1.

Steps in the research process:

I. Formulate a research question regarding specific population (e.g., all potential 7th graders
under the specific condition)
II. Collect appropriate data from a representative sample on variables of interest
III. Specify statistical procedures to analyze the data
IV. Interpret the statistical results
V. Make conclusions

3. Organizing and Presenting Data

- Two approaches to data collection (see Step II above)

a. Organize and use available data
b. Collect and organize new data
- Raw data vs. coded data
c. After data collection:
Step 1 – data coding (assigning numbers to categorical variables)
Step 2 – data entry
2. Spreadsheets – SPSS data files
a. Row = Individual record
b. Column = characteristic of the subjects in the study (constant or variable)
c. SPSS data entry:
i. Create your data file in ‘Variable View’:
 Enter variable name
 Use ‘Values” column to assign numbers to categories
ii. Enter your data in ‘Data View’:
3. Describing our sample data
a. Frequency distribution: tabulation indicating the number of times a given score occurs in
the data of interest
Frequency tables in SPSS output – used also to identify data entry errors

gender

Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent

Valid Male 39 44.3 44.3 44.3

Female 49 55.7 55.7 100.0

Total 88 100.0 100.0

For the variable ‘Gender’ , only the columns ‘Frequency’ and ‘Percent’ are relevant—here we
have more females (n = 49) than males (n = 39).
 test1_score

Valid Cumulative

Frequency Percent Percent Percent

Valid 66 1 1.1 1.2 1.2

69 1 1.1 1.2 2.3

70 1 1.1 1.2 3.5

72 3 3.4 3.5 7.0

74 2 2.3 2.3 9.3

75 1 1.1 1.2 10.5

76 2 2.3 2.3 12.8

77 1 1.1 1.2 14.0

78 4 4.5 4.7 18.6

79 3 3.4 3.5 22.1

80 5 5.7 5.8 27.9

81 3 3.4 3.5 31.4

82 4 4.5 4.7 36.0

83 4 4.5 4.7 40.7

84 7 8.0 8.1 48.8

85 6 6.8 7.0 55.8

86 7 8.0 8.1 64.0

87 2 2.3 2.3 66.3

88 8 9.1 9.3 75.6

89 6 6.8 7.0 82.6

90 7 8.0 8.1 90.7

91 1 1.1 1.2 91.9

93 4 4.5 4.7 96.5

94 1 1.1 1.2 97.7

96 1 1.1 1.2 98.8

98 1 1.1 1.2 100.0

Total 86 97.7 100.0

Missing System 2 2.3

Total 88 100.0

For variable ‘Test 1’, no scores for two participants (see ‘Missing System’). Therefore ‘Percent’ and
‘Valid Percent’ are different. The ‘Percent’-column includes the two missing values, the ‘Valid Percent’
doesn’t. Cumulative percent – important to determine % of scores below specific number (notice there are
fewer than 5% of the group here that earned less than a 70%--actually, 3.5% earned less than a 70).

4. Graphs:
a. Stem-and-leaf displays – rarely used

test1_score Stem-and-Leaf Plot

(“test1_score” – 2-digit numbers)

Frequency Stem & Leaf

1 Extreme (=<58)
2 6 . 69
6 7 . 022244
16 7 . 5566667788888999
24 8 . 000001112222233334444444
24 8 . 555556666667888888999999
13 9 . 0000000133334
2 9 . 68

Stem width:
Each leaf: 1 case(s)
b. Histogram

Histogram

120

100
F re q u e n c y

80

60

40

20
Mean
=$34,419.57
Std. Dev.
0 =$17,075.661
$0 $25,000 $50,000 $75,000 $100,000 $125,000 N =474

Current Salary

c. Frequency polygon (see p.34)

d. Bar graph
Bar graphs illustrate the frequency distribution of categorical variables
Histograms and frequency polygons illustrate the frequency distribution of continuous variables

5. Shape of frequency distributions

a. skewness:
- symmetric distributions
- positively skewed distribution (skewed to the right) – includes an extreme high score
- negatively distribution (skewed to the left) – includes an extreme low score
b. kurtosis:
- peaked distributions – all scores clustered around one point
- bell-shaped distributions – normal distribution, typical for large data sets
- flat distributions –scattered scores
The shape of the distribution is important for two reasons:
a. gives a general impression about the data
b. allows for interpreting individual scores
6. Approaches for interpreting individual scores:
Norm-referenced approach: individual scores derive meaning through reference to a norm group
Criterion-referenced approach: individual scores derive meaning through reference to a
criterion (standard, threshold)
Included below are two important final sections of the notes for this unit.

The first section if primarily for doctoral level students who have access to SPSS (those that
do not should get access for practice)---it includes step by step procedures for running the
analysis discussed in this unit. All doctoral students should practice running this analysis
even if it is not required for a grade in this course

The second section is for all---it includes the output that would be generated from this
SPSS analysis. I provide at least one interpretation so you can see how the interpretation
would “fit” with the data that are generated.

