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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Evidence-based instructional practices

In their study, Mohd Rasid and Md. Nasir (2020) discovered that teaching

methodology had a great effect on students' education. This means that activities are

typically much easier to complete in a setting in which both learners and educators feel

at ease during the class. Furthermore, in tasks requiring a problematic situation, it aids

in the development of learners' problem-solving capabilities, especially amongst lower-

achieving pupils. Furthermore, it was proposed that teachers should use all teaching

approaches in order to improve students' learning capacities. Lund & Stains (2015) go

on to explain that the channels of communication utilized in evidence-based education

contain a number of essential features that help students learn. They go on to say that

team discussions can then either help with both the distribution task through

interpersonal channels and effects, such as departmental teaching norms and pressure.

As a result, practical theories, conceptual frameworks, and belief networks that

constrain faculty members' instructional practices become increasingly crucial. In the

twenty-first century, education is typically based on scientific research, with thorough,

methodical, and quantitative techniques for determining if a system is successful. It

guarantees that learners' performance is improved throughout all areas of the

curriculum and grade levels. This means that in order to improve student learning

outcomes, instructional techniques that encourage consistent delivery must be used in a

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curriculum to best match the needs of teachers and students. This will allow for high

rates of students’ responses as well as provide accurate feedback, encouragement, and

correction (Research-Based Strategy in Education | MC Online, 2018).

Iii (2016) went on to say that evidence-based instructional education will

guarantee the learners' skills and experience, as well as their grades. However, in order

to give and convenience a practice standards framework in an organized style of theme,

consistency between aims and actual professional development goals is quite

necessary in the educational system. It also provided an opportunity for learners to

create a sense of the challenge by working in teams, allowing learners to share their

thoughts, and enabling learners to share their responses, all of which align with her goal

of incorporating practice. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that learners were

dissatisfied with the instruction and curriculum content while using a research-based

teaching method. This meant that one's approach quality needed to be improved

(Hamann & McAllister, 2000). However, Detlor et al. (2010) also stated that, despite the

positive outcomes of research-based educational teaching, insufficient money for

materials and personnel will continue to be a grave concern in developing-country

institutions. Similarly, insufficient career development rules and guidelines, and also

time allotted for career growth, make it very difficult to promote efficient training, which

leads to poor engagement, excessive absences, and abusive conduct.

In remote education, the vast majority of teachers preferred face-to-face

instruction over a virtual classroom. Gaytan (2011) was also able to deduce that the

importance of online education is inferior to that of conventional instruction. This is due

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to a clash between organizational assumptions and genuine online instructional

techniques and facts. As a result, there was little assistance in enhancing the learning

effects. Eventually, this has led to a research-based teaching framework developed to

assist teachers in the preparation of online training. Furthermore, Greenwood (1996)

stated that performance-based instructional strategies, which were implemented in a

traditional classroom setting during face-to-face training, resulted in favorable

differences in the students' academic learning and cognitive attainment. Teachers who

use these instructional practices have demonstrated that they are the most plausible,

durable, and relevant instruments for their students that can be customized for

multilevel classrooms. Furthermore, students with special needs, even those with

psychological issues, have indeed been known to improve with such technology

(Boardman et al., 2005).

Factors affecting research-based instructional practices

Lockman and Schirmer (2020) identified five primary elements that influence the

application of evidence-based learning instructions, including improved curriculum

design, enhanced student assistance and faculty pedagogy, student engagement, and

increased student achievement. Most evidence-based practices have also shown

promising efficacy in the online environment, addressing a variety of student learning

requirements, improving faculty-student engagement, providing greater academic

support outside of class, and promoting classroom cohesiveness and trust.

Furthermore, it is also suggested that with evidence based practice an educator must
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also take into consideration the use of user-friendly technology tools and incorporation

of social media.

