Microtimber: The Development of a 3D

Printed Composite Panel Made

from Waste Wood and Recycled Plastics

Sandra Karina Löschke, John Mai, Gwenaelle Proust

and Arianna Brambilla

Abstract This chapters reports research conducted in the context of the

multi-disciplinary research project at the University of Sydney—Microtimber:
Development of a 3D printed, gradient timber panel composed of forestry waste and
by-products (2015–2019). Funded by Forest and Wood Products Australia (FWPA),
the research intends to valorise forest and plastic waste by combining saw dust
with recycled acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) to develop an environmentally
sustainable composite material suitable for 3D printing, using a fused filament fab-
rication process. First, the research explores the mechanical performance and print-
ability of wood-plastic composites and variations in their respective compositions
and second, it develops new 3D printing processes that achieve material and aes-
thetic gradients through the optimisation of printing parameters and development of
printing algorithms. The aim is to achieve a fluidly variable gradient material that rep-
resents a new design paradigm in architecture and replaces traditional architectural
systems that rely on the mechanical layering of different elements such as structure,
rain screen, insulation, lining etc. Preliminary testing showed that from a perspective
of environmental sustainability, the unproblematic recycling of these Microtimber
specimen promises to close the loop between the material sourcing stages and the
end of life management of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).

Keywords 3D printing · Wood · Waste · Architecture · Aesthetics

1 Introduction

3D printing is becoming increasingly popular and its use in architectural construction

is growing fast. Unlike current fabrication technologies that mechanically cut, fix or
glue different standardized elements for serial production, 3D printing chemically
fuses different composites at a microlevel and allows for customized variation of

S. K. Löschke (B) · J. Mai · G. Proust · A. Brambilla

Faculty of Architecture, Design and Planning, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
e-mail: sandra.loschke@sydney.edu.au

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 827

F. Bianconi and M. Filippucci (eds.), Digital Wood Design, Lecture Notes in Civil
Engineering 24, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03676-8_33
828 S. K. Löschke et al.

the material. To illustrate this point in more concrete terms: In timber stud wall
construction, for example, we have a layering of discrete materials that are screwed,
nailed, bolted or glued together. Typically, this is a layer of plaster board, timber studs,
insulation, vapour barrier, battens and rainscreen. In contrast, 3D printing allows
us to replace layered construction with a homogeneous composite material. The
material’s composition can be changed to respond to performance requirements such
as structural strength, weather resistance and surface appearance. It meets different
performance criteria through chemical variation rather than mechanical assembly
and allows for customized panels that use materials economically.
To date, this innovative potential has been overlooked, and 3D-printing often
simply imitates traditional fabrication processes. The Chinese company Winsun, for
example, 3D prints entire multi-storey concrete houses. However, the fabrication
process requires the mechanical integration of reinforcement bars, mimicking tra-
ditional concrete wall construction. The Microtimber project is less interested in
mimicking existing construction methods and instead asks what 3D printing can do
that other fabrication processes cannot achieve.
The research focuses on identifying and testing new composites that can be made
from waste and by-products and combines natural resources such as saw dust from
the forest industry as well as ‘non-natural’ resources such as recycled plastics. The
utilisation of waste for 3D printing could have important benefits for the timber,
construction and waste industries and could deliver sustainable alternatives to raw
material-intensive building products that contribute to landfill. For architects, the
opportunity to design directly through material composition offers new possibili-
ties of aesthetic expression that are currently restricted to the skilful manipulation
of ready-made building materials. The 3D printing of waste-based composites rep-
resents an entirely new design paradigm that forces a rethinking of architectural
aesthetics (fluid variation), practices (co-design with engineers, material scientists
and other specialists) and environmental thinking (waste as resource).

2 Developing the 3D Printing Technology for a New

Gradient Timber-like Aesthetic

This section reports the development of 3D printing processes that permit the fab-
rication of an aesthetically- and materially-graded Microtimber panel, using com-
mercially available filaments made from wood-plastic composites. In particular, it
explores speed, temperature and printing angles to achieve an appearance that aims
to be more timber-like and attractive than existing wood-plastic composite prod-
ucts. The study evaluates the material properties of these gradient timber prototypes
in terms of printability and tests their mechanical performance in terms of tensile
strength.
Microtimber: The Development of a 3D … 829

