NCERT-ART & CULTURE NOTE

[1] Prehistoric Rock Paintings

Prehistoric Art
 Prehistory: Time period in the past when there was no paper or the written word & hence no books or written
accounts of events. Information about such an age is obtained from excavations which reveal paintings, pottery,
habitat, etc.
 Drawings & paintings were the oldest form of artistic expression practiced by humans. Reasons for such drawings:
Either to decorate their homes, or/and to keep a journal of events in their lives.
 Lower & middle Palaeolithic Periods have not shown any evidence of art works so far. The Upper Palaeolithic Age
shows a lot of artistic activities.
 Earliest paintings in India are from the Upper Palaeolithic Age.
 The first discovery of rock paintings in the world was made in India by archaeologist Archibald Carlleyle in 1867 – 68
(in Sohagighat, Mirzapur District, Uttar Pradesh).
 Rock paintings have been found in the walls of caves at Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar &
Karnataka, some in the Kumaon Hills of Uttarakhand.
 Paintings at the rock shelters at Lakhudiyar on the banks of the Suyal River (Uttarakhand):
o 3 categories of paintings: man, animal & geometric patterns in black, white & red ochre.
o Humans in stick-like forms, a long snouted animal, a fox, a multiple-legged lizard, wavy lines, groups of dots &
rectangle-filled geometric designs, hand-linked dancing humans.
 Paintings in Kupgallu (Telangana), Piklihal & Tekkalkota (both in Karnataka):
o Mostly in white & red ochre.
o Subjects are bulls, sambhars, elephants, sheep, gazelles, goats, horses, stylised humans & tridents.
 Paintings in the Vindhya ranges at Madhya Pradesh extending into Uttar Pradesh:
o About 500 rock shelters at Bhimbetka in the Vindhya Hills at Madhya Pradesh.
o Images of hunting, dancing, music, elephant & horse riders, honey collection, animal fighting, decoration of
bodies, household scenes, etc.
 Bhimbetka drawings can be categorised into 7 Periods.
o Period I: Upper Palaeolithic
o Period II: Mesolithic
o Period III: Chalcolithic
 Two major sites of prehistoric rock/cave paintings in India: Bhimbetka Caves & Jogimara Caves (Amarnath, Madhya
Pradesh).
Bhimbetka Paintings
 Continuous occupation of these caves from 100000 BC to 1000 AD.
 Discovered by archaeologist V S Wakankar in 1957 – 58.
 One of the oldest paintings in India & the world.
 Period I (Upper Palaeolithic):
o Linear representations of animals like bisons, tigers, elephants, rhinos & boars; stick-like human figures.
o Paintings in green & dark red. Green paintings are of dancers & red ones are of hunters.
 Period II (Mesolithic):
o Largest number of paintings in this period.
o More themes but paintings reduce in size.
o Mostly hunting scenes – people hunting in groups with barbed spears, arrows & bows, & pointed sticks. Also
show traps & snares to catch animals.
o Hunters wear simple clothes; some men are shown with head dresses & masks. Women have been shown both
clothed & in the nude.
 o Animals seen – elephants, bisons, boars, tigers, deer, antelopes, leapards, panthers, rhinos, frogs, lizards, fish,
squirrels & birds.
o Children are seen playing & jumping. Some scenes depict family life.
 Period III (Chalcolithic):
o Paintings indicate an association of these cave-dwellers with the agricultural communities settled at Malwa.
o Cross-hatched squares, lattices, pottery & metal tools are depicted.
o Colours used in Bhimbetka paintings – white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green & black. Most
common colours – white & red.
o Red obtained from haematite (geru); green from chalcedony; white probably from limestone.
o Brushes were made from plant fibre.
o In some places, there are many layers of paintings, sometimes 20.
o Paintings can be seen in caves that were used as dwelling places & also in caves that had some other purpose,
perhaps religious.
o The colours of the paintings have remained intact thousands of years perhaps due to the chemical reaction of
the oxide present on the rock surface.

[2] Arts of the Indus Valley

Introduction:
 Indus Valley art emerged during the second half of the third millennium BCE (i.e., from 2500 BC onwards).
 Forms of art: seals, pottery, sculpture, gold jewellery, terracotta figures, etc.
 The two major sites of this civilisation, Harappa & Mohenjodaro showcase excellent town planning as well, like
houses, planned streets, public baths, drainage systems, storage facilities, etc.
 Harappa & Mohenjodaro are in Pakistan.
 Major sites in India are: Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab), Kalibangan & Balathal (Rajasthan), Lothal &
Dholavira (Gujarat).
Stone statues:
 Two male statues in stone – the Bearded Man (priest king) & a torso in red sandstone.
 Bearded man (Priest):
o Appears to be of a priest
o A shawl is draped over the left shoulder
o Slightly elongated eyes as if in half-meditation
o Well-formed nose, with a moustache, short beard & whiskers
o Wearing an armlet & probable other jewellery.
Bronze casting:
 The bronze statues found in Harappa were made by the technique called Lost Wax technique.
 This technique is used in some parts of the country even today showing continuity of traditions.
 This technique was popular in almost all the sites.
 First, wax figures were made & then covered with clay. The clay as allowed to dry & then the figure was heated to
melt the wax. This wax was drained out through a hole in the clay. After that, the hollow clay was filled with the
metal of choice. After cooling the metal, the clay was removed revealing the desired metal figurine.
 Both animal & human figures were made this way.
 Examples of bronze figures: Dancing Girl, Buffalo with uplifted head.
 Dancing Girl:
o 4-inch copper figure
o Long hair tied in a bun
o Left arm covered with bangles
o Cowrie shell necklace around the neck
 o Right hand on the hip & the left hand in a traditional Indian dancing gesture
o Large eyes & a flat nose
o Found from Mohenjodaro.
Terracotta:
 Terracotta images were also created but they were less refined as compared to the stone statues.
 Most important terracotta images are those of the mother goddess.
 Male figures are also found with similar features & positioning in all the figures indicating perhaps the image of a
god.
 Terracotta toys have also been found (wheels, whistles, rattles, gamesmen, discs, birds & animals).
Seal:
 Thousands of seals have been discovered.
 They were mostly made of steatite (a kind of soft stone).
 Some seals were also made using chert, agate, copper, terracotta, faience, gold & ivory.
 Standard Harappan seals were square plaques with 2X2 dimension.
 Purpose of the seals: chiefly commercial.
 Some seals were carried in the form of amulets, perhaps as identity cards.
 Every seal has a picture of an animal & some writings in a pictographic script (which is not yet deciphered).
 Animals represented include tigers, bulls, elephants, goats, bisons, etc.
 Pashupati Seal: A seal with a figure seated cross-legged in the centre with animals around; an elephant & a tiger to
the right of the figure & a rhino & a buffalo to its left.
 Copper tablets, square or rectangular in shape have been found which were used as amulets.
Pottery:
 A lot of pottery has been excavated.
 Plain & painted pottery are found – plain is more common.
 Plain pottery: generally made of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip.
 Black painted pottery: has a fine coating of red slip with painted geometric & animal designs.
 Perforated pottery was also found, perhaps to use as a sieve.
 Pottery of various sizes has been excavated.
Beads & ornaments:
 A variety of ornaments have been found which were used by both men & women.
 Made from precious metals, gemstones, bone & baked clay.
 Ornaments worn by men & women: fillets, necklaces, finger-rings, armlets.
 Ornaments worn by women: earrings, girdles, anklets.
 Well-crafted ornaments have been found including necklaces of gold & semi-precious stones, copper bracelets &
beads, head ornaments & earrings made of gold, steatite & gemstone beads, faience pendants & buttons.
 Cemetery found in Farmana (Haryana) – where dead bodies were buried with ornaments.
 Bead factories at Lothal & Chanhudaro.
 Beads made from cornelian, amethyst, lapis lazuli, quartz, crystal, jasper, turquoise, steatite, etc. Metals were also
used like gold, bronze & copper.
 Beads were also made from shells & terracotta.
 Beads were of various shapes disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, & segmented.