According to Barak and Shakhman (2008), educators should employ fewer

tactics to avoid overloading pupils and promote higher-order thinking, such as asking

students to construct their own queries or presenting dilemma strategies employed in

class. Dorn & Meiers (2005) go on to say that the observed degrees of effectiveness

with the scientific proof curriculum and the effect on academic performance (academic

achievement) had the most influence on educators. Despite the wide range of variables,

learners can still benefit from greater reinforcement and teamwork, as well as a cultural

shift in the hopes of learning new abilities. Overall, the preparedness of these

approaches has been shown in education classrooms as a result of evidence-based

learning. However, despite the fact that the efficacy of programs which have been

shown to produce successful outcomes and well-developed learning outcomes, it is still

limited to traditional classroom education. According to Dempsey (2011), to support

evidence-based instructional strategies, a variety of factors need to be considered,

including behavior, curriculum, and assessment methods. He additionally advised that

an educator should use cost-effective tools such as mnemonic tactics, multimodal

training, and cognitive and metacognitive instruction to improve a learner’s learning

capacities. These findings are also intriguing because their use is typically perceived as

being less acceptable and less productive.

Following Frost (2012), the intentions and ideology of educators who include

information literacy principles into the curricula have a significant effect on educational
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practices. He also discovered that students subjected to these various media forms of

literacy development were capable of engaging in a much more effective and thorough

manner, especially in areas where mainstream press learning outcomes were

integrated into the curriculum, helping the students to also have relatively high levels of

related information thinking processes, such as retrieval and conceptual understanding

of ideas expressed in a video. After controlling for other individual-level demographic

variables and school-level environmental factors, Overbay et al. (2010) found that

construction techniques and attitudes are mostly significant predictors of technological

use. This suggests that instructors who used more constructive instructional techniques

were much more likely to be automated, as did educators who fervently believed that

digital use was a vital tool for student-centered/constructivist instruction. Todd Brown

(2010) agreed, stating in his paper that research-based instructional techniques in early

childhood settings have demonstrated effectiveness in the curriculum. This indicates

that throughout the context of standards-based instructional methods, both learners and

educators have a substantially greater self-efficacy percentage.

WatersAdams (2010) also took into account the instructors' attitudes about

education, education, and learning, as well as their tacit and explicit interpretations of

both the structure of evidence-based educational practices. It has already been

discovered that the attitudes of educators are frequently the deciding element in

teaching strategy decisions. This implies that teachers who have an adequate grasp of

the nature of evidence-based practice may have been influenced at least to some

extent by these ideas, suggesting the prospect that impact may flow from teaching to
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conceptual underpinnings rather than the other way around. Abrams & Varier (2017)

also discussed the critical role of assessment data in guiding teaching and

implementing a complete standards-based education and assessment process. This

means that educators' assessment is a vital part of standards-based education since it

is utilized to track students' progress and remedial attempts. Dea & Negassa's (2019)

study was able to investigate the effect of demographic characteristics on instructional

practices and the difficulties instructors confront while educating students with visual

impairments. The study discovered that demographic characteristics had an effect on

instructors' instructional approaches towards students with visual impairments. Three

pedagogical reforms—increasing chances for laboratory research, emphasizing

analytical reasoning, and lowering teacher-centered instruction—have been shown to

enhance mean achievement variability. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that

sexual identity, ethnic origin, and socio - economic status have a larger impact on

students' accomplishment when educational policies are implemented, allowing for the

ability to contribute to greater academic achievement between learners with diverse

sociodemographic characteristics (Von Secker, 2013). Additionally, Areepattamannil et

al. (2010) said in their paper that learning motivation scientific, scientific research self-

beliefs, and science classroom methods have all been linked to an improvement in

scientific success amongst enrolled students in science-related schools.Meaders et al.

(2019) successfully establish the effect of research-intensive education on STEM

courses. Students in evidence based instructional teaching tend to have fewer lectures,

and significantly it has been found that class size had the greatest influence on student
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predictions. This mismatch between student expectations and realities has ramifications

for teachers and institutions when developing programs with specific retention goals. In

other words, students projected that class time in their initial college STEM courses

would be more time constrained, with significantly more time devoted to working

independently, working in teams, or even other tasks, rather than active recall and

strengthening of various 21st century abilities.

Data-driven decision-making among educators has become a primary focus in

institutions' efforts to achieve and ensure consistent higher academic achievement for

students. This means that a well-developed language learning strategies competency

among students has remained a key indication of higher education across time. This

resulted in the idea that teachers' judgment should integrate more improvements to

instructional methods, regulations, and student performance for language learning

(Gullo, 2013).However, given the low adoption rate of research-based instructional

methods at the higher education level, it is possible that participants regarded

institutional and sociocultural constraints. However, place normative limitations on

teaching decisions, and imposing logistical constraints. It still fosters autonomy among

learners and educators, it is still regarded as a cheap approach (Hora, 2012).

