by transdisciplinary-integrated
research on questions pertaining to global
sustainability. Werlen [10] discussed three aspects of
human belief deeply rooted in culture that influence
the way people viewed global sustainability. Werlin
[11] argued that such aspects are linked to specific
groups, such as skeptics of climate change, green
movements that advocate for the earth to remain
intact, and those who believe that the earth is a “Wild
Beast” as it reacts violently to human intervention.
Choi and Lee [12] conducted a study regarding the
changing discourse and narrative for global
sustainability. They examined the productivity
rationale used by small- and medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs) industries at the expense of global
sustainability. The authors explained that there is a
need for urgent attention regarding global warming
and for the firms to maintain a balance between
profiteering and reducing manufacturing cost. The
authors underscored that governments set regulations
for firms to meet some international certification
standards to partake in the crusade for global
sustainability. In a related and different approach,
Choi and Lee [13] associated local health to global
sustainability. The authors argue that paying attention
to global emission standards for urban development
34
Jean-Francois; JOGRESS, 14(1): 33-41, 2020
can contribute to a healthy local community. In other
words, global sustainability is connected to local
sustainability, and vice versa.
Human activity has a direct impact on the
environment, and vice versa. Hopwood, Mellor and
O’Brien [14] mapped out various views on global
sustainability. They argued that global sustainability
is an important economic motive for human
productivity. Economic activity is used as an
indication for growth and a way to reduce poverty.
The economic motive is a high priority for both
governments and the private sector. Hopwood,
Mellor and O’Brien [15] posited that there are social
and ecological facets of sustainability. Human beings
are engaged in a dialectical relationship with the
environment and as such environmental concerns are
expressed through criticism and reconstruction. In a
related, but different approach, the authors quoted
Buckingham-Hatfield [16] frameworks that there is an
ecofeminist approach to global sustainability through
cultural and biological association of women and the
environment. Because of this association, the authors
argue for an environmental democracy, as well as new
political values and social rationality in the theories
and approaches to global sustainability. Yet, Waltner-
Toews, Kay and Lister [17] asserted that ecosystem is
a simplistic approach to global sustainability and
recommended to policy makers the inclusion and
incorporation of the worldview of actors for the
understanding of global sustainability, especially
when enacting global sustainability policies.
Incorporating the worldview of actors requires taking
into account the reality of various local or national
communities.
3. SUSTAINABILITY AND LOCAL
COMMUNITY
Koushik [18] asserted that place or the local context
should play a major role in sustainability education
policy and practice. In other words, sustainability
must be anchored in the local context. Reed, Fraser
and Dogill [19] mentioned the need for sustainability
indicators to be rooted in local data in order to
effectively monitor progress towards sustainable
development. This approach has an enormous benefit,
because it eliminates ambiguous benchmarks that lack
the local dimensions. Thus, this approach warrants
local participation in the development of indicators
grounded in local contexts and realities. The
relationship between sustainability and local
community also involves having a sense of
community participation and real empowerment.
According to Holland [20] and Westerhausen and
Macbeth [21], a healthy sustainable and local
community partnership conveys a sense of community