[3] Arts of the Mauryan Period

Introduction
 Religions of the Shramana tradition, i.e., Jainism & Buddhism emerged around the 6th century BCE.
 The Mauryas had established themselves as a great power in the 4th century BCE & by the 3rd century, they had
large parts of India under their control.
 At this time there were many modes of religious practices including the worship of Yakshas & mother-goddesses.
Nevertheless, Buddhism became the most popular.
 After the Harappan civilization, monumental stone sculpture & architecture appears only in the Mauryan period.
 There were pillars, sculptures, rock-cut architecture, buildings like stupas, viharas & chaityas that served many
purposes. They are exquisite in aesthetic quality & brilliant in their design & execution.

[4] Mauryan Pillars & Sculptures

Pillars & Sculptures:
 Erection of pillars was common in the Achamenian Empire (Persian Empire) also. While there were commonalities
like the use of polished stones, motifs like lotus, there are also differences. While the Achamenian pillars were
constructed in pieces, the Mauryan pillars were rock-cut, displaying the superior skill of the carver.
 Stone pillars can be seen all over the Mauryan Empire. These had proclamations inscribed on them & were used to
spread the message of the Buddha by Emperor Ashoka.
 The top portion of the pillar is called capital & it typically has animal figures like bull, lion, elephant, etc. These
capital figures are carved standing on a square or circular abacus. The abacuses are on the base which could be a
stylised inverted lotus.
 Example of pillars with capital figures: Sarnath, Basarah-Bakhira, Rampurva, Sankisa & LauriyaNandangarh.
 The Lion Capital at Sarnath is the most famous example.
 Monumental figures of Yakshas & Yakshinis have been found in various parts of India thus showing the popularity of
Yaksha worship.
Rock-cut architecture:
 Ashoka also patronised rock-cut architecture.
 Rock-cut elephant at Dhauli, Odisha – shows modelling in round with linear rhythm. It also has an Ashokan edict.
 Lomus Rishi Cave – Rock-cut cave at Barabar Hills near Gaya. The cave entrance is decorated with a semicircle
chaitya arch. An elephant is carved in high relief on the chaitya. The interior hall of the cave is rectangular; it also has
a circular chamber at the back. Ashoka patronised this cave for the Ajivika sect.
Stupas, chaityas & viharas:
 Stupas & viharas were constructed as part of the Buddhist & Jaina monastic tradition but most of the constructions
belong to Buddhism.
 Some Brahmanical gods were also represented in the sculptures here.
 Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at Rajagriha, Kapilavastu, Vaishali, Ramagrama, Allakappa,
Pava, Vethadipa, Pippalvina & Kushinagar.
 Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a circular anda & a harmika & a chhatra on the top. Sometimes there were
circumambulatory pathways & gateways. In many cases, additions were added in later centuries.
 Anda: hemispherical mound symbolic of the mound of dirt used to cover Buddha’s remains (in many stupas actual
relics were used).
 Harmika: square railing on top of the mound.
 Chhatra: central pillar supporting a triple umbrella form.

 Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan – 3rd century BCE; grand stupa with a circular mound & a circumambulatory path.
 Many stupas were built & not all of them with royal patronage. Patrons included lay devotees, gahapatis, guilds &
kings.
 Not many mention the names of the artisans. But artisans’ categories like stone carvers, goldsmiths, stone-polishers,
carpenters, etc. are mentioned.
 Stupa at Sanchi – most famous & one of the earliest examples.
 Chaityas were basically prayer halls & most of them were with stupas. Generally, the hall was rectangular & it had a
semi-circular rear end. They had horse-shoe shaped windows. They also had pillars separating the hall from the two
aisles.
 Viharas were the residences of the monks.
 Both chaityas & viharas were made out of wood, & later were also stone-cut.
Depiction of the Buddha:
 In the early periods, Buddha is represented through symbols like footprints, lotus thrones, chakras, stupas, etc.
 Later on, stories were portrayed on the railings & torans of the stupas. These were mainly the Jataka tales.
 The chief events from Buddha’s life which are narrated in the arts are birth, renunciation, enlightenment, first
sermon (dharmachakrapravartana) & mahaparinirvana (death).
 The Jataka stories that find frequent depiction are Chhadanta Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Vessantara Jataka,
Vidur Jataka & Shama Jataka.

[5] Lion Capital & Sanchi Stupa

Lion Capital, Sarnath:
 One of the finest examples of Mauryan sculpture.
 Located at Sarnath, near Varanasi. Commissioned by Emperor Ashoka. Built in 250 BCE.
 Made of polished sandstone. The surface is heavily polished.
 Currently the pillar is in its original place but the capital is on display at the Sarnath Museum.
 It was commissioned to commemorate the first sermon of the Buddha or the Dharmachakrapravartana at Sarnath.

 Originally, the capital had five components:
o The shaft (now broken into many parts).

o A lotus base bell.

o A drum on the base bell with 4 animals proceeding clockwise (abacus).

o Figures of 4 lions.

o The crowning part, a large wheel (this is also broken & displayed at the museum).
 The capital was adopted as the National Emblem of India after independence without the crowning wheel & the
lotus base.
 The four lions are seated back-to-back on a circular abacus. The figures of the lions are grand & evoke magnificence.
They are realistic images & the lions are portrayed as if they are holding their breath. The curly manes of the lions
are voluminous. The muscles of the feet are shown stretched indicating the weight of the bodies.
 The abacus has four wheels (chakra) with 24 spokes in all four directions. This is part of the Indian National Flag now.
 The wheel represents Dharmachakra in Buddhism (the wheel of dhamma/dharma). b/w every wheel, there are
animals carved. They are a bull, a horse, an elephant & a lion. The animals appear as if they are in motion. The
abacus is supported by the inverted lotus capital.
Sanchi Stupa
 Sanchi Stupa is a UNESCO world heritage site since 1989. Sanchi is in Madhya Pradesh.
 There are many small stupas here with three mains ones – stupa 1, stupa 2 & stupa 3. Stupa 1 is also called the Great
Stupa at Sanchi. It is the most prominent & the oldest, & is believed to have the Buddha’s relics.
 It was built by Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
 Originally, it was smaller than its present dimensions. It was expanded in later periods.

 The original structure was made out of bricks. Later on, it was covered with stone, vedica, & the torana (gateway).
 There are four gateways to the stupa with the southern one being built first. The others were later added. The
gateways are adorned with beautiful sculptures & carvings. Each torana consists of two vertical pillars & three
horizontal bars on top. The bars contain exquisite carvings on front & back. They contain images of shalbhanjikas –
lady holding the branch of a tree. Stories from the Jataka tales are carved here.
 The structure has a lower & upper pradakshinapatha or circumambulatory path. The upper pradakshinapatha is
unique to this stupa.
 On the southern side of the stupa, the Ashokan Lion Capital pillar is found with inscriptions on it.
 The hemispherical dome of the stupa is called the anda. It contains the relics of the Buddha.
 The harmika is a square railing on top of the dome/mound.
 The chhatra is an umbrella on top of the harmika. There is a sandstone pillar in the site on which Ashoka’s Schism
Edict is inscribed.
 The original brick dome was expanded into double its size during the reign of the Shunga dynasty with stone slabs
covering the original dome.

