CHAPTER 8

SAMPLING

Research Methodology:
Tools, Methods and Techniques

Sundram, V.P.K., Chandran, V.G.R., Atikah, S.B., Rohani, M., Nazura, M.S., Akmal, A.O., & Krishnasamy, T.
 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to learn about:
 Define sampling, sample, population, element, subject and sampling frame
 Describe and discuss the different sampling designs
 Estimate sample size and discuss the factors to be taken into consideration
in determining the sample size
 Discuss the generalisability in the context of sampling designs

Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 2

Table of Content
8.1 NATURE OF SAMPLING
8.2 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
8.3 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
8.4 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
8.5 PRACTICAL SAMPLING CONCEPTS
8.6 SAMPLING AS RELATED TO QUALITATIVE STUDIES

Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 3

 CHAPTER 8

8.1 NATURE OF SAMPLING

Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 4

8.1.1 Definition of Terms

 Population refers to the entire group of

people, events, or things of interest that the
researcher wishes to investigate.

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 Population, Sample and Case or Element

Sample

Population

Case or
Element

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 Example: Students of UiTM
 An Element is a single member of a population and a
Subject is a single member of a sample. Example, if 100
students are selected for a survey from a total of 1000
UiTM students, then each student from 1000 population is
an element and each student from 100 samples is a
subject.
 Population frame is a listing of all the elements in the
population from which the sample is to be drawn. Example:
A list of all registered UiTM students.
 A sample is a subset of the population. If 100 students are
drawn from a population of 1000 UiTM students, these 100
form the sample of the study.
 A census is a count of all the elements in a population.
Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 7
8.1.2 Reason for Sampling
Advantages of sampling
• Saves money
• Saves labour
• Saves time
• Wide coverage
• High level of accuracy
Limitation
• Biases of estimator
• Mismatch between population characteristics and sample design
(sampling error)
• Difficulties in obtaining reliable sampling frame
Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 8
8.1.3 Sample Size
 It is a question of deciding how accurate you want your
results to be and how confident you want to be in that
answer.
 You will also need some indication of the anticipated
response; possibly taken from previous studies or a pilot
survey you have conducted yourself.
 There are three main considerations to bear in mind:
 The kind of statistical analysis, which is planned.
 The expected variability within the samples and the results,
based on experience (the greater the expected variation, the
larger the sample).
 The traditions in your particular research area regarding the
appropriate sample size.
Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 9
8.1.3 Sample Size
Example – Calculation of Actual Sample Size
Mawi was a part time student employed by a large manufacturing company. He had
decided to undertake a survey of customers and calculated that an adjusted minimum
sample size of 439 was required. Mawi estimated the response rate would be 30
percent. From this, he could calculate his actual sample size:
439 × 100
=
30
43900
=
30
= 1463
Mawi’s actual sample therefore needed to be 1463 customers. Because of time and
financial constraints this was rounded down to 1400 customers. The likelihood of 70 per
cent non-response meant that Mawi needed to include a check that his sample was
representative when he designed his data collection method.
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 CHAPTER 8

8.2 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

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 Sampling Techniques

SAMPLING

Probability Non-probability

Simple Judgment /
Stratified Convenience
random Purposive

Systematic Cluster Snowball Quota

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 CHAPTER 8

8.3 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 13

 Probability sampling can be either unrestricted
(simple random sampling) or restricted
(complex probability sampling) in nature.
 It is a type of sampling where each element in
the population has a non-zero probability of
being selected.

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8.3.1 Simple Random Sampling

 Every element in the population has a known

and equal chance of being selected as a
subject.
 If a sample size of n is drawn from a
population of size N in such a way that every
possible subject of size n has an equal
chance of being selected, the sampling
procedure is called simple random sampling.
Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 15
8.3.1 Simple Random Sampling
Example
You have a population of 5011 supermarket customers, all of whom use the supermarket’s
charge card for their weekly purchases. You wish to find out why they use the charge card.
There is insufficient time to interview all of them and so you decide to interview a sample.
Your calculation reveals that to obtain acceptable levels of confidence and accuracy you
need an actual sample size of approximately 360 customers. You decide to select them
using simple random sampling. First you give each of these cases (customers) in the
sampling frame a unique number. In order that each number is made up exactly the same
way you use 5011 four-digit numbers starting from 0000 to 5010. So customer 677 is given
the number 0676. The first random number you select is 55. Starting with this number you
read off the random numbers in a regular and systematic manner (in this example
continuing along the line):
5510 9183 2113 3259 5303 3879 3271 6020
Until 360 different cases have been selected. These form your random sample. Numbers
selected which are outside the range of those in your sampling frame (such as 5510, 9183,
5303 and 6020) are simply ignored.
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8.3.2 Systematic Sampling

 A sample obtained by randomly selecting one

element from the first k elements in the frame
and every k-th element thereafter is called
one-in-k systematic sampling.
Example

Sampling 100 students from a list of 1000 UiTM students.

