Topic: Anthropometry

Anthropometry (from Greek ἄνθρωπος anthropos, 'human', and μέτρον metron, 'measure')
refers to the measurement of the human individual. An early tool of physical anthropology, it
has been used for identification, for the purposes of understanding human physical variation,
in paleoanthropology and in various attempts to correlate physical with racial and
psychological traits. Anthropometry involves the systematic measurement of the physical
properties of the human body, primarily dimensional descriptors of body size and shape.
Since commonly used methods and approaches in analysing living standards were not helpful
enough, the anthropometric history became very useful for historians in answering questions
that interested them.Today, anthropometry plays an important role in industrial design,
clothing design, ergonomics and architecture where statistical data about the distribution of
body dimensions in the population are used to optimize products. Changes in lifestyles,
nutrition, and ethnic composition of populations lead to changes in the distribution of body
dimensions (e.g. the rise in obesity) and require regular updating of anthropometric data
collections.

History
The history of anthropometry includes and spans various concepts, both scientific and
pseudoscientific, such as craniometry, paleoanthropology, biological anthropology,
phrenology, physiognomy, forensics, criminology, phylogeography, human origins, and
cranio-facial description, as well as correlations between various anthropometrics and
personal identity, mental typology, personality, cranial vault and brain size, and other factors.

At various times in history, applications of anthropometry have ranged vastly—from accurate

scientific description and epidemiological analysis to rationales for eugenics and overtly
racist social movements—and its points of concern have been numerous, diverse, and
sometimes highly unexpected.

Individual variation
Auxologic

Auxologic is a broad term covering the study of all aspects of human physical growth.

Height

Human height varies greatly between individuals and across populations for a variety of
complex biological, genetic, and environmental factors, among others. Due to methodological
and practical problems, its measurement is also subject to considerable error in statistical
sampling.

The average height in genetically and environmentally homogeneous populations is often

proportional across a large number of individuals. Exceptional height variation (around 20%
deviation from a population's average) within such a population is sometimes due to
gigantism or dwarfism, which are caused by specific genes or endocrine abnormalities. It is
important to note that a great degree of variation occurs between even the most 'common'
bodies (66% of the population), and as such no person can be considered 'average'.

In the most extreme population comparisons, for example, the average female height in
Bolivia is 142.2 cm (4 ft 8.0 in) while the average male height in the Dinaric Alps is 185.6
cm (6 ft 1.1 in), an average difference of 43.4 cm (1 ft 5.1 in). Similarly, the shortest and
tallest of individuals, Chandra Bahadur Dangi and Robert Wadlow, have ranged from 1 ft 9
in (53 cm) to 8 ft 11.1 in (272 cm), respectively.

The age range where most females stop growing is 15–18 years and the age range where most
males stop growing is 18–21 years.

Weight

Human weight varies extensively both individually and across populations, with the most
extreme documented examples of adults being Lucia Zarate who weighed 4.7 lb (2.1 kg), and
Jon Brower Minnoch who weighed 1,400 lb (640 kg), and with population extremes ranging
from 109.3 lb (49.6 kg) in Bangladesh to 192.7 lb (87.4 kg) in Micronesia.

Organs

Adult brain size varies from 974.9 cm3 (59.49 cu in) to 1,498.1 cm3 (91.42 cu in) in females
and 1,052.9 cm3 (64.25 cu in) to 1,498.5 cm3 (91.44 cu in) in males, with the average being
1,130 cm3 (69 cu in) and 1,260 cm3 (77 cu in), respectively. The right cerebral hemisphere is
typically larger than the left, whereas the cerebellar hemispheres are typically of more similar
size.

Size of the human stomach varies significantly in adults, with one study showing volumes
ranging from 520 cm3 (32 cu in) to 1,536 cm3 (93.7 cu in) and weights ranging from 77
grams (2.7 oz) to 453 grams (16.0 oz).Male and female genitalia exhibit considerable
individual variation, with penis size differing substantially and vaginal size differing
significantly in healthy adults.

Aesthetic

Human beauty and physical attractiveness have been preoccupations throughout history
which often intersect with anthropometric standards. Cosmetology, facial symmetry, and
waist–hip ratio are three such examples where measurements are commonly thought to be
fundamental.

Evolutionary science
Anthropometric studies today are conducted to investigate the evolutionary significance of
differences in body proportion between populations whose ancestors lived in different
environments. Human populations exhibit climatic variation patterns similar to those of other
large-bodied mammals, following Bergmann's rule, which states that individuals in cold
climates will tend to be larger than ones in warm climates, and Allen's rule, which states that
individuals in cold climates will tend to have shorter, stubbier limbs than those in warm
climates.
On a microevolutionary level, anthropologists use anthropometric variation to reconstruct
small-scale population history. For instance, John Relethford's studies of early 20th-century
anthropometric data from Ireland show that the geographical patterning of body proportions
still exhibits traces of the invasions by the English and Norse centuries ago.