SPSS Procedures for Frequencies

In this module, we will learn to run a Frequency descriptive analysis with SPSS. We will use the
data set hsb500 from the homepage (look for the folder labeled as datasets).

Step 1. Start
a. Click on the file hsb500 and open the file.
b. Now, you have the data in the Data Editor window. Make sure the window is in the Data
View mode.

Step 2. Run Frequency analysis

a. From Analyze menu, choose Descriptive Statistics, and then Frequencies.

b. You will see the Frequency dialogue. Now, we need to select the variables we want to
analyze. The left box shows a list of variables. Click on Gender, then click on the arrow
button to move the variable Gender to the Variable box
c. Repeat step b to move the following variables into the Variable box (with the same
order):
Gender (already moved)
Algebra 1 (alg1)
Algebra 2 (alg2)
Geometry Enrollment (geo)
Trigonometry (trig)
Calculus (calc)
Mother’s education (maed)
Father’s education (faed)
Mother’s education (maednew)
Fateher’s education (faednew)
Math grades (mathgr)
Reported grades (grades)
d. Click on OK. SPSS will run the output shown as: (Output 1 SPSS Viewer screen)
SPSS Outputs for Descriptive Statistics (Frequencies)

Frequencies
 
GENDER Gender

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 0 Female 280 56.0 56.0 56.0
1 Male 220 44.0 44.0 100.0
Total 500 100.0 100.0

Interpretation:
In this study it is clear that there were more female subjects in this
study (n = 280, 56%) than male subjects (n = 220, 44%).

ALG1 Algebra1 enroll

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 0 not taken 90 18.0 18.0 18.0
1 taken 410 82.0 82.0 100.0
Total 500 100.0 100.0

ALG2 Algebra2 enroll

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 0 not taken 233 46.6 46.6 46.6
1 taken 267 53.4 53.4 100.0
Total 500 100.0 100.0

GEO Geometry enroll

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 0 not taken 200 40.0 40.0 40.0
1 taken 300 60.0 60.0 100.0
Total 500 100.0 100.0

TRIG Trigonometry

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 0 not taken 358 71.6 71.6 71.6
1 taken 142 28.4 28.4 100.0
Total 500 100.0 100.0
 CALC Calculus

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 0 not taken 455 91.0 91.0 91.0
1 taken 45 9.0 9.0 100.0
Total 500 100.0 100.0

MAED Mother's education

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 2 less than HS 114 22.8 22.8 22.8
3 HS grad 202 40.4 40.4 63.2
4 less than 2 yr Voc 16 3.2 3.2 66.4
5 more than 2 yr Voc 22 4.4 4.4 70.8
6 less than 2 yr Coll 36 7.2 7.2 78.0
7 more than 2 yr Coll 36 7.2 7.2 85.2
8 Coll grad 46 9.2 9.2 94.4
9 Master's 23 4.6 4.6 99.0
10 MD/PhD 5 1.0 1.0 100.0
Total 500 100.0 100.0

FAED Father's education

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 2 less than HS 132 26.4 26.4 26.4
3 HS grad 129 25.8 25.8 52.2
4 less than 2 yr Voc 14 2.8 2.8 55.0
5 more than 2 yr Voc 38 7.6 7.6 62.6
6 less than 2 yr Coll 27 5.4 5.4 68.0
7 more than 2 yr Coll 26 5.2 5.2 73.2
8 Coll grad 76 15.2 15.2 88.4
9 Master's 36 7.2 7.2 95.6
10 MD/PhD 22 4.4 4.4 100.0
Total 500 100.0 100.0

MAEDNEW Mother's education

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 1 Less than High School 114 22.8 22.8 22.8
2 High School Graduate 202 40.4 40.4 63.2
3 Some Post-Secondary
110 22.0 22.0 85.2
Education
4 College Graduate and
74 14.8 14.8 100.0
Beyond
Total 500 100.0 100.0
 FAEDNEW Father's education

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 1 Less than High School 132 26.4 26.4 26.4
2 High School Graduate 129 25.8 25.8 52.2
3 Some Post-Secondary
105 21.0 21.0 73.2
Education
4 College Graduate ane
134 26.8 26.8 100.0
Beyond
Total 500 100.0 100.0

MATHGR Math grades

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 0 less than A-B 252 50.4 50.4 50.4
1 Most A-B 248 49.6 49.6 100.0
Total 500 100.0 100.0

GRADES Reported grades

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 2 Half A & B 3 .6 .6 .6
3 Mostly B 26 5.2 5.2 5.8
4 Half B&C 66 13.2 13.2 19.0
5 Mostly C 104 20.8 20.8 39.8
6 Half C & D 121 24.2 24.2 64.0
7 Mostly D 121 24.2 24.2 88.2
8 Below D 59 11.8 11.8 100.0
Total 500 100.0 100.0