2.1 Aesthetic Perceptions: Solid Wood Versus Wood-Plastic

Composites

During the past two decades, the number of timber substitutes for structural and
architectural applications has risen steadily. These new materials seek to deliver tech-
nically advanced solutions that improve the structural performance and durability of
natural wood. Because they are mostly fabricated from wood waste- or by-products,
they are not in direct competition with solid wood but represent a new subset of prod-
ucts that permit the more efficient use of timber resources. Wood has a very high
appeal when compared to other building materials like brick, concrete, steel or plastic
(TDA 2015). But the appeal of wood does not translate to wood composites and it is
useful to gain a better understanding of how wood composite materials are perceived
by consumers in comparison to natural wood, and how the respective associations and
sensory reactions of consumers can inform the development of new composites—in
this instance, the development of a Microtimber product (Pritchard 2004). Research
has shown a clear consumer preference for natural wood over composite products
(Jonsson et al. 2008). Consumers used predominantly perceptual attributes, vision
and tactility, to describe their responses to different wood materials, identifying an
underlying quality that can be described as ‘wood-likeness.’ This was associated
with qualities such as natural, soft and living, and stood in contrast to the qualities
that were associated with wood-plastic composites, which were seen as artificial and
hard. These perceptions, might explain why many wood-plastic composite products
do not enjoy the same popularity as solid wood although in many instances, they are
more sustainable, durable, affordable and offer a better structural performance. The
aesthetic appearance of solid wood is determined by its microscopic wood features,
namely the colouring and structural features that are easily visible to the eye. These
are the result of biological processes and environmental influences such temperature
and moisture levels, and lend wood characteristic features such as rings, knots and
resin or bark inclusions (Kolb 2008). As a result, every piece of wood is unique
but different species are recognisable by the particular combination, prominence
and articulation of these features. To make wood composite materials more ‘wood-
like’ then, a solid understanding of these underlying aesthetics and how they can be
translated into fabrication methods is of key importance.

2.2 “Timber-like”: Developing Advanced 3D Printing

Technologies to Generate a New Wood Aesthetic

3D printing offers new possibilities to address the shortcomings of more established

wood composite products such as laminated boards and macro-extruded wood-plastic
composites. Wood laminates mimic the appearance of solid wood through a textured
surface that is applied to MDF or other composite boards that by themselves have a
dull and unappealing appearance. They are extensively used in household and office
830 S. K. Löschke et al.

furniture. Macro-extruded wood-plastic composites attempt to imitate the texture

of wood through physical indentations that also act as a non-slip surface for appli-
cations such as decking boards, floor boards and hand railings. However, standard
industrialised fabrication processes rely on the repetition of a standard pattern which
is a visual indicator of the non-authenticity of the material.
The potential for the use of 3D printing as a method for simulating the features
of timber is still in its early stages. While 3D printing has been used in construction,
often post-processing of the product is needed to smoothen out the characteristic
horizontal striations that result from the layer-by-layer application of the material
during the 3D printing process. In addition, there has been limited exploration of
custom-designed aesthetics in 3D printing.
Many 3D printed wood-plastic composite products display an aesthetically unap-
pealing uniformity that lacks variation in surface texture and colour and negatively
impacts on their marketability as viable alternatives to natural wood. To address
these shortcomings, the research first, explores new 3D printing processes that
eliminate the need for post-processing and as a result, improve the cost-efficiency
as well as the embodied energy of 3D printed wood-plastic composites, and second,
develops an innovative and attractive aesthetic for these products that can be
generated by varying the parameters of the additive production process (speed,
temperature, printing angle, nozzle size etc.) and/or the material composition. By
fusing and fluidly varying structure and surface, it becomes possible to create 3D
printed wood-plastic composite panels without any post-processing.

2.3 Manipulation of Print Parameters to Define Wood Grain

and Colour

Timber generally contains light and dark striations in the form of growth rings because
of the seasonal variations that occur during the life of a tree. Depending on the species
and specific climatic conditions, a tree’s striations may be distinct, have a gradient
variation, or a blend of both (Hafner 2015). 3D printer functions can be manipulated
to recreate a wood grain on a 3D printed object when using a suitable wood-plastic
filament. For this research project, a commercial wood-plastic composite filament
known as Laywoo-D3 (developed by CC-Products, Köln, Germany) was explored
because it displayed large visual variation between light and dark tones when exposed
to different print parameters (Jovanovic 2015). These parameters include the move-
ment speed of the print head and the temperature of the nozzle.
The velocity of the tool path can be manipulated by changing the speed of the
print head and bed. Distinct light and dark tones can be produced, as the speed can be
changed with almost instant effect. Slower print speeds allow for the wood particles
to char for longer, hence producing darker tones, while faster print speeds reduce
charring and hence produce lighter tones. Using Laywoo-D3, contrasting striations
Microtimber: The Development of a 3D … 831

