University of Pavia – Degree course in Medicine and Surgery 2nd-year English Language Course – 1st semester

PART THREE: PRESENTING DATA IN SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES

Several sentences have been removed from the following article about influenza vaccines. Choose from the
sentences A-E below, the one that fits each space 1-4. There is one extra sentence you do not need to use.
Underline the references, conjunctions or examples of lexical cohesion which help you to determine the
correct answer.

Effectiveness of Influenza Vaccine in the Community-Dwelling Elderly

Influenza continues to be a major cause of illness and death, especially among the elderly.
(1) ……………………………………………… Influenza vaccines are safe and effective, and
the elderly are included among the high-priority groups targeted for annual vaccination.

Reliable estimates of the benefits of vaccination are important for establishing informed
policies regarding resource allocation for the delivery of immunizations and identifying the
need for new vaccines and strategies for the prevention and control of influenza in this
group. (2) ………………………………………………. Because of the variability of influenza
from season to season, the results of these short-term studies — either favorable or
unfavorable — might provide incomplete or misleading pictures about the benefits of
vaccination over longer periods of time. (3) ……………………………………………….

Because of ethical constraints imposed by recommendations that target the elderly for
annual vaccination, most studies of the effectiveness of influenza vaccine in elderly
persons have been observational studies and not randomized, controlled trials. Questions
have been raised about the effects of potential bias and residual confounding on past
estimates of vaccine effectiveness from these observational studies.

In this study, we analyzed the effectiveness of influenza vaccination among 18 cohorts of

community-dwelling elderly members of health maintenance organizations (HMOs) during
10 seasons. (4) ……………………………………………….
http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa070844

A) However, most studies assessing the effectiveness of influenza vaccination in the

elderly have included one or only a few influenza seasons.

B) Our purpose was to provide a long-term view of the effectiveness of influenza

vaccine while addressing potential bias and residual confounding.

C) There was, however, evidence for interaction between vaccination and high-risk
status for hospitalization and between vaccination and outpatient visits for death.

D) Each year, influenza and its complications are responsible for about 186,000
excess hospitalizations for respiratory and circulatory illness and 44,000 excess
deaths from all causes in this high-risk group.

E) Furthermore, heterogeneity between studies may limit the ability to pool results
appropriately across studies.

1
University of Pavia – Degree course in Medicine and Surgery 2nd-year English Language Course – 1st semester

Figure 1: The following is a table taken from the article above. How would you go about describing it
and summarising its content?

http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa070844

(note: Baseline data - a set of data collected at the beginning of a study or before intervention has occurred)

The table shows the baseline characteristics of the subjects involved in the study. Data elements include
information on age, sex, coexisting medical conditions such as heart disease, lung disease, cancer etc., as
well as healthcare use (hospitalizations and outpatient visits) during the previous 12 months.

1. Comparing the two groups, we can see that the proportion of males …………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………
2. Regarding the presence of pre-existing medical conditions, we can see that ………………….….…..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Comparing the vaccinated and unvaccinated groups, we can note that overall ………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. In relation to hospital admission, we can see that ………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2
 University of Pavia – Degree course in Medicine and Surgery 2nd-year English Language Course – 1st semester

Figure 2:

Panel A: Hospitalization

Panel B: Death

http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa070844

Figure 2. Effectiveness of the Influenza Vaccine in Reducing the Risk of Hospitalization for Pneumonia or Influenza (Panel A)
and Death (Panel B). The estimates of vaccine effectiveness were calculated as (1−adjusted odds ratio)×100. The bars
indicate the 95% confidence intervals. HP denotes HealthPartners, OX Oxford Health Plans, and KP Kaiser Permanente.

Read the information about Figure 2 above and complete with the most appropriate word:
Influenza vaccination was (1) …………… on average with (2) …………… reductions in hospitalizations for
pneumonia and for influenza (vaccine effectiveness, (3) …………… 27%) and in death (vaccine
effectiveness, 48%). Estimates (4) …………… from season to season and (5) …………… the 18 cohorts
(Figure 2) Effectiveness of the Influenza Vaccine in Reducing the Risk of Hospitalization for Pneumonia or
Influenza (Panel A) and Death (Panel B).). In the two seasons with a (6) …………… match between the
vaccine and the virus strain, vaccine (7) …………… was lower for reducing death. In seasons with a good
match, vaccine effectiveness was 52% but not for reducing hospital (8) …………… .