Modular Distance Learning in the new normal education amidst Covid-19

At least a third of the world's kids lacked access to all types of distance

education. While some students have successfully utilized remote learning during

school closures, many have suffered owing to a lack of assistance. This has resulted in
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UNICEF recommending that authorities prioritise funding for schools that take the

necessary precautions to operate securely that year 2021. Additionally, Bird et al.

(2021) estimated that the rapid move to online education during the COVID-19 crisis

resulted in a significant decline in program participation among college students. This

adverse effect was more obvious for fairly low student groups and those with less

experience. The estimated short-term detrimental impacts may result in longer-term

declines in pupils' educational attainment. Additionally, it may be advantageous to give

teachers with suggestions on how to design virtual surroundings that are more akin to

in-person situations, rather than relying on a "normal" online course format. Numerous

factors influenced student results during the online learning process, including practice

sessions, student motivation, the platform utilized, and the variety of learning programs

(Pham, 2021).

Modular Distance Learning in the new normal education amidst Covid-19 in the

Philippines

The current epidemic of COVID-19 has created tremendous obstacles and

impacted educational sectors. With such a challenge, it is critical to address the new

normal while creating and implementing the "new normal educational policy."

Regardless of the benefits, through the lens of education in the Philippines, difficulties

were still present and would continue to arise in the future as a result of the COVID-19

epidemic (Tria, 2020). Despite widespread resistance to open classrooms due to the

virus, the DepEd and CHED formulated and implemented the liberal approach of
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collaborative learning. Multimodal, flexible, e-learning, instructional television, broadcast

teaching, home schooling, and Integrated Training are the various modes of guidance.

For all of those who live in communities where contemporary living has been adjusted

and students have enough luxury of having access at home, web-based learning has

been put in place, particularly in schools and universities. However, for all those who

reside in remote areas or provincial capitals where internet service is only accessible to

a select handful, Configurable Correspondence Courses have been put in place.

Module Remote Learning refers to the process of utilizing modules created by teachers

that contain a multitude of activities and activities based on the main learning abilities

(Anzaldo, 2021). Cellini (2021) further noted that the study's four variables: instructor

impression, instructional strategy, efficient communication, and learner anticipation, all

had a beneficial impact on the students' happiness, school attainments, and learner

performance and satisfaction. However, Garcia & Weiss (2020) assert that online

classes have subsequently resulted in decreased learning time, impeding learners'

understanding and impairing the provisional license's overall growth. They explained

that all this was mostly attributable to the detrimental effects on learning caused by

downturns, natural disasters, and catastrophic events.

According to the findings of Aksan's (2021) study, students had favorable

impressions of the flexible online training technique. Additionally, it was discovered that

the flexible online training method had a positive influence on learners' achievement,

with both the number of learners and the quality of their performance indicating that the

number of learners frequently had a high quality educational performance. Additionally,

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the results suggested that there is insufficient evidence to conclude that there is a

positive relationship between students' conceptions and educational achievement of

students utilizing a novel method to teach flexible learning materials in the midst of the

COVID-19 global epidemic. As a result, it has been established that perceptions have

little effect on the academic achievement of students. This shows that their

achievements were not contingent on their beliefs. Anzaldo (2021) described a range of

approaches and instruments that educators frequently employ to assess, monitor, and

evaluate learners' academic preparation, progress, skill development, and educational

requirements. There are several sorts of evaluations used during COVID-19 Philippine

education, but the following are the most often utilized: Formative assessment is often

neither graded nor scored since it is provided at the conclusion of each class in the form

of a 5-multiple-choice exam to determine whether the pupil comprehended the lesson.