[6] Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art & Architecture – Part I

Introduction
 After the decline of the Mauryan Empire in the second century BC, various rulers controlled the regions which were
once under the Mauryas, like the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas & Guptas in the north & central India; & the
Satavahanas, Abhiras, Ikshvakus & Vakatakas in the south & western India.
 This period also saw the emergence of Brahmanical sects like the Shaivas & the Vaishnavas.
 Chief examples of fine sculpture are found at: Bharhut & Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh); Mathura (Uttar Pradesh);
Bodhgaya (Bihar); Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh); Bhaja & Pavani (Maharashtra); & Khandagiri & Udaigiri
(Odisha).
Post Mauryan Art & Architecture
 Bharhut
 o Sculptures are tall like the Yakshas & Yakshinis of the Mauryan era.
o Illusion of three-dimensionality is present.
o Narratives or stories are represented pictorially.
o Space is utilised to the maximum extent.
o Initially, the carvings were shown with flat images, i.e., projection of hands & feet were not possible, but later on
they emerged with deep carvings & a much-naturalised representation of human & animal forms.
o One important sculpture at Bharhut: Queen Mayadevi (the Buddha’s mother) dreaming of an elephant
descending towards her womb.
o Jataka tales are also seen.
o A common characteristic of all the male images after first & second centuries is the knotted headgear.
 Sanchi: Discussed earlier.
Mathura, Sarnath & Gandhara Schools:
 Gandhara (in modern Pakistan), Mathura & Sarnath emerged as important art production centres from the first
century AD onwards.
 Buddha gets a human form in Mathura & Gandhara. Previously he was represented via symbols.
 Gandhara art form had influence of Indo-Greek elements such as Bactria & Parthia traditions besides the local
Gandhara tradition. o The Buddha images here have Hellenistic features.
o The Buddha here is more muscular.
o The sculptures are heavily polished with rich carvings.

o The hair is curly & the lobes of the ears are elongated.

o The garments are generally flowing in nature.

o The sculptures were initially made of stone & later on stucco was also used.
 The Mathura art tradition became so strong that it spread to other parts of northern India.
o Best example: Stupa sculpture at Sanghol, Punjab.

o The Buddha images in the Mathura school are modelled on the earlier Yaksha images.

o Mathura art form also has some images of the Shaiva & Vaishnava faiths but images of the Buddha are
numerous.
o There is less symbolism here as compared to the Gandhara School.
o The sculptures are generally made of red sandstone.
o The garments are clearly visible & they usually cover the left shoulder. Multiple folds are shown.
o The halo around the deity is profusely decorated.
o In the 2nd century, the images get fleshier & their rotundity increase.
o In the 3rd century, the fleshiness is reduced. Movement is shown by increasing the distance b/w the legs &
bending of the body. There is more softness in the surface.
o But in the late 4th century, this trend is reversed & the flesh becomes tightened.

o In the 5th & 6th centuries, the drapery is integrated into the mass.

 Sarnath & Kosambi also emerged as important centres of art besides the traditional centre Mathura.
o The Buddha images in Sarnath have transparent drapery covering both shoulders.
o The halo around the Buddha is hardly decorated.
Early temples
 Apart from Stupas, Brahmanical temples also started getting built.
 Temples were decorated with the images of gods & also representations of the Purana myths.
 Every temple had a principal image of a god.
 There were 3 kinds of shrines of the temples:
o Sandhara type: without pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path).

o Nirandhara type: with pradakshinapatha.

o Sarvatobhadra: which can be accessed from all sides.

 Important temple sites from this period: Deogarh (UP); Eran, Udaygiri, Nachna-Kuthara (near Vidisha in MP). These
are simple structures with a veranda, a hall & the shrine at the back.
Buddhist Monuments of South India:
 The Vengi region in Andhra Pradesh has many stupas, in Jaggayyapeta, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Bhattiprolu,
Goli, etc.
 Amaravati School of Art:

o Developed during the Satavahana period.

o This is fully indigenous in nature & had profound influence on art in Sri Lanka & south-east Asia since products
from here were taken to those places.
o Had many sculptures & has a Mahachaitya. The sculptures are preserved in Chennai Museum, National Museum
at Delhi, Amaravati Site Museum & the British Museum at London.
o Amaravati Stupa has a pradakshinapatha & a vedica (fence) with many sculptures on it. The torana (gateway)
has disappeared.
o Unique feature of this stupa: the dome is covered with relief stupa sculptural slabs.
o Events from Buddha’s life & Jataka tales are depicted.
o It was first built in the first century AD & in later centuries developed or enhanced.
o Initial phase does not show Buddha images but they are seen from the later stages (like the stupa at Sanchi).
o The sculptures have intense emotions. The figures are slender & show a lot of movement. The bodies are shown
with 3 bents (tribhanga).
o The structures are more complex than at Sanchi & are more animated.
o There is a lot of attention paid to the forms’ clarity.
 The sculptures of Goli & Nagarjunakonda in the 3rd century are reduced in animation but still very three-
dimensional.
 Independent Buddha images at: Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda & Guntapalle. Guntappale: Rockcut cave site near
Elluru.
 Other rock-cut stupas found at: Anakapalle (near Vishakhapatnam); & Sannati (largest in Karnataka).
 Apart from Buddha images, images of Boddhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Vajrapani, Padmapani, Amitabha &
Maitreya Buddha are also seen.

[5] Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art & Architecture – Part II

Cave Tradition in Western India
 Caves dating from the 2nd century BC have been excavated.
 Three architectural types:
o Apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls – Ajanta, Bhaja, Pitalkhora.

o Apsidal vault-roof pillarless halls – Thana-Nadsur.

 o Flat-roofed quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at the back – Kondivite in Mumbai

 The front of the chaitya hall has an imposing semi-circular chaitya arch with an open front having a wooden façade.
 The caves at Kondivite have no chaitya arch.
 All the chaitya caves have a stupa at the rear.
 An example of the apsidal vault-roof kind: Ajanta Cave No. 9. This chaitya has a rectangular hall with a stone-screen
wall as façade. Similar kinds are found at Nashik, Bedsa, Kanheri & Karla.
 After the first century BC, many caves are of the first architectural type.
 Junnar has the highest number of cave excavations – more than 200.
 Kanheri in Mumbai has 108 excavated caves.
 Most important sites: Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik, Karla, Bhaja, Junnar & Kanheri.
 Earlier it was believed that these caves belonged to the orthodox Theravada sect of Buddhism.
 But the discovery of the Konkan Maurya inscription which mentions Saka era 322 (corresponding to 400 AD) proves
that cave activity in western Deccan was a continuing process.
 Some of these sites have been converted into modern Hindu shrines & are used to this day by the local people.
o Rock-cut caves are found not only in Maharashtra but also in:
o Karnataka – mainly in Badami & Aihole patronised by the Chalukyas.

o Andhra Pradesh – Vijayawada area.

o Tamil Nadu – Mahabalipuram patronised by Pallavas.