ownership, participation, and full involvement in
every stage of the implementation of a project. Thus,
the authors regard this approach as a model for
implementing social, economic, and environmental
policies at a local level. Sustainability and local
community have social features that constitute the
manifests of the existence of people and land in
pursuance of sustainable development. The
relationship between sustainability and local
community is always subject to the test of deciding
between engagement to global sustainability
initiatives and the need for local or national
competitiveness. However, as Hapsah and
Shahabudin [22] argued, the need to be nationally
competitive and globally relevant are compatible
through glocal engagement, because the glocal is an
“extension of local engagement” (p. 301). Similarly,
Puukka [23] argued in favor of strategies that can help
ensure a sustainable future that is rooted in global and
local engagement. Inquiries on sustainability,
sustainable development, or sustainable engagement,
policies, or practices that reconcile both the global
and the local can be referred to as glocal sustainability
studies.
4. GLOCAL SUSTAINABILITY STUDIES
The term glocal is used to refer to the interconnection
between the global and the local [24,25,26,27].
Thornton [28] argued that the local is a shadow of the
global. Patel and Lunch ([29] explained that “glocal
and glocalization refer to the merger of global and
local perspectives on the socio-economic and political
impact of all phenomena that affects local and global
communities” (p.23). In the light of the
aforementioned definitions, glocal sustainability
studies involve the investigation of a global
sustainability issue, challenge, or opportunity in a
local context, or the global implications of a local
issue [30,31,32]. A glocal sustainability topic is a
global environmental or sustainability issue related to
any discipline (i.e., anthropology, biology, business,
economics, ecology, education, food studies, geology,
hydrology, or other disciplines related to/concerned
by planetary sustainability) that requires an
investigation at the local level, in order to understand
and account for place-based contexts. An example of
a generic research question for a glocal sustainability
study could be: “What are the levels of awareness,
knowledge, attitude, and understanding of community
stakeholders regarding global sustainability issues in
the local context of city, town, province, state, or
country X?” Another example might be: “How are the
global environmental sustainability issues reflected in
policies, practices, or challenges of city, town,
province, state, or country X?” An example of a
glocal sustainability study could be to compare the
35
Jean-Francois; JOGRESS, 14(1): 33-41, 2020
changes in lifestyles of individuals or organizations in
a given local community to reduce carbon emission in
comparison to global patterns or trends to curb the
effect of global warming and its consequences on the
planet. A narrow focus of another researcher could be
to compare local communities from two different
countries based on global trends or patterns. Another
researcher might want to focus on change in lifestyles
related to a specific facet, such as energy, food,
sustainability education, or other similar aspects. In a
nutshell, a glocal sustainability inquiry is based on:
1. Cross-societal stakeholderness (i.e., conducted
on an issue or a topic with direct or indirect
implications for cross societal stakeholders);
2. A glocal problem statement (i.e., a global issue
that is found to be also problematic in a
specific local context or a local issue with
potential global implications),
3. Cross-societal construct (i.e., using a
customized global theoretical or conceptual
framework for a local context),
4. Cross-cultural research design (i.e., using a
research design that fits a local setting),
5. Intersectional data collection (i.e., collecting
data in a local context to analyze structures of
global-local relationships on a given topic,
issue, or problem),
6. Quadrangulational comparison (i.e., analysis
of uniqueness, sameness, uniquesameness, and
sameniqueness, which will be explained in
future sections of this paper).
Glocal sustainability studies have the potential to help
generate findings that include the local context and
global constructs and/or trends. As such, a glocal
sustainability study should be:
- Place-based or locally rooted: The study
should involve data collection in a local or
national context, using a customized global
construct, conceptual framework, or theory.
- Globally relevant: Place-based or locally
rooted data should be compared with global or
international trends or patterns.
- Glocally significant: Findings should be
relevant or have implications for stakeholders
concerned by local/national sustainability while
providing insights related to global
sustainability challenges.
- Interdisciplinary/Multidisciplinary: Glocal
sustainability studies should involve more than
one discipline to allow more creative and novel
analyses. They may involve topics in multiple
disciplines.
- Quadrangulational: Glocal sustainability
studies should be comparisons between the