Summative assessment is being used to examine students' comprehension and

learning over a certain timeframe. It can be administered weekly as a quiz, at the start

of every unit instruction as a unit exam, or at the conclusion of each quarter. A

performance assessment is used to allow students to carry out a specific course-related

activity while utilizing their many intelligences.Portfolio-based evaluation is a compilation

of scholarly tasks such as poetry, experimental results, and creative works such as

drawings, clay pieces, paintings, crafts, and written reports. An assessment is done

using behavioral assessment criteria to determine if the output created by students

demonstrates that they may have learnt what was expected of them. Online learning

was shown to enhance low-achieving learners' productivity more than high learners,
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implying a closing performance gap amongst lower-middle and strong students was

attainable during online learning (Spitzer, 2021).

Challenges of teachers in teaching amid the Covid-19 pandemic

Owing to the quick spreading of COVID-19 throughout the worldwide, and in

addition to preventing the sickness, the majority of organisations worldwide imposed

strict standards, including social isolation and the physical shutdown of academic

institutions. This necessitated the establishment of travel time programs to enable the

students to finish the 2019–2020 instructional year. The approach's unstructured, fast,

and unclear length posed difficulties at all educational stages. Unfortunately, there was

a dearth of knowledge on optimal strategies to facilitate such seamless turns to

undergraduate school (Mahyoob, 2020). Initially, most students were unfamiliar with the

internet and lacked the knowledge and confidence necessary to study online via a new

medium. According to Meaders et al. (2019), many students frequently ignore

assignments, obligations, and miscommunications with professors, all of which are

critical components of the educational process. The findings suggested that several

technical difficulties associated with the technological tool, such as online educational

access, course contents downloads, auditory, and streaming video, were claimed to be

the source of numerous technical issues. Additionally, Anzaldo, (2021) highlighted that

educators frequently view pandemics as opportunities for educational advancement

through the creation of self-learning modules, which compile all relevant courses,

objectives, and competences into a single module. Additionally, some parents were
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having difficulty instructing their children at home using the modular distance learning

method. Which reduces the educational quality to a fraction of its substance.

In addition, according to Li (2020), students recall 25-60 percent more content

when they spend more time online, compared to merely 8-10 percent when they

educate in a lecture. This means that perhaps the efficiency of online education varies

according to age, privilege, and disadvantage, posing a number of obstacles to

overcome. Additionally, it has been recognized for the obvious benefits that it provides

to learners who have the privilege of engaging in online education directly. Furthermore

Grahl (2021), also explained that the most significant shift brought about by distant

instructional technologies was the mode of contact with families and its influence on

learning. Everything grows more complicated, but children gain more from technological

integration across the program. Additionally, Amir et al. (2020) supported the claim by

stating that the most common difficulties experienced all through online learning were

largely known external factors such as an instability connection to the internet and an

additional financial financial strain for the online quota, while internal factors included

time effectively and the difficulty concentrating while studying online for an extended

period of time. According to Barrot and Llenares (2021), the main obstacle for university

students was their informal learning atmosphere, including distractions and limits in

studying services and facilities, whereas their least significant challenge was technical

knowledge and proficiency. Additionally, it added that the influence of the COVID-19

epidemic has jeopardized the quality of teaching and learning environment and the

emotional wellness of pupils. Adedoyin & Soykan (2020) said that the Covid-19
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outbreak demonstrated how vulnerable the school system is to external threats.

Disease outbreak fear has also had a detrimental impact on students ’ academic

achievement. intrusions also significantly disrupt web - based learning. Additionally, as

a result of the pandemic's digitalization of classroom practices, evaluations were

frequently conducted online, limiting educators to proxy observation of learners, making

it hard to regulate and manage cheating. Additionally, a severe load was observed and

is predicted to result in unexpected financial and time costs. Pandemics, in general, are

unquestionably a problem that threatens the educational system.

Using information and communication technology in a modular distance learning

course

In this digital age, classroom technology use is critical for providing students with

the opportunity to acquire and increase the density of twenty-first century skills.

Technology helps educators to convey their instruction in an appealing and easily-

understandable manner for the teaching and learning of educational programs. The web

and dynamic information and communication technologies are critical components of

learning abilities and must be incorporated successfully into conventional education and

learning, particularly in teacher educators. However, significant improvements require

students and educators to also have easy access to computers and the internet in their

classrooms, institutions, and educational institutions of higher learning in order to

provide instructors and students with high-quality, relevant, and culturally sensitive

material (Ratheeswari, 2020).