 Post 6th century art depended more on political patronage as opposed to the collective public patronage of the
earlier periods.
Karla Caves
 Located at Karla, Lonavala in Maharashtra.
 Biggest rock-cut chaitya hall was excavated in Karla.
 This cave has an open courtyard with 2 pillars, a stone-screen wall to protect from rain, a veranda, a stone-screen
wall as façade, an apsidal vault-roof chaitya hall with pillars & a stupa at the rear.
 Chaitya hall is carved with human & animal figures.
Viharas
 Viharas have been excavated at all cave sites.
 Vihara plan: a veranda, a hall & cells around the walls of the hall.
 Important viharas – Ajanta cave No.12; Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10 & 17; Bedsa cave No.11.
 Early vihara caves are carved with interior decorative motifs like chaitya arches & vedica designs over the cell doors.
 The vihara caves at Nashik have front pillars carved with ghata-base & ghata-capital with human figures.
 A popular such cave was found at Junnar & was popularly called Ganeshlini since an image of Ganesha belonging to
a later era was installed in it. It became a chaitya-vihara when a stupa was added to the back of this vihara.
Ajanta
 Most famous cave site. Located in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra.
 There are 29 caves in Ajanta.
 4 chaitya caves:
o Cave nos. 10 & 9 belonging to 1st & 2nd centuries BC.
o Cave nos. 19 & 26 belonging to the 5th century AD.
 There are large chaitya-viharas also.
 Decorated with sculptures & paintings.
 The only remaining example of 1st century BC & 5th century AD paintings.
 Cave nos. 19 & 26:
o Elaborately carved. o Façade decorated with the images of Buddha & Boddhisattva.
 o Apsidal vault-roof variety. Cave no. 26 – very big, interior hall carved with Buddha images; biggest
image being Mahaparinibbana image.
 Ajanta shrine images are big in size.
 Chief patrons at Ajanta:
o Varahadeva, a minister of the Vakataka king Harishena – cave no. 16.

o Upendragupta, local king & a feudatory of the Vakataka king – cave nos. 17 – 20.

o Buddhabhadra – cave no. 26

o Mathuradasa – cave no. 4
 Paintings indicate many typological variations. Outward projections are seen from the 5th century onwards. Lines
are well-defined & rhythmic. The figures are heavy much like the sculptures found in this region. The colours are
limited.
 The paintings show various skin colours like brown, yellowish brown, greenish, yellow ochre, etc. indicating a multi-
coloured populace.
 The themes of the paintings are events from the Buddha’s life, Jatakas & Avadanas.
 Padmapani & Vajrapani images are very common in the Ajanta caves. Some paintings cover the entire wall of the
caves. Example: Simhala Avadana, Vidhurpundita Jataka & Mahajanaka Jataka.
 In many paintings, events are grouped geographically. Famous example of painting from cave no.1 – Padmapani
Boddhisattva.
Ellora
 Important cave site in Aurangabad. Located 100 km from Ajanta.
 It has 32 Buddhist, Jain & Brahmanical caves.
 It is a unique historical site in India as it has monasteries associated with the three religions from the 5th to the 11th
century AD.
 Buddhist caves:
o 12 in number.
o Images belong to Vajrayana Buddhism like Tara, Akshobhya, Mahamayuri, Avalokiteshvara, Maitreya, etc.
o Are big in size & are of single, double & triple storeys.

o Triple storeyed cave is found only at Ellora.

o Have massive pillars.

o All caves were plastered & painted but nothing is visible today.

o The sculptures are monumental.

o The shrine Buddha images are big generally guarded by the images of Padmapani & Vajrapani.
 Jain caves:
o Are more ornate than the Buddhist caves.

o The decorative forms are heavily protruded.

o Belong to 9th century AD & onwards.

 Brahmanical caves:
o Numbered 13 – 28.

o Cave no. 14 is the only double storey cave here.

o Have images of Shiva & Vishnu & their different forms.

 o Prominent Shaivite themes: Andhakasurvadha, Ravana shaking Mt. Kailas & Kalyanasundara.
o Prominent Vaishnavite theme: Avatars of Vishnu.
 Ellora caves have been carved by various artisan guilds that came from Vidarbha, Karnataka & Tamil Nadu. Most
diverse site in India.
 Cave no. 16 – also called Kailashleni. Here, a rock-cut temple is carved out of a single rock.
Elephanta Caves
o Located in Elephanta Island in Mumbai Harbour.
o Originally a Buddhist site, later dominated by Shaivism.
o Contemporary with Ellora caves.
o Sculptures are slender in body images with stark light & dark effects.
Cave Tradition in Eastern India
o Mainly located in the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh & Odisha.
o Main sites in AP – Guntapalle in Elluru.
o Unique because structural stupas, viharas & caves are excavated in one place.
o Guntapalle Chaitya Cave – circular hall with a stupa & a chaitya arch at the entrance.
o Most of them date back to the 2nd century BC.
o Most of the caves are vihara type.
o The biggest rock-cut stupas in India are found at Anakapalli near Vishakhapatnam. Carved during the 4th – 5th
centuries AD.
o Earliest examples in Odisha – Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar.
o Scattered caves with inscriptions of Kharavela kings. As per the inscriptions, the caves were intended for Jaina
monks.

[6] Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art & Architecture – Part III

Seated Buddha, Katra Mound, Mathura


 Period: 2nd century AD.
 Buddha with two Boddhisattva attendants. Buddha is seated in Padmasana (cross-folded legs).
 Right hand is in Abhayamudra raised above the shoulder level & left hand is on the left thigh.
 Ushanisha (hair knot) is vertically raised. S
 Culptures of this period from Mathura have light volume & a fleshy body.
 The sanghati (dress) covers only the left shoulder.
 Buddha is seated on a lion throne. He has a large halo which is decorated with geometric motifs. His face is rounded
having fleshy cheeks.
 The attendants are identified as the Boddhisattvas Padmapani (holding a lotus) & Vajrapani (holding a thunderbolt).
 Two flying figures diagonally above the halo.
 This image is important for an understanding of the Buddha image development in the later periods.
Buddha Head, Taxila:


 Period: 2nd century AD, Kushana Period.
 Taxila in Gandhara region, now in Pakistan.
 The sculpture has Greco-Roman elements. Buddha head has Hellenistic elements.
 Thick curly hair with sharp & linear strokes over the head. Big forehead plane, protruding eyeballs, half-closed eyes.
 Face & cheeks are not rotund unlike the images found in other parts of the country.
 Elongated ears & earlobes; Surface is smooth & the outlines are quite sharp.
 Expressive image; shows a remarkably calm expression.
 Gandhara images of this period showcase heaviness. This style assimilates influences from Parthian, Bactrian &
Acamenian traditions with the local style.
Seated Buddha, Sarnath:


 Period: 5th century AD.
 Fine example of the Sarnath School.
 Made from Chunar sandstone.
 Buddha is seated in Padmasana.
 Image represents dhammachackrapravartana which is evident from the figures in the panel below the throne. The
panel has a chakra in the centre & a deer on each side. Buddha’s hands are also shown in
dhammachackrapravartana mudra placed below the chest.
 Body is slender & slightly elongated. The outlines are delicate & rhythmic.
 The robe clings to the body. Face is round although the cheeks are less rounded as compared to the earlier images
from the Kushana period. Lower lip is protruding. Eyes are half-closed.
 Ushanisha has circular curled hairs.
 The back of the throne is richly decorated with carvings of creepers & flowers. The halo is plain.
Padmapani Boddhisatva, Ajanta:


 Located in Ajanta Cave No.1.
 Period: Late 5th century AD.
 Image of a Boddhisattva holding a Padma or lotus.
 Large shouldered with 3 bends in the body creating the impression of a movement.
 Soft modelling, outlines merged with the body creating a 3-D effect.
 Eyes are half-closed & a bit elongated. Nose is straight & sharp. Small chin.
 Adorning a beaded necklace.
 Right hand is holding the lotus & the left hand is extended into space.
 Small figures surround the image.
 Thread over the body is seen with spiral lines.
 Colours used: light red, green, brown & blue.
 Cave No.1 paintings are better preserved.
Mara Vijaya, Ajanta:
 
 Location: Cave No.26, Ajanta Caves.
 The theme of this image has been portrayed as paintings in the caves but this is the only sculpture.
 Image of Buddha in the centre surrounded by Mara’s army & his daughter.
 Buddha is in padmasana.
 Mara represents desire here. This representation is the personification of the tumult of mind that the Buddha
underwent at the time of his enlightenment.
 Buddha’s right hand is shown towards the earth symbolising his generosity.
 The panel contains many highly voluminous images.
Maheshmurti, Elephanta:


 Period: Early 6th century AD.
 Located in the main cave shrine at Elephanta Caves.
 Best example of sculpting images in rock-cut caves in the western Deccan tradition.
 Large image. Central head is of Shiva. Other two heads are of Bhairava & Uma.
 Central face is round with thick lips & heavy eyelids.
 The face of Bhairava in profile is shown in anger with bulging eye & moustache.
 Uma’s face has feminine features.
 This image is considered as a representation of the five integrated faces of Shiva mentioned in one of the Shilpa
texts. The top & the back heads are invisible.
 Characteristic features of the sculptures of the Elephanta Caves: smooth surface, elongation & rhythmic movement.
[7] Later Mural Traditions
Introduction
 After Ajanta, very few sites with paintings have survived.
 In many places, sculptures were also plastered & painted.
Badami
 Example of later mural tradition.
 Badami was the capital of the western Chalukyan dynasty.
 This dynasty ruled the area from 543 CE to 598 CE.
 Chalukya king Mangalesha patronised the excavation of the Badami caves.
 Mangalesha was the younger son of Pulakesi I & the brother of Kirtivarman I.
 Cave No. 4 is also known as the Vishnu Cave because of the dedication of the image of Vishnu. The date 578 – 579 CE
is mentioned here. Thus, we get the period during which the cave was carved & also the Vaishnava leanings of the
patron.
 Paintings depict palace scenes. A painting shows Kirtivarman seated in the palace & watching a dance scene with his
wife & feudatories.
 The paintings are an extension of the mural painting tradition from Ajanta to Badami in south India.
 The faces of the king & queen are reminiscent of the modelling seen in Ajanta, with their eyesockets large, eyes half-
closed & protruding lips.
 These artists of the 6th century CE were able to create volume by contouring different parts of the face to create
protruding structures of the face itself.
Murals under the Pallava, Pandava & Chola Kings
 The Pallavas succeeded the Chalukyas further south in Tamil Nadu.
o They were great patrons of the arts.
o Mahendravarma I (7th century) built many temples in Panamalai, Mandagapattu & Kanchipuram.
o An inscription at Mandagapattu mentions the king Mahendravarma I with several titles such as Vichitrachitta
(curious-minded), Chaityakari (temple-builder) & Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists) – showing his interest in
artistic activities.
o Paintings at the temple at Kanchipuram was patronised by the Pallava king Rajasimha.

o Painting of Somaskanda here – only traces remain – large, round face.

o There is increased ornamentation in this period as compared to the previous. But, the depiction of the torso is
much the same although a bit elongated.
 Pandyas also patronised art.
o Examples: Tirumalaipuram caves & Jaina caves at Sittanvasal.

o Paintings are seen on the ceilings of the shrine, in verandas & on the brackets.

o Dancing figures of celestial nymphs are seen.

o Contours are in vermillion red & the bodies are painted yellow. Dancers have expressions on their faces &

show supple limps. Their eyes are elongated & sometimes protruded off the face. This is a distinctive feature

seen in many later paintings in the Deccan & South India.

 The Cholas ruled over the region from 9th to the 13th century CE:
o The Cholas were at the height of their power in the 11th century CE & this is when their masterpieces appear.
o Temples built during the reign of Rajaraja Chola & his son Rajendra Chola – Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur,
at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, at Darasuram.
 o Chola paintings are seen in Nartamalai. Most important paintings are seen in the Brihadeswara Temple.
o Two layers of paint were seen. The upper layer was executed during the Nayaka period (16th century). The Chola
paintings (original layer) depict narrations & various forms of Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailas, Shiva as Nataraja, as
Tripurantaka. Also, there is a portrait of Rajaraja, his mentor Kuruvar, etc.
Vijayanagara Murals
 After the Chola decline, the Vijayanagara Dynasty brought the region from Hampi to Trichy under its control.
 Hampi was the capital.
 Paintings at Tiruparakunram, near Trichy (14th century) represent the early phase of the Vijayanagara style.
 Virupaksha Temple at Hampi:

o Paintings on the ceilings of the Mandapa.

o Depicting events from dynastic history & also from the Mahabharata & the Ramayana.
o Examples of paintings: portraying Vidyaranya, Bukkaraya Harsha’s spiritual teacher carried in a palanquin in a
procession; incarnations of Vishnu.
o Faces & figures are shown in profile. Large frontal eyes, narrow waists.
 Lepakshi in Andhra Pradesh – paintings on the walls of the Shiva Temple.
 Features of Vijayanagara paintings:
o Lines are still but fluid.

o Faces are in profile.

o Figures & objects are shown two-dimensionally.

o These features were adopted by later artists such as those of the Nayaka Period.
Nayaka Paintings
 Extension of the Vijayanagara styles.
 17th & 18th centuries.
 Seen in Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam & Tiruvarur.
 Nayaka paintings showcase episodes of Mahabharata, Ramayana & Krishna Leela.
 In Thiruparakunram, paintings from two periods are observed – 14th & 17th centuries.
 The 14th century paintings show scenes from the life of Mahavira.
 In Tiruvarur, there is a panel describing the story of Machukunda.
 Sri Krishna Temple at Chengam, Arcot – 60 panels narrating the Ramayana. (Late phase of the Nayaka period).
 Male figures are shown with slim waists but less heavy abdomens.

 Painting of Nataraja at Tiruvalanjuli – good example of Nayaka art.

Kerala Murals (16th – 18th centuries)

 Distinct style was developed but a lot of the features of the Nayaka & Vijayanagara styles were adopted.
 The artists took ideas from the contemporary traditions of Kathakali & Kalam Ezhuthu.
 Vibrant & luminous colours, human figures shown 3-dimensionally.
 Paintings on the walls of the shrines, on cloister walls of temples, also in palaces.
 Theme of the paintings – from locally popular episodes of Hindu mythology, local versions of the Mahabharata &
Ramayana through oral traditions.
 More than 60 sites with mural paintings
 Three palaces: Dutch Palace (Kochi), Krishnapuram palace (Kayamkulam),
o Padmanabhapuram palace (Travancore, now in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu).

o Pundareekapuram Krishna temple.

 o Panayanarkavu (temple), Thirukodithanam.

o Sri Rama temple, Triprayar.

o Vadakkunathan temple, Thrissur.

Traditional forms of murals:
 Pithoro in parts of Rajasthan & Gujarat.
 Mithila paintings, Mithila region,
 Bihar Warli paintings, Maharashtra

[8] Architecture & Sculpture – Part I

Temple Architecture & Sculpture
 Basic Form of the Hindu Temple:
o The basic elements that comprise a Hindu Temple are given below:
o Garbhagriha: Literally means womb-house. It is a cave-like sanctum which houses the main icon of the temple. In
earlier times, it was a small cubicle with one entrance. In later periods, it grew into a larger chamber.
o Mandapa: The entrance to the temple. It could be a portico or a colonnaded hall where worshippers stand.
o Shikhara/Vimana: Noticed from the 5th century CE. It is a mountain-like spire on top. In north India, it is called
Shikhara & is curving in shape. In the south, it is like a pyramidal tower & is called Vimana.