1 A demonstrated B found C related D associated

2 A wide B substantial C slight D stable

3 A mean B about C rough D near

4 A are varying B have varied C varied D vary

5 A across B in C within D around

6 A rotten B terrible C awful D poor

7 A efficiency B competence C effectiveness D proficiency

8 A recovery B admissions C entrances D relapses

(Cohort: A generational group as defined in demographics, statistics, or market research: "The cohort of people aged 30 to 39)

3
University of Pavia – Degree course in Medicine and Surgery 2nd-year English Language Course – 1st semester

PART FOUR: ANALYSING TABLES, CHARTS & GRAPHS

Identify the different types of figures below:

SINGLE LINE GRAPH – BAR CHART – HISTOGRAM – MULTIPLE LINE GRAPH – PIE CHART

4
University of Pavia – Degree course in Medicine and Surgery 2nd-year English Language Course – 1st semester

Language used in line graphs

Line graphs are usually used to show time series data - that is how one or more variables change
over a period. They are particularly useful for identifying patterns and trends in the data, as well as
changes and turning points. This requires some specific language, which can be used for most
types of data.
Describing trends
Meaning Verb Noun Meaning Adjective adverb
Going down Decrease Decrease Small Steady Steadily
Fall Fall change Slight Slightly
Drop Drop Gradual Gradually
Decline Decline Moderate Moderately
Plunge ---
(dramatic fall) ---
Plummet
(dramatic fall)
Going up Increase Increase Big Considerable Considerably
Rise Rise change Sharp Sharply
Grow Growth Dramatic Dramatically
Climb Climb Significant Significantly
Double Doubling in + n Substantial Substantially
Treble Trebling in + n Abrupt Abruptly
Rocket (sharp -- Sudden suddenly
rise)
No change Level off A levelling off at Examples:
Remain the --- 1. There was a substantial
same --- increase in the number of
Remain stable --- patients with …..
Stabilize 2. The number of patients with ….
Constant change Fluctuate Fluctuation in + n increased substantially.
3. Throughout the period in
Position Peak question, the number of cases
plateau of tuberculosis fluctuated,
trough reaching a peak in 2010.
a high of 4. The incidence of side effects
a low of remained stable.

For further examples, watch the video on ‘How to describe graphs and trends in English’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OMUyROlPRHw

Tips for describing charts, graphs, tables etc.

1. Say what type of figure you are describing and what it shows, including the unit of
measurement and reference period if appropriate.
2. Comment on the main features and trends, supported by reference to the
graph/table/chart (e.g. include dates and figures)
3. Give some further details, making comparisons where relevant.
4. Do not include personal comments or unsupported hypotheses.
5. End with an overall summary in one or two sentences.

5
University of Pavia – Degree course in Medicine and Surgery 2nd-year English Language Course – 1st semester

Look at the following graph and put one of the numbers next to the given words:

( ) trough ( ) a gradual fall

( ) erratic movements ( ) a plateau

( ) a gradual rise ( ) to plunge

( ) to level off ( ) a steady increase

( ) a dramatic fall ( ) to leap upwards

( ) fluctuations ( ) a decline

( ) to reach a peak ( ) to slump

( ) a sharp recovery

http://www.eslflow.com/describinggraphstables.html

6
University of Pavia – Degree course in Medicine and Surgery 2nd-year English Language Course – 1st semester

FIGURE 1. Number of confirmed (N = 822) and suspected (N = 11,356) cases of novel

influenza A (H1N1) virus infection, by date of illness onset --- Mexico, March 11--May 3, 2009

Alternative Text: The figure above shows the 822 confirmed and 11,356 suspected cases of novel
influenza A (H1N1) virus infection in Mexico with dates of onset from March 11 to May 3, 2009.

http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5817a1.htm

1. The chart shows that the number of suspected cases ………………..……. between 19th

April and 26th April, and subsequently ……………………………..…………….…….