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Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, increased usage of web technologies in

learning has been the single most important element affecting the result of e-learning

and the most often used indicator of success in any learning approach in broader

academic contexts. Additionally, Zolochevskaya & Zubanova (2021) discovered that the

majority of undergraduates who use any type of technology have a statistically

significant positive influence on their academic achievement in e-learning. The findings

indicate that technological use has a significant favorable influence on the overall

achievement of university students. It has also been encouraged to utilize various

Multidisciplinary Computerized Aided Interpretation Training to make use of

conferencing archives or archives to give learners the necessary resources for

instructional usage or identity, with technology serving as instructor and stimulation in

tandem. Computer-Supported Interpreter Instruction aims to leverage the

multidimensional possibilities of communication and information technology to boost the

learning and teaching of interpretation (Sandrelli, 2007). Additionally, TPACK is a critical

approach that has been postulated in terms of a seven-factor construct to describe how

teachers integrate information and communications technologies into an educator's

instruction. This demonstrates that instructional expertise had an immediate impact at

the start of the program (Chai et al., 2011). Furthermore, Shurygin (2016) discovered in

a study that there is an improvement in learners' independent studies within their

respective courses.She went on to say that without adequate information and

communication technology, a high-quality educational process is unachievable.

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Shaw (2018) also discovered that learners with low marks on the disposition

characteristics "value technological advances," "interconnectivity," and "environment"

were uneasy with computers, dissatisfied with the absence of human interaction, and

preferred a more conventional method of instruction. However, novice students

frequently had a more favorable attitude toward information and communication

technology learning than conventional students. Karal (2012) also recommended that a

modular way of teaching should incorporate a test, a discussion, a chat room, an

exercise, and a reflection essay as part of the online evaluation process, as well as

what factors should indeed be considered when determining a student's performance.

According to Taurai (2013), ICT has the potential to contribute to the effectiveness of

online learning education; yet, it has been noticed that some learners that do not have a

sufficient degree of digital literacy are unable to meet the needs of learning in the

twenty-first century. This one was substantially due to a combination of variables,

including a wide range of contradictory perceptions that have a significant impact on

their utilization of technology. Aside from the technology employed, Hamada and

Hassan (2016) emphasized that an instructor should also consider the active learning

environment, along with theories of learning and related programs. It means that, given

the limited nature of online courses, environmental blending should always fit the

students' different types of learners.

Performance indicators in online distance learning courses

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According to Pecori et al. (2019), performance indicators were an important

consideration in determining several elements of participants' performing behaviors

during remote learning. They claimed that by keeping track of key performance

indicators throughout distance learning, they were able to considerably minimize the

amount of time it took to compute them. It is capable of analyzing student dropouts and

outcomes and, as a result, evaluating university performance and, as a result,

proposing practical modifications to enhance the system's e-learning environment.

Chaim et al. (2018) employed a variety of assessment tools to evaluate the learner's

progress in a virtual classroom. His research shows that online learning gives a holistic

and self-sufficient method of learning and skills to achieve educational objectives and

appropriate technical expertise. Alstete and Beutell (2004) were able to investigate

student performance indicators in virtual distance learning programs. They discovered

that while undergraduate and graduate students adopted different performance

appraisals in remote learning classes, both indicated equal advances in their average

scores during the course on online learning. Gender was associated with productivity,

according to Alghamdi & Alanizan (2018), with young women performing much better

than male students in online courses. This means that female students typically believe

that online classes offer a better balance of networking opportunities and comfort, which

leads to an increase in online courses. Furthermore, the survey also revealed that the

students' achievement in online classes was average, with a rising number of students

failing to complete courses online due to hurdles. For example, misunderstandings with
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the course syllabus's layout, the most recent schedule, and the interpersonal technical

component

Experienced Psychological effects during the Covid 19

The constraints imposed to contain the COVID-19 virus have resulted in

widespread feelings of isolation, which has had a negative influence on psychological

health around the world. Life expectancy, ethnicity, media coverage, marital strife,

educational transitions, compliance with limitations, and types of support were all linked

as potential modifiers of such a terrible tragedy. Excessive social media use even

during the pandemic was associated with increased adolescent melancholy and worry,

with women reporting higher symptoms of anxiety and depression at both points of time,

while boys experienced greater familial conflicts. Furthermore, the most generally cited

issues with online learning were technology issues, a lack of understanding of the

learning materials, and motivational issues (Magson, 2020).