o
 Amalaka: Stone-like disc seen at the top of the temple. Mostly in north Indian temples.
 Kalasha: It is the topmost part of the temple. Mainly seen in north Indian styles.
 Antarala: It is a vestibule b/w the Garbhagriha & the Mandapa.
 Jagati: This is common in north Indian temples & is a raised platform where devotees can sit & pray.
 Vahana: It is the vehicle of the main deity which along with the standard pillar or Dhvaj which are placed axially.
Types of Indian Temple Architecture/Styles:
 Basically, there are 3 kinds of temple architecture:
o Nagara Style.
o Dravida Style.
o Vesara Style.
 The Nagara or North Indian temple styles:
 o
o Became popular in northern India.
o Entire temple is generally built on a stone platform with steps leading to it.
o No grand boundary walls or gateways (unlike the Dravida style).
o Earlier temples had one shikhara whereas latter temples had many.
o The garbhagriha is located directly beneath the tallest shikhara.
 Subdivisions of Nagara Style:
o Based on Style:
 Rekha-prasada/Latina:


 Simple shikhara with square base & whose walls slope inwards to a point on top.
 Most common.
 In later periods, latina type became more complex with several towers clustered together.
 The tallest tower was at the centre & the garbhagriha was directly beneath it.
 Phamsana:
 
 Roofs composed of many slabs that gently rise to a single point over the building’s centre.
 Roofs do not curve inwards like the latina type, but they slope upwards on a straight incline.
 Phamsana structures are generally broader & shorter than latina ones.
 In many temples, the latina type is used to house the garbhagriha whereas the mandapa has a
Phamsana style of architecture.
 Valabhi:


 Rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
 Also called wagon-vaulted buildings.
Nagara Style in Various Regions:
 Central India:
o Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan.
o Made of sandstone.
o Oldest surviving structural temples from the Gupta period are in MP. They are small shrines with four pillars to
support a small mandapa. The mandapas are basically small porch-like structures before the garbhagriha which
are also rather small. Examples: temple at Udaigiri – part of a larger Hindu complex of cave shrines (outskirts of
Vidisha); temple at Sanchi (which was a Buddhist site).
o This shows how similar architectural developments were incorporated in both religions.
o Dashavatara Vishnu Temple, Deogarh, UP:
 
 Classic example of the late Gupta period temple architecture.
 Patrons are unknown.
 From the architecture & imagery, it is known that the temple was built in early 6th century CE.
 Panchayatana Style of architecture:
 Main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four subsidiary shrines that are smaller & at the 4
corners.
 Hence, there are a total of five shrines & hence the name, Panchayatana.
 This temple has a rekha-prasada type of shikhara.
 It is a west-facing temple. Most temples are north or east facing.
 Has a grand doorway with figures of Ganga & Yamuna on the left & right side respectively.
 Depicts Vishnu in various forms. 3 main Vishnu reliefs on the temple walls: Sheshashayana on the south;
Nara-Narayan on the east; & Gajendramoksha on the west.
 Since it was assumed that the subsidiary shrines had avatars of Vishnu in them, the temple was mistaken to
be Dashavatara temple.
o Khajuraho Temples (MP):
 Built in the 10th century CE.
 It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Patronised by Chandela Kings.
 All temples made of sandstone.
 From the temple at Deogarh (built about 400 years before Khajuraho temples), the development of the
Nagara architectural style is visible here.
 These temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures. Mostly Hindu, though some Jain temples are
also present.
 There are also temples dedicated to Yoginis which form part of Tantric worship indicating the rise & spread
of tantric cult after the 7th century. E.g., Chausanth Yogini temple.
 Important temples in Khajuraho: Kandariya Mahadeo (dedicated to Lord Shiva) & Lakshmana temple.
o Lakshmana temple:
 
 Grandest of the Khajuraho temples.

 Dedicated to Vishnu.

 Built by the Chandela King Dhanga in 954 CE.

 Structure is placed on a high platform that is accessed by stairs.

 Has small temples in four corners.

 Has high shikharas, amalak & kalash. Also has projecting balconies & verandas.
 West India
o Gujarat, Rajasthan & western MP.
o Sandstone is most common, grey to black basalt is also seen in some 10 – 12th century temples.
o Also seen is soft white marble in 10 – 12th century Jain Temples at Mount Abu & a 15th century temple at
Ranakpur.
o Samlaji in Gujarat is an important art historical site. Many sculptures made of grey schist are found here.
o Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat:


 Built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki dynasty in 1026 CE.
 Temple complex features a huge rectangular stepped tank known as the ‘Surya Kund’ in the front. This is a
noticeable feature from earlier times – proximity of a sacred water body. By early 11th century, this was a
common feature of many temples.
  The Surya Kund is a 100 sq.m pond – one of the grandest of its kind in the country. 108 miniature shrines
are carved in b/w the steps inside the tank.
 A large ornamental torana (gateway) leads to the sabha mandapa or assembly hall that is open on all sides.
 Lavish carving & sculpture work is present.
 The central shrine walls are plain. The temple is east-facing & every year at the time of equinoxes, the sun
shines directly onto the central shrine.

[9] Temple Architecture & Sculpture – Part II (Nagara Style in East India & the hills)
East India
 North-East, Odisha & Bengal.
 Each region produced a distinct type of architecture.
 Terracotta was the main medium in Bengal & north-east until the 7th century.
 Assam:
o There is evidence of Gupta influence from a sculpted door frame dating to the 6th century CE from DaParvatia
near Tezpur; & sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia.
o The Gupta influence is seen till the 10th century.
o By 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct Ahom style developed in the region around Guwahati. This style evolved
from the mixing of the style brought to the area by the Tais of Upper Burma with the Pala style of Bengal.
Example: Kamakhya Temple – a Shakti Peeth dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya built in 17th century.
 Bengal:

o Regions: West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bihar

o Style b/w 9th & 11th centuries – Pala Style. The Palas were patrons of Buddhist monastic styles. The temples in
this region showcased the local Vanga style.
o Style of temple architecture from the middle of the 11th century to middle of the 13th centuries – Sena style.
o Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan District – 9th century; tall curving Shikhara crowned by a
large amalaka – early Pala style.

o
o Many temples were located at Telkupi in Purulia District – 9th to 12th century but were submerged due to dam
construction. These temples showed all the Nagara sub-styles prevalent in the north;
 Some temples survive.
 Made of black to grey basalt.
 Had chlorite stone pillars & arched niches.
 They influenced early Bengal Sultanate buildings at Gaur & Pandua.
o Local vernacular building traditions also influenced the temples. Most noticeable of these influences was the
curving or sloping side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut.
  This feature was adopted in Mughal buildings & is known as the Bangla Roof.
o From the Mughal period onwards, several terracotta brick temples were built which had elements from the
earlier Pala style, from the local bamboo hut styles, & arches & domes from Islamic architecture.
o E.g., Terracotta Temple, Vishnupur (17th century)

o
 Odisha:
o Three orders of architectural features:
 Rekhapida (Rekha Deula): Tall straight building (looking like a shikhara) covering the garbhagriha.
 Pidhadeul: It is the mandapa, a square building where worshippers are present & also where dancing takes
place.
 Khakra (Khakra Deula): Rectangular building with a truncated pyramid-shaped roof. Temples of Shakti are
usually in this type.
o Location: Ancient Kalinga – that includes modern Puri District including Bhubaneswar (Ancient Tribhuvanesvara,
Puri & Konark).
o Odisha temples are a distinct sub-style of the Nagara style called Kalinga Style.
o Shikhara is called Deul & is almost vertical & suddenly curves sharply inwards at the top.
o In front of the deul, there is the mandapa, called jagamohana in Odisha.
o Exterior of the temples are richly carved while the interiors are plain.
o Temples generally have boundary walls.
o Konark Sun Temple:

 o
 Sun temple built around 1240.
 Its shikhara which was said to be 70m high fell in the 19th century.
 The jagamohana (mandapa) has survived. This is the largest enclosed space in Hindu architecture although
it is not accessible any more.
 The temple is set on a high base. There are detailed carvings. There are 12 pairs of gigantic wheels sculpted
with spokes & hubs representing the chariot wheels of the sun god. The whole temple resembles a
processional chariot.
  On the southern wall there is huge sculpture of Surya or sun god made of green stone. It is believed that
there were 3 more such images in different directions made out of different stones. The fourth wall had the
doorway from which the sun rays would enter the garbhagriha.
 The Hills:
o Region: hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal & Kashmir
o Style: Ancient Gandhara style (because of the proximity of Kashmir to that region) with Gupta & post-Gupta
traditions from Sarnath, Mathura, Gujarat & Bengal.
o We can see both Buddhist & Hindu traditions in the hills.
o Its own local tradition: wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
o Many temples showcase the garbhagriha & shikhara of the latina type, & the mandapa in wooden architecture.
o Sometimes a pagoda shape is seen to the temples.
o Karkota Period, Kashmir – Most significant in terms of architecture.
o Temple at Pandrethan:

 8th & 9th centuries; temple built on a plinth in the middle of a water tank.