were printed by changing print speeds: a print speed of 10 mm/s produces dark tones
while one of 60 mm/s produces light tones.
Striations can also be produced by changing the nozzle temperature. In order to
produce a contrasting pattern through temperature variation, Laywoo-D3 was printed
at a temperature of 180 °C to produce the lighter tones, while a temperature of 230 °C
was used to produce darker tones.
In contrast to the instant changes in speed, changes in temperature require more
time and produce a more gradual change in tone, due to the longer transition time.
The time taken to reach the desired temperature can be programmed to vary and
depends on the type of 3D printer. For example, samples created using the Leapfrog
Creatr Dual Extruder (developed by Leapfrog 3D Printers, Alphen aan den Rijn,
The Netherlands) of dimensions 80 mm × 40 mm with a 0.5 mm nozzle at 15 mm/s
printing speed showed a gradient over a width of 5 mm as it takes 60 s to cool down
from 230 to 180 °C (Mai et al. 2016).
Both the temperature and speed variation have their benefits and drawbacks. The
range of values within which temperature and speed can be varied is limited and
exceeding the limits may adversely affect the print in quality. For example, extremely
high temperatures can burn the wood and severely degrade material properties, while
excessive speeds can reduce the contact between the material coming out of the nozzle
and the already deposited material on the print bed and produce a low-quality surface
while also affecting mechanical performance.
To ensure that striations that resulted from various degrees of charring did not
impact the structural integrity of the material, tests to analyse the tensile strength were
conducted according to standard ASTM D638-14 Standard Test Method for Tensile
Properties of Plastics. From this standard, ASTM D638-14 Type 1 tensile specimens
were printed at temperatures between 180 and 230 °C at 10 °C intervals (Mai et al.
2017). Three specimens were printed at each of the eight different temperatures.
Over this wide range of temperatures, the tensile strength of the specimen was not
significantly altered, as shown in Fig. 1.

2.4 Algorithms to Generate Timber-like Textures

for a Microtimber

The principles for creating a wood-like texture were established by adapting an algo-
rithm that provides a more realistic appearance to computer-generated surfaces—Per-
lin noise. This algorithm was created by Ken Perlin in 1983 to provide a natural
texture to an otherwise plain graphic design (Shiffman 2012). Rather than being rep-
resented as a completely random sequence of numbers, Perlin noise smoothens out
the randomness by incorporating a pseudorandom sequence that only varies slightly
between adjacent values.
This algorithm was adapted to develop a realistic wood grain that exhibits the
seemingly random variations in wood grain width both ‘along the grain’ and ‘across
832 S. K. Löschke et al.

14

12
Peak Tensile Stress (MPa) 10

0
180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
Temperature (°C)

Fig. 1 Peak tensile stress of Laywoo-D3 tensile coupons printed at different temperatures. (8)

Fig. 2 Evenly spaced lines (left) is modified to have varying width (right) by application of a
one-dimensional Perlin noise map. (7)

the grain’ textures. Trees experience grain variations due to varying climatic con-
ditions, localised shading or competition from neighbouring objects (Fritts 2012).
These realistic variations can be approximated with the Perlin noise algorithm.
The Perlin noise algorithm can be visualised as a black and white map that exhibits
a pseudo-random change in tone across the map. The change in tone allows for
the manipulation of certain wood grain characteristics, such as spacing density and
curvature.
As shown in Fig. 2, the one-dimensional Perlin noise map has darker regions that
produce grains with closer spacing, while lighter regions produce grains with wider
spacing. The variation in the spacing can be varied according to the wood species or
the desired visual appearance.
Expanding to a two-dimensional Perlin noise map, Fig. 3 shows a shift in the wood
grain in the y-direction depending on the tone of the map at a specific point. A lighter
region shifted the line up in the positive y-direction while a darker region shifted the
line down in the negative y-direction. Like the spacing density, the resultant curvature
from the shifting of lines can be varied according to the wood species or the desired
visual appearance.
To achieve the desired texture, a combination of temperature change, speed change
and tool path manipulation was developed. The grain is produced using a tool path
that is predominantly in the x-direction, with subsequent pathways shifted in the
Microtimber: The Development of a 3D … 833

Fig. 3 Linear lines (left) is modified to have varying curvature (right) by application of a two-
dimensional Perlin noise map. (7)

Fig. 4 A combination of
temperature change, speed
change and tool path
manipulation (7)

y-direction. Depending on the nozzle size, overlapping of the print path can increase
the darkness of that region, as the heated nozzle passes over a previously printed
surface. The results are shown in Fig. 4.

2.5 Flexibility to Manipulate 3D Surface

Traditionally, 3D printing using fused filament fabrication technology applies flat,

layer-by-layer deposition. This is the norm for slicer software that translates a 3D
drawing created with standard 3D modelling software into a G-code (a generic name
for a control language) that can be read and printed by the 3D printer. To overcome
this flatness, it is possible to customise the G-code instructions that are sent to the 3D
printer to achieve a wood-like curved surface. This can eliminate the stepped surface
that would otherwise be produced on a curved surface.
The curved layer printing provides an opportunity to imprint a physical texture
onto the surface, which can be varied depending on the printing orientation. 3D
printers normally have a print head with a fixed vertical alignment. When printing on
a curved surface, the width of the nozzle can scrape on the existing printed material
while printing the new layer, partially remelting it to produce a roughly textured
surface (Fig. 5). This may be desirable to create a non-slip surface or achieve a more
natural texture of wood for interior applications.
834 S. K. Löschke et al.