Becker & Breaux (2020) noted that during the COVID-19 pandemic, distant

educational approaches were challenging for individuals with ADHD due to fewer

scholastic practices and much more distant educational challenges due to the difficulty

concentrating, which causes learning disabilities. Maggio & Foti Cuzzola (2021) found

that cognitive telerehabilitation has a known effectiveness in teenagers with learning

difficulties. despite the fact that the treatment lasted four weeks and included up to 60

minutes of daily exercise. All learners were able to perceive that this cognition
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intervention via a particular telemedicine app stimulated learning-related cognitive

abilities.

Additionally, according to Zawadka (2021), there were a number of issues with

technology education and online learning amongst dyslexic learners. People with

dyslexia have much greater difficulties reading and writing, resulting in massive stress,

poor educational progress, and far more frequent claims of difficulties with distance

learning.As a result, the number of failed tests has increased, as have allegations of

increased workload during online classes. According to a recent study, teachers and

students alike consider digital training to be an efficient and versatile teaching and

learning tool. The learners had evolved into self-directed learners who could study at

any moment during the day. However, according to a few instructors, learners acted

inappropriately and attempted to use online databases during assessments and

examinations. Furthermore, students cited their focus and concentration as a barrier, as

well as the wealth element of online courses. Due to rampant cheating and a lack of

timely response, educators are still unable to assess the students' comprehension

throughout online lectures (Mukhtar & Sethi, 2020).

Student retention in online, open and distance learning

According to Fozdar and Kumar (2007), the majority of students say studying is

difficult because they have trouble focusing in class. Open and distance learning, on the

other hand, have a poor retention rate. However, the most significant advantage of this

system is that it can be used wherever, at any time. Simpson (2013) also stated that
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with open and distance learning, a recognized "distance education gap" has emerged,

resulting in a higher dropout rate. This was mostly due to a decline in cognitive retention

and an increase in the perceived ineffectiveness of online learning. A customized

multiple technique is used to investigate the phenomenon of continually decreasing

retention levels in fully online higher education programs. According to Heyman (2010),

there are a number of problems and practices that can affect student retention.

Students must practice self-reliance, while instructors must increase their instructional

involvement and fast response in programs, according to them, in order to retain

students in online programs. According to Geri (2012), video lectures may improve

advanced learners' retention, although their accomplishments were just not considered

to be considerably greater than those of e-learning participants who did not subscribe to

educational videos. Gibbs et al. (2006) also advised that in terms of enhancing retention

rates, encouragement or rewards for educational successes should indeed be given to

students, because then students feel inspired to pursue their education. Furthermore,

Gibbs et al. (2006) realize that throughout the modern educational field, instructional

connection is becoming the most important predictor among teachers and students,

owing to E-Learning Systems. This means that making learning more interactive and

user-friendly boosts the learner's focus of attention during online discussions. With that

kind of cost-effective technique, it is capable of delivering educational materials for

teaching and learning in the quickest time frame. Simpson (2013) further claims that

due to the program's insufficient capacity to explain the curriculum and the requirement

for additional materials, it would be difficult for the students to boost their overall odds of
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retention. This shows that the online courses must accurately explain a "collection of

different standpoints." There is also an indication that resources with a democratizing

description have a positive effect on the perception drop rate of students. Student

retention is a critical performance indicator, especially for online higher education.

Educators, according to Pinchbeck (2021), should be student-centered in order to get

the best possible outcome for students. Students will benefit from a more engaged web-

based learning environment, which will reduce student loneliness and may even help

them retain their positions. According to Tung (2012), when institutions take an active

part in the retention of learners throughout virtual distance learning, this will result in

higher student retention rates. It has been demonstrated that with such engagement,

instructors are better able to reach out to students and identify the patterns of their

students' withdrawal from and then non-completion of programs. Furthermore, a

student–student mentoring program is a much more straightforward method of

supporting students and enhancing retention rates than other methods. In addition,

learners' happiness with online distance learning is increased when they have regular,

open communication with the instructor, which is effectively maintained.