local and the global through quadrangulational
analyses.
Given the focus primarily on the local or the national
issues and needs, individuals tend to be unaware of
global issues that are affecting them locally, and local
issues that have broarder global consequences.
Investigating glocal issues or challenges has the
potential to offer glocal opportunities for individuals
and communities [33,34]. Additionally, even when
some individuals might be aware of the possibility of
glocal issues or needs or challenges, many do not
necessarily have the tools to conduct empirical
inquiries or work in interdisciplinary teams to
investigate and address glocal sustainability issues,
challenges, or opportunities. Glocal sustainability
studies offers a framework to investigate glocal issues
or challenges in ways that can provide opportunities
for individuals and communities to be better stewards
of their planetary citizenry. Glocal sustainability
studies have the potential to help individuals develop
glocal competence by conducting investigations on
glocal sustainability issues. Glocal sustainability
studies may help increase individual’ glocal
sustainability awareness and knowledge and develop
their scientific research skills. Glocal sustainability
issues, challenges, and opportunities exist at
multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary levels. In other
words, glocal sustainability studies may be of interest
for scholars, practitioners, and stakeholders across
various disciplines, including science, technology,
engineering, arts, and math (STEAM). Glocal
sustainability studies could be well-served by
quadrangulational comparative analyses that assess
local sustainability issues in comparison to a global
context, and vice versa.
5. QUADRANGULATIONAL COMPARISON
The traditional framework used in comparative
research involves the analysis of similarities and
differences of at least two units of comparison
[35,36,37]. However, Hantrais [38] explained that
sometimes diversity may be more significant within
countries than across countries. Therefore, it is
possible to identify similarities and differences that
may exist only on the surface. To negate such
possibility, it may be helpful to use Gerring [39]
encouragement to move beyond merely conventional
comparisons between cases to focus on specificities
within a case. Similarly, Ragin [40] argue to shift
comparison to case, rather than conducting variable
oriented research. A quadrangulational comparison
that looks at similarities and differences between
cases and within cases enables to expand beyond just
similarities and differences to include the intersections
between them. The term quadrangulational is used in
36
Jean-Francois; JOGRESS, 14(1): 33-41, 2020
reference to the term quadrant, which involves four
quarters. A quadrant is a Mathematical concept that
refers to each of the four infinite regions of a two-
dimensional Cartesian system dividing a plane [41].
The word quadrant is not used in this paper for its
mathematical meaning, but to refer to the four
dimensions of a comparative analysis. The rationale
for quadrangulational comparison is rooted in the
dimensions of transcultural integration [42] that
suggest comparisons involving uniqueness (What can
be observed as unique or distinct), sameness (What
can be observed as similarity), uniquesameness (What
can be observed as unique, but with similarity), and
sameniqueness (What can be observed as similarity,
but with particularity). The term quadrangulational
comparison is used in reference to four quadrants that
includes uniqueness, sameness, uniquesameness, and
sameniqueness. As Fig. 1 illustrates, a quadrangu-
lational comparison analyzes two or more units for
their uniqueness, sameness, uniquesameness, and
sameniqueness.
5.1 Uniqueness
A quadrangulational comparison involves at least two
units of analysis (e.g., local vs global, global vs local).
Each unit must be described or analyzed for its
uniqueness or/and distinctiveness. The Merriam-
Webster [43] defines uniqueness as “something that is
unlike anything or anyone else”, “very special or
unusual”, “belonging to or connected with only one
particular thing, place, or person”. The Merriam-
Webster [44] defines distinctiveness as a
characteristic “indicating a special quality or
identity”, “qualities that distinguish one from all other
members of the same kind or class”, “qualities
possessed only by a particular individual or class or
kind and stresses rarity or uniqueness” (para 1). As
the latter definition implies, uniqueness can be a form
of distinctiveness. Analyzing the uniqueness of a case
or unit of analysis aims to describe qualitatively
or/and quantitatively what makes such case or unit
special or distinct in its own right. For example,
considering at least 2 units of analysis, is/are there
characteristic/s that is/are unique or distinct to one of
the cases/units in comparison to the other/s? Is there a
high frequency in a small number of cases/units? Is
there a unit-specific portion of characteristics shared
only by one case/unit in comparison to the other/s?
The uniqueness of a case/unit of analysis may be
appreciated in various ways, including form, nature,
essence, substance, attributes, characteristics,
constituents, features, qualities, profile, context, or
other criteria. A qualitative analysis of uniqueness
might look at the trends or patterns that are unique to
one case or unit in comparison to another case or unit.
When conducting a study that selected a quantitative