N=1000, n=100, k (interval) = N/n = 1000/100 = 10
(1) Choose at random between 1 to 10, say it is 7. Thus the first element is 7.
(2) Second element is 7+10=17 and so on.

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8.3.3 Stratified Random Sampling

 A stratified random sample is obtained by

separating the population into non-
overlapping groups (strata) and then selecting
a simple random sample from each stratum.
Example

Separating UiTM students into non-overlapping groups of First, Second, Third and
Fourth year students. Then a sample of 30 students can be selected at random from
each group.

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8.3.3 Stratified Random Sampling
 Stratified random sampling can be classified
into two types:
1. Proportionate stratified random sampling –
means members represented in the sample
from each stratum will be proportionate to the
total number of elements in the representative
strata.
2. Disproportionate stratified sampling – means
members represented in the sample from each
stratum will be disproportionate to the total
number of elements in the representative
strata. Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 19
8.3.3 Stratified Random Sampling
Example

Number of subjects in the sample

Number of Proportionate
Job level Disproportionate
elements sampling [10% of
sampling
the elements]

Top Management 20 2 1
Middle Management 40 4 3
Lower management 60 6 5
Front line employees 80 8 11
TOTAL 200 20 20

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8.3.4 Cluster Sampling

 This technique divides the population into

internally heterogeneous subgroups, where
each element is selected individually. Some
are randomly selected for further study.
Example

Divide UiTM students into subgroups based on individual’s liking for time of study
(morning, afternoon, evening, night, late night, early morning) if we want to investigate
how students learn.

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8.3.4 Cluster Sampling
 Cluster sampling can be categorized into
specific types such as:
1. Area sampling - involves population that can
be identified with the same geographical area
2. Double sampling - is a sampling method
which makes use of auxiliary data where the
auxiliary information is obtained through
sampling.
3. Multiphase sampling - collecting data from a
sample using a previous technique.
Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 22
 CHAPTER 8

8.4 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

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 Non-probability sampling is a type of
sampling where an element selected is based
on non-probabilistic consideration.
– convenience
– purposive
– quota
– snowball
Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 24
8.4.1 Convenience/Accidental Sampling
 A type of non-probability sampling which involves
the sample being drawn from that part of the
population which is close to hand.
 This type of sampling is most useful for pilot
testing.
Example

If the interviewer was to conduct such a survey at a shopping centre early in the
morning on a given day, the people that he/she could interview would be limited to
those given there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other
members of society in such an area, if the survey was to be conducted at different
times of day and several times per week

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8.4.2 Judgment/Purposive Sampling
 The subjects in this sampling are selected based on
their expertise in the subject investigated.
 This is used primarily when there is a limited
number of people that have expertise in the area
being researched.
Example

A pharmaceutical company wants to trace the effects of a new drug on patients with
specific health problems (namely, muscular dystrophy, sickle-cell anaemia or
rheumatoid arthritis). It contacts such individuals and, with the group of voluntarily
consenting patients, tests the drug. This is a judgment sample because data are
collected from appropriate special groups

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8.4.3 Quota Sampling

 Subjects are conveniently chosen from

targeted groups according to some
predetermined number or quota.
 It is useful when time is limited, a sampling
frame is not available, the research budget is
very tight or when detailed accuracy is not
important.