Fig. 5 Developed prototype

sample showing rough
surface features with a more
natural appearance

In order to achieve a smoother curved surface, it is necessary to align the print head
orientation such that it is always perpendicular to the print surface to avoid excessive
nozzle interference. Since conventional 3D printers are unable to rotate the print head,
the six-axis KUKA KR 6 R-900 robot (developed by KUKA, Augsburg, Germany)
was used to achieve the desired smooth curved surface (Fig. 6). In addition to the
flexibility of movement, a six-axis robot has the additional advantage of higher print
speeds and the potential for upscaling to industry-size production. By attaching the
extruder and hot end combination as an end-effector on the robot, the functions of a
3D printer can be replicated by controlling the movements through the KUKA robot
software and synchronising with the Arduino firmware to control the temperature
and extrusion settings.
The design of conventional 3D printers usually incorporates slow z-axis move-
ments compared to x- and y-axis velocities. This increases the opportunities for
printing more complex surfaces that involve significant variation in height at differ-
ent points on the surface. The six-axis robot has the additional advantage of providing
more freedom to create the form, compared to desktop 3D printers that have a cross-
bar or gantry which limits their range.
Upscaling of the print can be achieved by increasing the effective print area and/or
the extrusion rate. The larger reach of the robot arm effectively increases the available
printing area compared to that of conventional desktop 3D printers. The design of the
print head can also be modified to increase the flow rate, for example by incorporating
a larger nozzle or an extended melt zone. Both the increase in print area and extrusion
rate can allow for larger elements such as façade panels to be produced without the
constraint of size limitations and slow speeds.
Microtimber: The Development of a 3D … 835

Fig. 6 a + b: Developed prototype sample showing smooth surface (left) produced using KUKA
robot (right)

3 Experimenting with Material Composition—New

Wood-Plastic Composites

To date, research into the material composition of wood-plastic composites has

largely focused on pressed, extruded or moulded products rather than on 3D printed
elements. To develop a Microtimber material, that addresses this gap in knowl-
edge, a series of experiments were conducted that created and tested various wood-
plastic composites suitable for 3D printing, using a fused filament fabrication process.
In particular, the following was investigated: (a) varying the ratio of wood/plastic
in the composite; and (b) using different timber species for the timber compo-
nent—Australian Hardwoods: Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), Grey Box
(Eucalyptus microcarpa), Tasmanian Oak (Eucalyptus delegatensis/Eucalyptus reg-
nans/Eucalyptus obliqua) and Softwood: Pine (Pinus radiata). A series of tests eval-
uated the material properties of the composites in terms of tensile strength and print-
ability. The strength of the wood species in their natural state did not translate to
their performance as part of a wood-plastic composite. It emerged that in compos-
ites, the strength inherent to the natural fibrous structure of wood no longer comes
into play and aspects such as chemical composition and micro-particle size and shape
exert a more decisive influence on the properties and performance of the material.
Our testing matrix therefore included particle sizes in addition to the range of wood
species and wood-plastic ratios. In a second stage, the impact of recycling on the
performance of the selected wood-plastic composites was investigated by recycling
836 S. K. Löschke et al.

our own printed material, re-extruding the samples and printing new coupons for
testing.

3.1 Rationale for the Selection of Wood Species and Their

Relevant Properties

For the series of experiments, a range of wood species was selected that are com-
monly used in Australian construction: three Australian Hardwoods (Grey Box, Red
Gum and Tasmanian Oak) and a Softwood (Pine). The Australian Standard AS2878
classifies the ultimate strength of natural seasoned timbers in eight groups, SD1 rep-
resenting the strongest and SD8 the weakest. According to the standard, Grey Box
is classified as SD2, Red Gum as SD5 and Tasmanian Oak as SD2. With a density
of 1100 kg/m3 , Grey Box is considerably heavier than Red Gum and Tasman Oak
which have respective air-dry weights of 900 and 740 kg/m3 . A detailed study for
Red Gum and Grey Box has been published earlier (Huang 2017). In contrast to the
Australian hardwoods, Pine is softwood species with and average air-dry density of
535 kg/m3 and has been classified as strength group SD6.
During the process of creating wood flour, different wood species have produced
material with different wood particle sizes and particle shapes, and these were iden-
tified as factors that influence the tensile strength and density of the respective 3D
printed samples. Measurements of the particle diameter, aspect ratio, circularity and
elongation of the wood particles in Grey Box showed that it has a greater average
particle size and also a wider distribution of particle diameters when compared to Red
Gum, for example (Huang 2017). As a result of these differences, the ‘3D printabil-
ity’ of the individual wood species also varied and the parameters for the extrusion
of filaments and the 3D printing process had to be fine-tuned to obtain homogenous
materials with optimal mechanical and aesthetic properties.

3.2 3D Printability and Particle Size

For 3D printing, wood-plastic filaments with a 2.8–3.0 mm diameter were produced.