research design, analysis sis of uniqueness can be
performed through statistical tools such as (a) means,
percentages, and other statistical results that are
unique to the cases/units of analysis considered in a
comparison; (b) Chi Square test to analyze the
ess of the distributions of
uniqueness/distinctiveness
categorical variables; (c) T-testtest to determine the
probability of difference or distinctiveness between
cases/units of comparison; (d) analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) to test whether the means of cases/units of
ificantly; and (e) Uniqueness value
analysis differ significantly;
of a vector in factor analysis to indicate the proportion
of the common variance of a variable that is not
associated with the factors that were generated. The
aforementioned constitute just a sample among
various other statistical tools that can help perform an
analysis of uniqueness/distinctiveness in a
quadrangulational comparison. The term uniqueness
is not a neologism, given the fact that it has been used
in various other disciplines. For example, during the
1940s, the he Soviet mathematician Aleksandr
Danilovich Aleksandrov developed the uniqueness
dimensional convex
theorem to describe the three-dimensional
polyhedra regarding the distances between points on
their surfaces [45]. The analysis of uniqueness has
eral previous studies [46,47,48].
been performed in several
5.2 Sameness
Analyzing sameness involves an assessment of the
similarity between two or more cases/units of
analysis. According to the Merriam--Webster [49],
sameness refers to “the quality or state of being the
same”, “similarity”, “lack of variety”, “uniformity or
Fig. 1. Quandrangulational comparison
to perform an analysis of sameness in a sameness had been performed in various previous
quadrangulational comparison. The analysis of studies [50,51].
37
Jean-Francois; JOGRESS,
JOGRESS 14(1): 33-41, 2020
monotony”.
otony”. Sameness can be analyzed based on
form, nature, essence, substance, attributes,
characteristics, constituents, features, qualities,
profile, context, or other criteria. For example,
considering at least 2 cases/units of analysis, is/are
haracteristic/s that is/are common or similar
there (a)characteristic/s
in both or all cases/units? Is there a high frequency in
a large number of cases/units? Is there a universal
portion of characteristics shared by all cases/units
regardless of their specificity? A qualitative aanalysis
of sameness might look at patterns or trends that are
similar between cases or units of analysis. When
conducting a study that selected a quantitative
research design, analysis of uniqueness can be
performed through statistical tools such as (a) me
means,
percentages, and other statistical results that can help
observe sameness or similarity between two or more
cases/units of analysis considered in a comparison; (b)
chi Square test to see whether the distributions of
categorical variables are the same or similar for two
or more cases/units of analysis that involve a
comparison; (c) Bhattacharyya distance to measure
the similarity of two distributions; (d) Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) to test whether the means of
cases/units of analysis are equal or do nnot differ
significantly; (e) analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) to
test the similarities between/among cases/units of
analysis; (f) agglomerative hierarchical clustering to
arrange a set of cases/units in a dendogram or family
tree based on their similarity or sameness; and (g)
principal component analysis to identify patterns of
similarity or sameness between/among cases/units of
analysis. The aforementioned list represents a sample
among various other statistical tools that can be used
 Jean-Francois; JOGRESS, 14(1): 33-41, 2020

5.3 Uniquesameness at least one unique facet in the sameness of two or

The term uniquesameness was coined [52] to refer to
the intersection between major facets of uniqueness
and some minor facets of sameness in at least two
cases/units of a comparative analysis. The purpose of
sameness analysis is to assess at least one aspect of
sameness in the uniqueness of two or more different
cases/units of analysis. The uniqueness theory
explains that there is an intersection between high
level of similarity and dissimilarity, and vice versa
[53]. In other words, there is an intersection between
sameness (similarity) and uniqueness/distinctiveness
(dissimilarity), and vice versa. Is there a characteristic
that is partially distinct between/among cases/units,
but the same in some aspects? Is there a pattern of low
frequencies in a large number of distinct
characteristics between/among cases/units? Is there a
difference between the frequency or extent of a same
characteristic within a same case/unit of analysis? A
qualitative analysis of uniquesameness might look at
minor patterns of sameness in the uniqueness of at
least two cases or units of analysis. In a quantitative
analysis of uniquesameness, Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA), and Multiple Analysis of Variance
(MANOVA) can be used to assess between-group
similarities. Additionally, hierarchical regression can
be used to assess the similar contribution of a
particular factor in a model that yields a
different predictive equation for two or more
different cases/units of analysis. Various other
statistical tools can be used for uniquesameness
analysis.
5.4 Sameniqueness
The term sameniqueness was coined [54] to refer to
the intersection between major facets of sameness and
some minor facets of uniqueness in at least two
cases/units of a comparative analysis. A
sameniqueness analysis consists in the assessment of
Table 1. Examples of glocal sustainability studies
more cases/units of a comparative analysis. The
theory of uniqueness asserts that there is an
intersection between high level of similarity and a
certain level of self-distinctiveness [55]. For example,
are there characteristics between/among cases/units
that are partially the same, but distinct in some
aspects? Is there a high frequency in a small number
of characteristics between/among cases/units that
should be similar? Is there a similarity between the
frequency or extent of (a)different characteristic/s
between/among cases/units of analysis? A qualitative
analysis of sameniquess might look at minor patterns
of uniqueness in the sameness of at least two cases or
units of analysis. In a quantitative analysis of
uniquesameness, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA),
and Multiple Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) can
be used to assess within-group differences.
Furthermore, hierarchical regression can be used to
assess the unique or differential contribution of a
particular factor in a model that yields a similar
predictive equation for two or more different
cases/units of analysis. Researchers can use several
other statistical tools to perform a sameniquess
analysis.
6. ILLUSTRATIONS OF GLOCAL
SUSTAINABILITY STUDIES
As previously mentioned, a glocal sustainability study
may involve a local issue related to food
sustainability, environmental biology, business,
economics, education, engineering, environmental
studies, sociology, hydrology, or other disciplines,
using a global framework or in comparison to global
sustainability challenges, or a global sustainability
issue in a local context. Table 1 provides some
examples that illustrate what a glocal sustainability
study could look like:

Title Short description

Example 1: Ozone pollution This study focuses on O3 pollution for the city of Hotan, China, and Noida,
and potential control strategy India, where O3 has become an increased and serious issue. The study involves
for Hotan, China, and Noida, emission estimation and photochemical box modeling in support of
India investigating the underlying nature of O3 formation over the two cities. It also
explores the roles of precursors emitted from sources. Then, the two cities are
compared for uniqueness, sameness, sameniqueness, and uniquesameness based
on emission subgroups, such as oil refinery (fugitive), tank farm (fugitive),
passenger car (gasoline), and motorcycle (gasoline). This enables to analyze
carbon dioxide emissions in comparison to global trends, thus the extent of the
contribution of the two cities to global warming. Recommendations for cost-
effective control strategy are made based on the findings.
Example 2: Implications of Rice cultivation is a vital economic sector in Argentina. The well-being of
water use and water scarcity many Argentinean farmers depends significantly on selling rice commodities.

38
 Jean-Francois; JOGRESS, 14(1): 33-41, 2020

Title Short description

footprint for sustainable rice
cultivation in Chaco
province, Argentina
Example 3: Application of
LCA to support solid waste
management policy in
Athens, Ohio
However, water-intensive rice cultivation has been challenged by water
scarcity. The study assessed the volumetric freshwater use and water scarcity
footprint of the major rice cultivation systems in Chaco province, Argentina.
This study enabled to analyze the implications of climate change (a global
challenge) for rice production and food security in Argentina (local context).
This study will use the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to evaluate the
environmental performance of the existing Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
management system in Athens, Ohio, compare it with different possible
alternative Integrated Waste Management Systems (IWMSs), and assess which
scenario has the least environmental burdens for all the impact categories
considered. This study will enable to compare uniqueness, sameness,
sameniqueness, and uniquesameness of waste management in Athens (local
context) with global trends (global context.

7. CONCLUSION
This paper introduced the basics for a conceptual
framework to inspire glocal sustainability studies that
intentionally investigates local sustainability using
customized global constructs or/and trends or
patterns, or a global issue in a local context. As
previously indicated, glocal sustainability studies use
a glocal inquiry approach, based on cross-societal
stakeholderness, glocal problem statement, cross-
societal construct, cross-cultural research design,
intersectional data collection, and quadrangulational
comparison. A quadrangulational comparative
analysis assesses for uniqueness, sameness,
uniquesameness, and sameniqueness. The constructs
of glocal sustainability studies, glocal inquiry, and
quadrangulational comparison can be used not only
for inquiry on sustainability, but also for studies
related to transnational, global, international, and
comparative education. Glocal sustainability
education is key to foster a glocal planetary citizenry
mindset, which may help address environmental
issues and challenges that may have dire
consequences on the survival of our planet.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Author has declared that no competing interests exist.
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