2. Between 15th and 31st March, …………………………………………..…………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. In the week starting 20th April, suspected cases of influenza A ………………………………

………………………………………………………….………………………………….….

4. From 28th April onwards, there was a …………………….…….……………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………….….

5. The number of suspected cases of H1N1 infection ………………………………………….

the number of confirmed cases in the period 20th to 30th April.

7
University of Pavia – Degree course in Medicine and Surgery 2nd-year English Language Course – 1st semester

PRACTICE EXERCISES
Exercise 1
Read the following excerpt from the article The Effective Use of Graphs and say whether the
example of a graph below follows these guidelines or not (specify in what way/s).

The Effective Use of Graphs

The purpose of a graph is to present data that are too numerous or complicated to be described
adequately in the text and in less space. If the data shows pronounced trends or reveals relations
between variables, a graph should be used. If the data doesn't show any significant trend in the
evidence, a graph is not the figure of choice.
A basic requirement for a graph is that it is clear and readable. Graphs may have several parts,
depending on their format: (1) a figure number, (2) a caption, (3) a headnote, (4) a data field, (5)
axes and scales, (6) symbols, (7) legends, and (8) a credit or source line. The vertical axis (ordinate,
Y axis) represents the dependent variable and the horizontal axis (abscissa, X axis) represents the
independent variable. Hence, time is always on the X axis. The legend should concisely convey as
much information as possible about what the graph tells the reader, but it should not provide a
summary or interpretation of the results or experimental details. Avoid simply restating the axis
labels, such as “temperature vs. time.” https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4078179/

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8
University of Pavia – Degree course in Medicine and Surgery 2nd-year English Language Course – 1st semester

Exercise 2
Now read the second excerpt from the article The Effective Use of Graphs and find examples
online of each type.

It is crucial to choose the correct graph type based on the kind of data to be presented. If the
independent and dependent variables are numeric, use line diagrams or scattergrams; if only the
dependent variable is numeric, use bar graphs; for proportions, use bar graphs or pie charts. These
are briefly described below.
A SCATTERGRAM is used to show the relationship between two variables and whether their
values change in a consistent way, such as analysing the relationship between the concentration
levels of two different proteins.
A LINE GRAPH is similar to the scattergram except that the X values represent a continuous
variable, such as time, temperature, or pressure. It plots a series of related values that depict a
change in Y as a function of X. Line graphs usually are designed with the dependent variable on the
Y-axis and the independent variable on the horizontal X-axis, such as a Kaplan-Meier analyses
survival plots of time-to-event outcomes. The proportion of individuals is represented on the Y-axis
as a proportion or percentage, remaining free of or experiencing a specific outcome over time.
A BAR CHART may consist of either horizontal or vertical columns. The greater the length of the
bars, the greater the value. They are used to compare a single variable value between several
groups, such as the mean protein concentration levels of a cohort of patients and a control group.
The HISTOGRAM, also called a frequency distributions graph, is a specialized type of bar chart
that resembles a column chart, but without any gaps between the columns. It is used to represent
data from the measurement of a continuous variable. Individual data points are grouped together in
classes to show the frequency of data in each class. The frequency is measured by the area of the
column. These can be used to show how a measured category is distributed along a measured
variable. These graphs are typically used, for example, to check if a variable follows a normal
distribution, such as the distribution of protein levels between different individuals of a population.
A PIE CHART shows classes or groups of data in proportion to the whole data set. The entire pie
represents all the data, while each slice or segment represents a different class or group within the
whole. Each slice should show significant variations. The number of categories should be generally
limited to between 3 and 10.
A BOX PLOT may be either horizontal or vertical. It is used to display a statistical summary of one
or more box-and- variables, such as the minimum, lower quartile, median, and maximum. It may
also identify the outlier data. The spacing between the different parts of the box indicates the degree
of dispersion and whether the data distribution is symmetrical or skewed.

Further reading:

Presenting data in tables and charts https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4008059/

Ten Simple Rules for Better Figures

http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003833

Tips on effective use of tables and figures in research papers

https://www.editage.com/insights/tips-on-effective-use-of-tables-and-figures-in-research-papers