First 3D test prints showed that larger wood particles resulted in a congestion of
material in the printing head and to ensure a smooth and constant printing process,
the maximum wood particle size had to be set at 212 µm diameter in order to
avoid clogging. To control the maximum particle size, the wood powders were dried,
sieved and separated according to three different particle size ranges before being
mixed with the ABS and maleic anhydride, which was used as a binding agent.
The three ranges of particle sizes were tested for Australian hardwood powders to
investigate their impact on the composites’ printability and properties. Wood particles
in range 1 had a diameter size of 150–212 µm; range 2 comprised particles with
Microtimber: The Development of a 3D … 837

Fig. 7 Dimensions of
coupons for tensile testing

diameter sizes of 90–150 µm; and range 3, diameters below 90 µm. Using a Noztek
Pro filament extruder (developed by Noztek, West Sussex, England) with a pre-heater
band and a 2.75 mm extrusion head, the filaments were extruded at a temperature
range of 150–160 °C. From these, printed tensile specimens were printed, using a
LULZBOT 3D printer (developed by Aleph Objects, Colorado, USA) with a 0.8 mm
printing head, heated between 200 and 250 °C and moving at a printing speed of
15 mm/s. Figure 7 shows the dimensions of the tested tensile specimens adapted
from the standard ASTM D638. For the Red Gum, Grey Box and Tasmanian Oak
the printing temperature was fixed at 250 °C. The Pine specimen were printed at
200–240 °C. As a benchmark, pure ABS specimen were printed to evaluate the
effects resulting from the inclusion of wood particles.

3.3 Mechanical Performance of the Wood-Plastic Composites

Tensile tests on the printed specimens were performed using an MTS Criterion load-
ing frame with a constant deformation rate of 0.5 mm/min. At least three tensile
specimens for each wood species were tested and loaded in tension until failure.
The loads and displacements were recorded during the tests to plot the stress-strain
curves from which the tensile strengths were extracted. Figure 8 shows the data for
the single-extruded filaments.
838 S. K. Löschke et al.

Fig. 8 Tensile strength test

data for: pure plastic (ABS)
and single-extruded
wood-plastic composites
made with Red Gum, Grey
Box, Tasmanian Oak and
Pine woods

The tensile strength test data show that the addition of wood particles to ABS
produces a composite material with a lower strength than pure ABS, which can be
explained by the hydrophilic nature of wood which causes improper bonding with the
plastic (Panthapulakkal and Sain 2007). Therefore, the higher the wood content of
a wood-plastic composite, the lower the strength of the material. Additional testing
of a Red Gum-plastic specimen with a weight ratio of 29:70:1 (wood: ABS:binding
agent) confirmed the negative impact of wood presence on the final strength of the
material. In fact, the tensile strength was measured at 11.3 MPa, which represents a
35% loss in strength for a 10% increase in wood content.
The tensile strength varied also across the different wood species. Red Gum has
the highest strength followed by Pine and Grey Box. Tasmanian Oak produces the
weakest composite in this study. Analysis of the fracture surface of the different
specimen using scanning electron microscopy has shown that when compared to
the Red Gum specimen, Grey Box and Tasmanian Oak specimen presented a large
amount of porosity, which might explain the lower strength of these composites
(Huang 2017). However, this requires further investigation.
The Pine wood-plastic specimens were printed at temperatures ranging from 200
to 240 °C and no relation between the printing temperature and the strength of the
composite was observed. This aligns with the results presented in Sect. 2.3 of this
chapter, where tests of specimens produced with commercial wood-plastic composite
filament showed that no relation between the tensile strength and the 3D printing
temperature exists (Mai et al. 2017).
Figure 9 shows the effect of varying the particle sizes of the wood powder on
the tensile strength of the wood-plastic composite fabricated using Grey Box. The
graph shows that decreasing the particle sizes slightly increases the strength of the
composite. The same test was conducted for Red Gum, but the trend was not as
obvious as the one observed for Grey Box (Huang 2017).
Microtimber: The Development of a 3D … 839

Fig. 9 Tensile strength test

data of wood-plastic
composites made from Grey
Box powder sieved to
different particle size
distributions

3.4 Recycling and Re-Extrusion

Red Gum, Grey Box and Pine wood filaments can be recycled and re-extruded.
Having been fabricated at a temperature of 150–160 °C, the material was broken
into small pieces and placed in the extruder to fabricate a new filament, this time at
a lower temperature of 115 °C.
In all but one case, the specimens produced from the re-extruded material dis-
played higher tensile strengths than the specimen produced from the original single-
extruded filaments. The only exception occurred in the Red Gum-plastic composite
that used wood particle sizes between 90–150 µm, where the result was reversed.
Importantly, it could be observed that the re-extrusion process homogenises the
composite material and could explain the decrease in the standard deviation of the
measured mechanical properties (Huang 2017).

3.5 Future Research into Wood-Plastic Composites for 3D

Printing

The results presented here show that the wood provenance, particle size and process-
ing parameters affect the tensile strength of 3D printed wood-plastic composites.
Other research (Panthapulakkal and Sain 2007) has shown that binding between
wood particles and polymer does not happen naturally and therefore the careful
selection of a binding agent is essential to achieve cohesion between wood and plas-
tic to improve the composite material’s strength. There is great potential for future
research into the role of binding agents both in terms of investigating the quantity
of agent used but also in testing different types of binding agent that might respond
to the chemical compositions of various woods. It is not difficult to imagine that
the high resin content of Australian hardwoods, for example, might influence the
selection of binder and that an investigation of alternative binders could improve the
tensile strength of the wood-plastic composites tested in this research project.
840 S. K. Löschke et al.