Similarly, anthropometric indices, namely comparison of the human stature was used to
illustrate anthropometric trends. This study was conducted by Jörg Baten and Sandew Hira
and was based on the anthropological founds that human height is predetermined by the
quality of the nutrition, which used to be higher in the more developed countries. The
research was based on the datasets for Southern Chinese contract migrants who were sent to
Suriname and Indonesia and included 13,000 individuals.

Measuring instruments
3D body scanners

Today anthropometry can be performed with three-dimensional scanners. A global

collaborative study to examine the uses of three-dimensional scanners for health care was
launched in March 2007. The Body Benchmark Study will investigate the use of three-
dimensional scanners to calculate volumes and segmental volumes of an individual body
scan. The aim is to establish whether the Body Volume Index has the potential to be used as a
long-term computer-based anthropometric measurement for health care. In 2001 the UK
conducted the largest sizing survey to date using scanners. Since then several national
surveys have followed in the UK's pioneering steps, notably SizeUSA, SizeMexico, and
SizeThailand, the latter still ongoing. SizeUK showed that the nation had become taller and
heavier but not as much as expected. Since 1951, when the last women's survey had taken
place, the average weight for women had gone up from 62 to 65 kg. However, recent research
has shown that posture of the participant significantly influences the measurements taken, the
precision of 3D body scanner may or may not be high enough for industry tolerances, and
measurements taken may or may not be relevant to all applications (e.g. garment
construction). Despite these current limitations, 3D Body Scanning has been suggested as a
replacement for body measurement prediction technologies which (despite the great appeal)
have yet to be as reliable as real human data.

Baropodographic

Baropodographic devices fall into two main categories: (i) floor-based, and (ii) in-shoe. The
underlying technology is diverse, ranging from piezoelectric sensor arrays to light refraction,
but the ultimate form of the data generated by all modern technologies is either a 2D image or
a 2D image time series of the pressures acting under the plantar surface of the foot. From
these data other variables may be calculated (see data analysis.)

The spatial and temporal resolutions of the images generated by commercial pedobarographic
systems range from approximately 3 to 10 mm and 25 to 500 Hz, respectively. Sensor
technology limits finer resolution. Such resolutions yield a contact area of approximately 500
sensors (for a typical adult human foot with surface area of approximately 100 cm2). For a
stance phase duration of approximately 0.6 seconds during normal walking, approximately
150,000 pressure values, depending on the hardware specifications, are recorded for each
step.
Neuroimaging

Direct measurements involve examinations of brains from corpses, or more recently, imaging
techniques such as MRI, which can be used on living persons. Such measurements are used
in research on neuroscience and intelligence. Brain volume data and other craniometric data
are used in mainstream science to compare modern-day animal species and to analyze the
evolution of the human species in archeology.

Epidemiology and medical anthropology

Anthropometric measurements also have uses in epidemiology and medical anthropology, for
example in helping to determine the relationship between various body measurements
(height, weight, percentage body fat, etc.) and medical outcomes. Anthropometric
measurements are frequently used to diagnose malnutrition in resource-poor clinical settings.

Forensics and criminology

Forensic anthropologists study the human skeleton in a legal setting. A forensic
anthropologist can assist in the identification of a decedent through various skeletal analyses
that produce a biological profile. Forensic anthropologists utilize the Fordisc program to help
in the interpretation of craniofacial measurements in regards to ancestry determination.

One part of a biological profile is a person's ancestral affinity. People with significant
European or Middle Eastern ancestry generally have little to no prognathism; a relatively
long and narrow face; a prominent brow ridge that protrudes forward from the forehead; a
narrow, tear-shaped nasal cavity; a "silled" nasal aperture; tower-shaped nasal bones; a
triangular-shaped palate; and an angular and sloping eye orbit shape. People with
considerable African ancestry typically have a broad and round nasal cavity; no dam or nasal
sill; Quonset hut-shaped nasal bones; notable facial projection in the jaw and mouth area
(prognathism); a rectangular-shaped palate; and a square or rectangular eye orbit shape. A
relatively small prognathism often characterizes people with considerable East Asian
ancestry; no nasal sill or dam; an oval-shaped nasal cavity; tent-shaped nasal bones; a
horseshoe-shaped palate; and a rounded and non-sloping eye orbit shape. Many of these
characteristics are only a matter of frequency among those of particular ancestries: their
presence or absence of one or more does not automatically classify an individual into an
ancestral group.