 Possibly Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.

 Wooden building. Peaked roof that slants slowly outwards (due to the snowy conditions).

 Moderately ornamented – a row of elephants at the base & a decorated doorway.

o Sculptures at Chamba (Himachal Pradesh):

 Local traditions mixed with the post-Gupta style. g.: Images of Mahishasuramardini & Narasimha at
Laksna-Devi Mandir.
 Styles: Post-Gupta & the Kashmiri metal sculpture traditions. Images’ yellow colour is possibly an alloy of
zinc & copper which were popular in Kashmir.
 Inscription in the Laksna-Devi Mandir states that it was built during the reign of Meruvarman in the 7th
century.
o Temples of Kumaon: classic examples of Nagara of this region – temples at Jageshwar (near Almora) &
Champavat (near Pithoragarh), both in Uttarakhand.

[9] Temple Architecture & Sculpture – Part III (Dravida & Vesara Styles)
Dravidian Style of Architecture
 Dravida or South Indian Style:

o
o The temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
o Gopuram: The entrance gateway in the centre of the front wall.
o Vimana: The shape of the main temple tower. It is a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically (unlike the
Nagara style Shikhara that is curving).
 o In the Dravida style, shikhara is the word used for the crowning element at the top of the temple (which is
shaped like a stupika or octagonal cupola).
o At the entrance to the garbhagriha, there would be sculptures of fierce dvarapalas guarding the temple.
o Generally, there is a temple tank within the compound.
o Subsidiary shrines could be found wither within the main tower or beside the main tower.
o In many temples, the garbhagriha is located in the smallest tower. It is also the oldest. With the passage of time
& the rise of the population of the temple-town, additional boundary walls were added. The newest structure
would mostly have the tallest gopuram.
o Example in the Sriranganathar Temple at Srirangam, Tiruchirappally, there are 7 concentric rectangular
enclosure walls each having gopurams. The tower at the centre has the garbhagriha.
o Famous temple towns of Tamil Nadu: Kanchipuram, Thanjavur (Tanjore), Madurai & Kumbakonam.
o In the 8th to 12th centuries – temples were not confined to being religious centres but became administrative
centres as well with large swathes of land.
 Subdivisions of Dravida Style:
o Kuta or Caturasra: square-shaped.
o Shala or Ayatasra: rectangular-shaped.
o Gaja-prishta or vrittayata or elephant-backed: elliptical.
o Vritta: circular.
o Ashtasra: octagonal.
 Pallava architecture:
o The Pallava dynasty was ruling in the Andhra region from the 2nd century AD onwards. They then moved
southwards to Tamil Nadu.
o They built many monuments & temples during the 6th to the 8th centuries.
o Although they were mostly Shaivite, some Vaishnava monuments are also seen. Their architecture was also
influenced by the Buddhist heritage of the Deccan.
o Their early buildings were rock-cut whereas the later were structural.
o The early buildings were built during the reign of Mahendravarman I, a contemporary of the Chalukya king
Pulakeshin II of Karnataka.
o His son Narasimhavarman I, also known as Mamalla, was a great patron of the arts. Most buildings in
Mahabalipuram (also called Mamallapuram in his honour) are attributed to him.
o In Mahabalipuram, there are exquisite monolithic rathas & mandapas. The five rathas are known as
Panchapandava Rathas.
o Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram:


 Built during the reign of Pallava king Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha (700 – 728 AD).
 It has three shrines – one Shiva shrine facing east, one Shiva shrine facing west, a middle shrine to Vishnu in
Anantashayana pose. The presence of three main shrines is unique.
  It is probable that the shrines were not all built at the same time but were added later.
 There is evidence of a water reservoir & a gopuram.
 There are sculptures of Nandi the bull (Shiva’s mount) along the walls of the temple. There are several
carvings as well.
o Brihadiswara Temple, Tanjore:


 Shiva temple, also called Rajarajeswara Temple.
 Completed around 1009 AD. Built by Rajaraja Chola.
 It is the largest & tallest of all Indian temples. This Chola temple is bigger than any of the previous Pallava,
Chalukya or Pandya structures.
 More than 100 temples of the Chola Period are preserved. A lot of temples were constructed during the
Chola period.
 Its pyramidal multi-storied vimana is almost 70 metres high.
 There is a monolithic shikhara atop the vimana.
 The shikhara is a dome-shaped octagonal stupika. It has two large elaborately sculptured gopuras. On the
shikhara, there are large Nandi images.
 The kalasha on top of the shikhara is 3m & 8cm tall.
 There are hundreds of stucco figures on the vimana. Many might have been added later on in the Maratha
period.
 The main deity of Shiva is portrayed as a huge lingam set in a double-storied sanctum.
 The surrounding walls of the sanctum are adorned with painted murals & sculptures of mythological
stories.
 Architecture in the Deccan
 A hybridised style mixing elements from both Nagara & Dravida styles emerge as a distinct style during the
middle of the 7th century in regions like Karnataka.
 This is referred to as Vesara in some ancient texts.
 Some of the temples are either completely nagara or dravida. Not all temples in the Deccan are in vesara
style.
o Kailashnath Temple, Ellora:
  o

 Completely in Dravida style.

 Main deity is Lord Shiva.

 There is also a Nandi shrine.

 Vimana rises 30 m.

 This temple was carved out of a portion of a hill.

 The temple is grand & imposing.

 Built during the Rashtrakuta phase at Ellora.
 Chalukya Architecture:
o Western Chalukya kingdom was established by Pulakesin I when he took control of the land around Badami in
543 AD.
o Early western Chalukyas ruled the region till around the mid-8th century.
o Early activities are rock-cut caves while structural temples were built later on.
o Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole:

 Important structure at this site: Nataraja

 This image is surrounded on the right by four large saptamatrikas & on the left by three large ones.
 The figures have slim, graceful bodies. They have long oval faces. They wear short pleated dhotis & tall
cylindrical crowns.
o Distinct feature of Chalukya architecture: mixing & incorporation of several styles.
o Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka:

 Pattadakkal is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

 There are 10 temples. Four are in Dravida style, four are in Nagara style, one (Papanatha Temple) is a
fusion of both & one is a Jain temple.
 Jain Narayana temple – built by Rashtrakutas in the 9th century.
 Virupaksha Temple – built by the chief queen of Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733 – 44), Loka Mahadevi.
Best example of Dravida style.
o Durga Temple, Aihole:
 
 Apsidal shrine resembling a Buddhist Chaitya Hall.

 Surrounded by a veranda.

 Shikhara is like a nagara one.

o The Lad Khan temple at Aihole:


 Located south of the Durga temple. Built in the 5th century.
 Inspired by the wooden-roofed temples of the hills, but is made out of stone.