Whilst this research focused on tensile strength to date, other properties, such
as durability, thermal performance and aesthetic perceptions will be investigated to
determine the useability of these particular wood-plastic composites in architectural
applications.
Additionally, Pine-plastic composites were recycled after having been printed
once and the preliminary results show that there is no change in the tensile strength
measured on these new fabricated specimens.

4 Evaluation of Microtimber in Terms of Building Life

Cycle Assessment (LCA)

This section evaluates the anticipated opportunities and limitations of Microtimber

as a 3D-printed wood-plastic composite in comparison with commonly used com-
posite wood products in terms of: raw material extraction and materials processing,
manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal/ recycling.

4.1 Life Cycle Assessment of Buildings: General Framework

Buildings have a considerable impact on the environment and are among the greatest
contributors to global carbon emissions and energy use. In 2014, the construction sec-
tor was directly and indirectly responsible for 18% of global greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions and one of the largest consumers of materials (IPCC 2014). Improving
the efficiency of material usage and deploying recycled or waste materials, such as
waste saw dust and recycled ABS plastics, can therefore significantly help to reduce
the GHG emissions below current baselines scenarios.
One of the tools to assess energy consumption and environmental impact of mate-
rials and products is life cycle assessment (LCA). Although LCA has been used as
a method to evaluate the environmental impacts of a product for some time, its use
in the construction sector is relatively new, with the first application dated to around
2003 (Ortiz et al. 2009; SCBI 2006). LCA is the systematic analysis of the environ-
mental impacts of a product or a process across all stages of its life cycle, from raw
material extraction to manufacturing, use, maintenance and finally disposal.
Among the different approaches available, the framework for life cycle assessment
published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is the most
developed and has been progressively reviewed since its inception in 2006, resulting
in an entire series of new international standards focused on LCA (ISO 1404:2006;
ISO 1404:2006). These standards introduce a clear framework for life cycle analysis,
with a step by step methodology based on four main stages:
Microtimber: The Development of a 3D … 841

1. The first stage defines the goal and scope of the LCA. Its main aim is to establish
clear boundaries, assumptions, metrics and evaluation criteria for the successive
stages.
2. The Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) database is set up in the second stage, when all
the data about the impacts of products and processes are collected and calculation
procedures are defined.
3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA). It is the actual calculation phase that
aims to understand the extent and significance of impacts of a product system
4. Data interpretation. It deals with the interpretation of the results of stages two
and three based on the criteria set up in stage one and seeks to reach conclusions
and recommendations.
The importance of stage one is vital, as it sets the rules and the assumptions for the
following assessments and determines the success and validity of the entire process.
During the first stage the boundaries of the analysis are defined, namely the phases
and the processes that will be analysed.
Specific standards for the building sector have been introduced to guide the LCA
practitioners in the first stage (EN 15643-2:2011; EN 15978:2011; EN 15804:2012).
Standard EN 15978:2011 Sustainability of construction works. Assessment of envi-
ronmental performance of buildings. Calculation method defines the building’s life
cycle through different sequential stages, as shown in Table 1.
A comprehensive LCA accounts for the impacts of materials and processes during
all stages of the building life cycle as outlined in Table 1. The assessment is not a
simple aggregation of individual assessments into a single overall score. Instead
it is an iterative process that evaluates impacts of building materials, processes,
building services, equipment, operational uses, retrofit and disposal, and the complex
relations between these (Cabeza et al. 2014). As new information becomes available
during the assessment process, trade-offs are required and the scope might need to
be reconsidered and modified as a result.
Of particular difficulty is the assessment of impacts related to the end of life stages
when a product leaves the life cycle process. The amount of data available for these
stages is very limited in the building sector. Common end of life options are recycling,
reprocessing, reuse, or disposal; but the LCA evaluation considers processes and
strategies that would come into effect several years after the calculation (Blengini
and Di Carlo 2010) as building life span is considered to be between 50 and 70 years.
This issue was already detected in 2001, when the European Commission declared
that the end of life management should be a priority (European Commission 2001).
The EU Construction & Demolition Waste Management protocol (September 2016)
states that waste from construction and demolition is the largest source of waste in
the European Union, accounting for a third of all waste production (ISO 1402). The
aim of the protocol is to transition Europe towards a circular economy by closing the
loop of product lifecycles and to achieve this a concrete target of recycling 70% of
all Construction & Demolition waste by 2020 has been set.
As a wood-plastic composite material, Microtimber, comes in exactly at this point,
as its potential lies in closing the loop. At the “Product Stage” it uses recycled/waste
 842

Table 1 Building life cycles, defined by EN 15978:2011

Building life cycle
Product stage Construction Use stage End of life
process
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 C1 C2 C3 C4
Benefits and loads beyond the system boundaries

Raw Transport Manufacture Transport Installation Use Maintenance Repair Replacement Refurbishment Operational Operational Deconstruction Transport Waste Disposal
material process energy use water use processing
supply
D: reuse, recovery, recycling − potential
S. K. Löschke et al.
Microtimber: The Development of a 3D … 843

materials as a ‘raw material’ and the “End of Life” Stage it can be recycled by being
powdered and reprinted without the loss of mechanical performance as preliminary
testing has shown.