Ergonomics
Today, ergonomics professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of
equipment, systems and working methods to improve comfort, health, safety, and
productivity. This includes physical ergonomics in relation to human anatomy, physiological
and bio mechanical characteristics; cognitive ergonomics in relation to perception, memory,
reasoning, motor response including human–computer interaction, mental workloads,
decision making, skilled performance, human reliability, work stress, training, and user
experiences; organizational ergonomics in relation to metrics of communication, crew
resource management, work design, schedules, teamwork, participation, community,
cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, and telework; environmental
ergonomics in relation to human metrics affected by climate, temperature, pressure, vibration,
and light; visual ergonomics; and others.

Biometrics
Biometrics refers to the identification of humans by their characteristics or traits. Biometrics
is used in computer science as a form of identification and access control. It is also used to
identify individuals in groups that are under surveillance. Biometric identifiers are the
distinctive, measurable characteristics used to label and describe individuals. Biometric
identifiers are often categorized as physiological versus behavioral characteristics. Example
applications include dermatoglyphics and soft biometrics.

United States military research

The US Military has conducted over 40 anthropometric surveys of U.S. Military personnel
between 1945 and 1988, including the 1988 Army Anthropometric Survey (ANSUR) of men
and women with its 240 measures. Statistical data from these surveys encompasses over
75,000 individuals.

Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometry

Resource Project — CAESAR
CAESAR began in 1997 as a partnership between government (represented by the US Air
Force and NATO) and industry (represented by SAE International) to collect and organize
the most extensive sampling of consumer body measurements for comparison.

The project collected and organized data on 2,400 U.S. & Canadian and 2,000 European
civilians and a database was developed. This database records the anthropometric variability
of men and women, aged 18–65, of various weights, ethnic groups, gender, geographic
regions, and socio-economic status. The study was conducted from April 1998 to early 2000
and included three scans per person in a standing pose, full-coverage pose and relaxed seating
pose.

Data collection methods were standardized and documented so that the database can be
consistently expanded and updated. High-resolution measurements of body surfaces were
made using 3D Surface Anthropometry. This technology can capture hundreds of thousands
of points in three dimensions on the human body surface in a few seconds. It has many
advantages over the old measurement system using tape measures, anthropometers, and other
similar instruments. It provides detail about the surface shape as well as 3D locations of
measurements relative to each other and enables easy transfer to Computer-Aided Design
(CAD) or Manufacturing (CAM) tools. The resulting scan is independent of the measurer,
making it easier to standardize. Automatic landmark recognition (ALR) technology was used
to extract anatomical landmarks from the 3D body scans automatically. Eighty landmarks
were placed on each subject. More than 100 univariate measures were provided, over 60 from
the scan and approximately 40 using traditional measurements.

Demographic data such as age, ethnic group, gender, geographic region, education level, and
present occupation, family income and more were also captured.
Fashion design
Scientists working for private companies and government agencies conduct anthropometric
studies to determine a range of sizes for clothing and other items. For just one instance,
measurements of the foot are used in the manufacture and sale of footwear: measurement
devices may be used either to determine a retail shoe size directly (e.g. the Brannock Device)
or to determine the detailed dimensions of the foot for custom manufacture (e.g. ALINEr).

In popular culture
In art Yves Klein termed his performance paintings anthropometries, where he covered nude
women with paint and used their bodies as paintbrushes.

See also
References
Further reading
Anthropometric Survey of Army Personnel: Methods and Summary Statistics 1988

ISO 7250: Basic human body measurements for technological design, International
Organization for Standardization, 1998.

ISO 8559: Garment construction and anthropometric surveys — Body dimensions,

International Organization for Standardization, 1989.

ISO 15535: General requirements for establishing anthropometric databases, International

Organization for Standardization, 2000.

ISO 15537: Principles for selecting and using test persons for testing anthropometric aspects
of industrial products and designs, International Organization for Standardization, 2003.

ISO 20685: 3-D scanning methodologies for internationally compatible anthropometric

databases, International Organization for Standardization, 2005.

Pheasant, Stephen (1986). Bodyspace : anthropometry, ergonomics, and design. London;

Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-85066-352-5. (A classic review of human body
sizes.)

Redman, Samuel (2016). Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in
Museums. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674660410.

External links
Anthropometry at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Anthropometry and Biomechanics at NASA

Anthropometry data at faculty of Industrial Design Engineering at Delft University of

Technology

Manual for Obtaining Anthropometric Measurements Free Full Text

Prepared for the US Access Board: Anthropometry of Wheeled Mobility Project Report Free
Full Text

Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometry Resource Project—CAESAR at

SAE International