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8.4.3 Quota Sampling
Example
A market research survey requires you to interview a sample of people representing those aged
20-64 who are in employment. No sampling frame is available. You wish to disaggregate your
findings into groups dependent on respondents’ age and type of employment.
Previous research suggests that gender will also have an impact on responses and so you need
to make sure that those interviewed from each group also reflect the proportion of male and
female in the population. Fortunately, the national census of population contains a breakdown of
the number of people in employment by gender, age and socio-economic status. These form the
basis of the categories for your quotas:
Gender X Age group X Socio - economic status
Male 20-29 Professional
Female 30-34 Managers/employers
45-64 Intermediate
Junior non-manual
Skilled manual
Semi-skilled manual
Unskilled manual
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8.4.4 Snowball Sampling
 It is frequently used when the elements in the population have
specific characteristics or knowledge, but they are very difficult to
locate and contact.
 The initial sample group can be selected by probability or non-
probability methods, but new subjects are selected based on
recommendations and information provided by the initial subjects.
Example
Nazri was a part time student. His project was concerned with the career paths of managing
directors of large companies. As part of this Nazri needed to interview managing directors. He
arranged his first interview with the managing director of his own company. Towards the end of
the interview the managing director asked Nazri whether he could be of further assistance. Two
other managing directors that Nazri could interview were suggested. Nazri’s managing director
offered to ‘introduce’ Nazri to them and provide him with contact telephone numbers and the
names of their personal assistants. Nazri’s sample had started to snowball!
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 Summary of Non-probability Sampling

Likelihood of the sample Type of research in which it is Relative Control over

Sample Type
being representative useful costs sample content
Quota Reasonable to high, although Where cost constrained / data needed Moderately Relatively high
dependent on the selection of very quickly so an alternative to high to
quota variables probability sampling needed reasonable
Purposive Low, although dependent on Where working with very small Reasonable Reasonable
researcher’s choices samples
Extreme case focus: unusual or special
Heterogeneous focus: key themes
Homogeneous focus: in-depth
Critical case focus: importance of case
Typical case focus: illustrative
Snowball Low, but cases will have Where difficulties exist in identifying Reasonable Quite low
characteristics desired cases
Convenience Very low Where there’s very little variation in Low Low
population
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 CHAPTER 8

8.5 PRACTICAL SAMPLING

CONCEPTS

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 Researchers must make several decisions
before a sample is taken.
 The figure below presents these decisions as
a series of sequential stages, even though the
order of decisions does not always follow this
particular sequence.

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Stages in selecting a sample

Select the population

Select a sampling frame

Select a sample design

Select size of sample

Select a sampling plan

Select the sample

*only applicable to probability sampling
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 CHAPTER 8

8.6 SAMPLING AS RELATED TO

QUALITATIVE STUDIES

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8.6.1 Sampling Techniques
 The goal of qualitative research is to obtain in-depth
understanding. Purposive sampling or criterion-based
sampling is common technique that is often employed in
qualitative investigation.
 The use of sampling techniques is driven by:
─research question[s] / purpose
─time frame of the study
─resources availability
 Qualitative research involves repeated sampling,
collection of data, and analysis of data until ‘theoretical
saturation’ is reached.
Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 35
8.6.1 Sampling Techniques
Example

If you are interested in studying the indulgence of female undergraduates in smoking

or vaping, interviewing a random sample of 10 female students may yield only one
smoking or vaping student. Thus, you will essentially have a sample size of one and
need to continue to randomly sample people until you have interviewed an appropriate
number of female undergraduates involved in smoking or vaping. This is not a wise
use of your time. In Qualitative research, the researcher would choose your sample
very purposefully and include in your study only those with this particular experience.
For example, for the above case of, the researcher may use snowball sampling as a
method to identify a set of extreme/deviant cases. First the researcher will identify one
student who likes to smoke and then she will nominate 2 smokers. These 2 smokers
will then nominate another 4. This will continue until respondents are providing the
same answers [theoretical saturation].

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8.6.2 Sample Sizes: Considerations

 When determining sample size for qualitative

studies, it is important to remember that
there are no hard and fast rules.
 You may estimate sample size, based on the
approach of the study or the data collection
method used.

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 Rule of thumb based on approach

Research Approach Rule of Thumb

Biography/Case
Select one case or one person.
Study
Assess 10 people. If you reach saturation prior
Phenomenology
to assessing ten people you may use fewer.
Grounded
Assess 20-30 people, which typically is enough
theory/ethnography/
to reach saturation.
action research

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 Rules of thumb based on data collection method

Data Collection Method Rule of Thumb

Interviewing key informants Interview approximately five people.
In-depth interviews Interview approximately 30 people.
Create groups that average 5-10 people each. In addition,
consider the number of focus groups you need based on
Focus groups “groupings” represented in the research question. That is, when
studying males and females of three different age groupings, plan
for six focus groups, giving you one for each gender and three age
groups for each gender.

Ethnographic surveys Select a large and representative sample (purposeful or random

based on purpose) with numbers similar to those in a quantitative
study.

Research Methodology: Tools, Methods and Techniques 39