4.2 Expected Environmental Performance of Microtimber

At the present stage, the Microtimber wood-plastic composites are in the early stages
of development and for this reason, a definitive life cycle assessment is not possible.
However, it is important to consider the likely environmental performance of the
product at an early stage so that material composition and fabrication processes can
be optimised to target an overall reduction of the material’s carbon footprint.
Due to Microtimber’s use of small participles and reliance of chemical bonding
action, the closest set of comparable products are timber particle boards and reconsti-
tuted timber panels. They can help to provide an informed estimate for the expected
environmental performance of Microtimber.
In order to have reliable and consistent data for input, it is important to refer to a life
cycle inventory source that is officially recognized and can be applied in accordance
with relevant standards—for example, Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs)
(19, 20). An EPD is a document that certifies the environmental data of products,
based on the LCA method described by the ISO 14025 (Passer et al. 2015). This
type of document is essential for a reliable building LCA, as because it represents
a comprehensive database, one of the benefits of an EPD is that it provides the
standardized documentation needed for certification as it aligns with the first step of
LCA, namely goal and scope definition. EPDs clearly state the phases considered in
the assessment, the boundaries, the assumptions and the data sources, which together
constitute the first essential step of LCA.
Table 2 shows the two building products used for comparison with Microtim-
ber—particle board and reconstituted timber panels. The data and LCI database vary
with the geographical location (different processes, cost of primary energy, trans-
portation of the products etc.), therefore an Australian database1 to contextualize the
analysis to specific criteria was used.
Particle board uses a large percentage of recycled timber as raw material, however
its short lifespan and the low strength make it largely unsuitable for external or
structural use in buildings. The reconstituted timber panel seems to be more similar
to the Microtimber wood-plastic composite in its potential use. However, although
it is deemed to have high recycling potential, it is estimated that only 7.5% of all
panels are redirected from landfill. Assuming that Microtimber would have similar
environmental process to the products used in this comparison, it is possible to
identify the end of life management and the material sourcing as the building life
cycle stages, in which significant improvement could be achieved.

1 https://epd-australasia.com/?s=plastic&post_type=epd
844 S. K. Löschke et al.

Table 2 Environmental impacts of two building materials similar to Microtimber. Data are taken
from the Australian EPD database (see footnote 1). In this analysis only the global warming potential
(GWP) was considered, defined as the kg of carbon dioxide emitted by the process, the total use
of non-renewable primary energy sources (PENRT) and the total use of renewable energy sources
(PERT). Impacts are defined per kg of final product
Comparartive analysis
Product name Timber particle board Reconstituted timber Microtimber
18 mm panel (wood-plastic wood-plastic
composite) composites
Components Softwood 84.1% + urea Wood powder 52.5% + Wood powder: up to
formaldehyde 5.9% + polyvinyl chloride 28% + acrylonitrile
melamine formaldehyde 38.2% + calcium butadiene styrene
0.8% + paraffine wax carbonate 5.8% + (ABS): 81% + maleic
0.5% + lamination pigments 2.5% anhydride: 1%
paper 1.3% +
ammonium sulphate
0.1% + water 7.3%
Recycled content Variable—depending on 20% of the feedstock 100% from waste:
of wood availability mix comes from either by-product of timber
internal recycling or industry (saw dust) o
offcuts other recycled sources
such as furniture etc.
Life cycle A1 + A2: materials A1 + A2: Raw materials A1 + A2: Wood powder
process transported by truck are delivered by truck, delivered by truck from
from nearby producer, no data available on nearby producer,
usually sawmill proximity usually sawmill.
A3: wood particles are A3: materials are mixed Recycled ABS pellets
chipped (or flaked) and and extruded as from nearby supplier.
then mixed with resin granules, granules are A3: Wood powder is
and wax, the mixture is mixed with crap and ground and sieved to
pressed and cut, drying extruded (extrusion desired particle size and
process, trimming and process cooled with mixed with ABS and
sanding of the surface, water), aging process of maleic anhydride; the
lamination of the board 48 h, additional surface matrix is extruded under
A4: packaging—not treatment and embossed heat to form filament
better defined of wood grain and then 3D printed.
B: short life span A4: packaging in A4: not defined
C: the board can be cardboard boxes and B: varies depending on
recycled but not define shipped by sea application and
data available on the B: long life span composition
percentage C: part of the product is C: the product is 100%
shipped again to the recyclable, it can be
factory for being reground and reprinted.
recycled, the rest is
landfilled
(continued)
Microtimber: The Development of a 3D … 845

Table 2 (continued)
Comparartive analysis
Product name Timber particle board Reconstituted timber Microtimber
18 mm panel (wood-plastic wood-plastic
composite) composites
Pros and Cons EPD of the type of EPD of a specific EPD not available
material, data averaged product, data available
form available sources are refined
A + factories close to − factory in China, − still a non-industrial
sawmill and primary resulting in higher process, high impacts
wood suppliers transportation cost from production
resulting in lower + possibility to increase + use of waste materials
environmental impacts the content of recycled + use of variable matrix
+ ideally, high wood
percentage of recycled
wood form the nearby
B − short life span + long life span + variable life span and
(evaluated around 5 (evaluated > 10 yrs.), low impacts from
yrs.), resulting in higher resulting in lower cost maintenance
impacts for replacement for replacement
C-D − difficult to reuse as it + possibility to recycle + product completely
damages easily part of the product recyclable
− recycling process is − recycling needs + product can be re-used
difficult transportation back to as it is highly durable
the factory site (China)
LCA phases A, C, D A, C, D
Impacts for GWP: −11.1 kgCO2 eq GWP: 1.44 kgCO2 eq The environmental
phase A1-A3 PENRT: 126 MJ PENRT: 32.3 MJ impacts of Microtimber
PERT: 243 MJ PERT: 9.68 MJ are expected to fit
in-between these two
products
Impacts for Not considered GWP: 0.22 kgCO2 eq
phase A4 PENRT: 1.86 MJ
PERT: 0.036 MJ
Impacts for Not considered GWP: 0.01 kgCO2 eq
phase C1 PENRT: 0.28 MJ
PERT: 3.12e−3 MJ
Impacts for Not considered
phase C2
Impacts for GWP: 19.9 kgCO2 eq
phase C3 PENRT: −16.6 MJ
PERT: −193 MJ
Impacts for GWP: 2.09 kgCO2 eq
phase C4 PENRT: 15.4 MJ
PERT: 0.956 MJ
(continued)
846 S. K. Löschke et al.

Table 2 (continued)
Comparartive analysis
Product name Timber particle board Reconstituted timber Microtimber
18 mm panel (wood-plastic wood-plastic
composite) composites
Impacts for 1. scenario 100% 1. real scenario: 7.5%
phase D landfilled recycled (sent to
GWP: −0.0747 production factory),
kgCO2 eq 92.5% landfilled
PENRT: −0.852 MJ GWP: −0.072 kgCO2 eq
PERT: −0.0957 MJ PENRT: −1.93 MJ
2. scenario 100% PERT: −0.603 MJ
recycling: board is
shredded into woodchip
and re-use for new
particle board
GWP: −2.55 kgCO2 eq
PENRT: −31.2 MJ
PERT: −45.1 MJ

The biggest potential for improvement that Microtimber could offer concerns the
raw materials sourcing at stage A. The wood powder used is a waste- or by-product of
other production processes, mainly saw mills, and this means that zero virgin wood
is used in the manufacture. The other component—ABS plastics—is a recycled
material and also uses zero natural resources. Materials made with recovered wood
and plastics have positive effects on LCA, if compared to non-wood products or
products obtained from virgin wood. Direct effects can be achieved in relation to the
reduced environmental impacts of phase A, and indirect effects include the reduction
of land use, as less timber is harvested, and land can be used differently as well as
the reduction of land use for landfill (Sathre and Gustavsoon 2006). On the other
hand, Microtimber has high production impacts, as the process it is not optimized and
industrialized. The latter is an area for future research when the material is developed
towards specific industry applications.
At the end of their life, timber products can be burnt to produce energy, re-used
as solid material when possible (e.g. solid timber frames), reprocessed in new timber
products, pulped to form paper products or landfilled. Although landfilling is pro-
hibited in many parts of Europe (Dodoo et al. 2009), it is still the standard scenario
for the Australian construction sector, indicating that the waste hierarchy of timber is
still underdeveloped and requires improved management and innovation. Microtim-
ber offers the opportunity to enhance the life cycle management of timber composite
products both in phase A and phases C-D. Ultimately, it offers opportunities for
closing the loop of product lifecycles and advancing a circular Australian economy,
akin to the European model.
Microtimber: The Development of a 3D … 847

5 Conclusion

Research into the development of 3D printable wood-plastic composites made from

waste materials is still in its infancy. The possibilities that such products can open up
for improving design options, construction processes and environmental sustainabil-
ity are evident. They need to be developed towards industrial applications and require
the expertise of multiple disciplines including architecture, structural engineering,
bio-engineering and commitment from industry. The Microtimber research project
provides important directions for future investigations.

Acknowledgements This research was conducted in the context of the multidisciplinary research
project Microtimber: Development of a 3D printed, gradient timber panel composed of forestry
waste and by-products (2015–2019). Funded by Forest and Wood Products Australia (FWPA).
The authors would like to thank students and staff who contributed to this research project: Yerong
Huang, Jordan Girdis, Yicheng Todd Zhou, Eduardo De Oliveira Barata, and Pamela Kahwajy. We
also thank Susana Alarcon Licona from the Faculty of Architecture, Design and Planning’s DMaF
lab for her excellent support in robotic fabrication.

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