 Built in the Panchayatana style.

 So named because a person named Lad Khan had used it as his residence for some time.
 Hoysalas:
o Hoysalas grew into prominence in South India after the Chola & the Pandya power declined.
o Centred at Mysore.
o Chief temples are at Belur, Somnathapuram & Halebid.
o These temples have a plan called the stellate plan. This is because the plan which emerged from being a
straightforward square to a complex one with many projecting angles began to resemble a star.
o The star-like ground plan is a distinct feature of the Hoysala architecture.
o Style is Vesara.
o Made of soapstone which is relatively soft. This enabled the artists to carve intricate details like jewellery.
o Hoysaleshvara Temple, Halebid:
  o

 Made of dark schist stone in 1150.

 Dedicated to Nataraja (Shiva).

 It is a double building with a large hall for the mandapa.

 A Nandi pavilion is in front of each building.

 The temple’s tower fell long time back. The structure of the temple is evident from the detailed miniature
ones at the temple’s entrance.
 Very intricate & detailed carvings.
o Vijayanagara Architecture:
 City of Vijayanagara (City of victory) founded in 1336.
 Visited by international travellers like Niccolo di Conti, Domingo Paes, Duarte Barbosa, Abd, alRazzaq, etc.
who have given vivid accounts of the place.
 Synthesizes the Dravida style with Islamic styles of the neighbouring sultanates.
 The sculpture tries to recreate the Chola tradition but foreign influence is also seen.

[10] Temple Architecture & Sculpture – Part IV (Buddhist & Jain Architectural Developments)
Buddhist architecture
 Along with Hindu art & architecture, Buddhist temple building & artwork also went on along with other religions.
 Ellora has Buddhist, Jain & Hindu monuments.
 Bodh Gaya (or Bodhgaya):
o Most important Buddhist site because Prince Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here to become Gautama
Buddha.
o The Bodhi Tree is important.

o The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya:

 
 The first shrine situated at the base of the Bodhi tree was probably built by Emperor Ashoka.
 The vedika around the shrine is post-Mauryan built during 100 BC.
 Many sculptures in the niches in the temple belong to the Pala Period (8th century CE).
 The temple itself was constructed during the colonial period.
 It is a 7th century design. It is neither nagara or dravida in style.
 Nalanda University:

o It was a monastic university.

o It is a Mahavihara since it is a complex of many monasteries.

o Only a small portion of the place has been studied as most of it lies buried under present civilisation & impossible
to excavate.
o The records of the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang (Hsuan-tsang) give a huge amount of information about Nalanda.
o As per the records, the foundation of the learning centre was laid down by Kumaragupta I, the Gupta king in the
5th century CE. Later kings added to the original centre.
o Evidence for all three Buddhist doctrines of Theravada, Mahayana & Vajrayana taught here.
o Monks came from China, Tibet & Central Asia in the north; & from Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, & other countries
in Southeast Asia.
o Nalanda was a centre for art production & Buddhist sculptures & manuscripts were taken from here by monks to
their countries. So, art in Nalanda had a profound impact on art in all the Buddhist countries.
o The Nalanda School of sculpture was influenced by Buddhist Gupta art of Sarnath, the local Bihar tradition &
Central India. This synthesis emerged during the 9th century.
o Features of Nalanda School of sculpture:
 Sculptures have an ordered appearance with little effect of crowding.
 They are depicted in three-dimensional forms.
 Delicate ornamentations.
 Back slabs of the sculptures are detailed.
 Nalanda bronzes: dating from 7th & 8th centuries to the 12th century; outnumber the metal images from
entire eastern India.
 Initially depict Mahayana Buddhist deities like standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas like Manjusri Kumara, Naga-
Nagarjuna & Avalokiteshvara seated on a lotus.
 In the late 11th & 12th centuries, Nalanda became an important tantric centre. Then, Vajrayana deities
dominated such Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati), Avalokiteshvara, Khasarpana, etc.
  Many Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda. Many such images are still worshipped at
nearby villages.
o Buddhist sites: Sirpur in Chhattisgarh (550 – 800 CE); Lalitagiri, Vajragiri & Ratnagiri in Odisha.
o Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu was also a Buddhist centre until the Chola Period. Reason could be that it was a
port-town & there were trade activities with Sri Lanka which was & continues to be predominantly Buddhist.
Jain architecture
 Jain temples are found all over India except in the hills.
 Oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are in Bihar.
 In the Deccan: Ellora & Aihole.
 In central India: Khajuraho, Deogarh, Chanderi & Gwalior.
 Karnataka has many Jain shrines;
o Statue of Gomateshwara: Granite statue of Lord Bahubali commissioned by Camundaraya, the prime minister of
the Ganga kings; located at Sravana Belagola; 18m or 57 feet high; world’s tallest monolithic free-standing
structure.
 Gujarat & Rajasthan have a rich Jain heritage continuing to this day.
 Jain bronze images found from Akola (near Baroda) belong to the late 5th – late 7th century CE; made using the lost-
wax process; the images have been inlaid with silver & copper for embellishments.
 Jain bronze sculptures also found from Chausa (Bihar), Hansi (Haryana) & many places in Karnataka & Tamil Nadu.
 Jain Temples at Mount Abu, Rajasthan:

o Constructed by Vimal Shah.

o Also called Dilwara temples. Built b/w 11th & 13th centuries.
o Every ceiling has unique patterns. Richly sculptured on white marble. The exteriors are simple but the interiors
are finely carved & exquisitely decorated.

[11] Indian Bronze Sculpture

Introduction
 Apart from sculpturing in terracotta & stone, ancient Indian artists were masters in bronze sculpting as well.
 The Lost Wax Technique or the ‘Cire-Perdu’ process has been known from the time of the Indus Valley Civilization
itself. This process is in use even today.
 Bronze is an alloy of basically copper & tin. Sometimes zinc was also added although most of the component is
copper.
 The alloy-making process of mixing metals was known to the ancient Indians.
 Bronze sculptures & statuettes of various icons of Hinduism, Buddhism & Jainism have been found from various parts
of India dating from the 2nd century CE to the 16th century CE.
 Most of the images were used for religious & ritualistic purposes.
 The metal casting process was also used for making articles of daily use like utensils.
North India
 The statue of the Dancing Girl found from Mohenjo Daro is one of the finest examples of Indus Valley art. It is a
bronze statue showing remarkable achievements of the artists of the Indus Valley. The figurine is about 4 inches tall.
Datable to 2500 BC. It is said to be in the tribhanga It is one of the oldest bronze sculptures.
 Chariot at Daimabad: datable to 1500 BC.
 Images of Jain Teerthankaras:

o Found in Chausa, Bihar belonging to the Kushana Period (2nd century CE).

o Images show the mastery of artists in modelling masculine human physique.

 o Remarkable depiction of Adinath or Vrishabhanath (the first Teerthankara) with long hair (generally the

Teerthankaras are shown with short curly hair).

 Buddha images have been found in north India, particularly UP & Bihar:
o Standing Buddhas with the right hand in Abhaya Mudra.

o Gupta & pre-Gupta period.

o The Sanghati or the robe is wrapped over the shoulders & turn over the right arm, while the other end of the
robe covers the left arm.
o The clothes of the Buddha figures are thin. o Youthful & proportionate figures.

o Bronze images from Dhanesar Khera, UP: Mathura style drapery which is a series of dropping down curves.
o Buddha image at Sultanganj, Bihar: Sarnath style, less drapery.
o Bronze from Phophnar, Maharashtra: Vakataka images, contemporary to Gupta period. Influenced by the 3rd
century Amaravati style from Andhra Pradesh. These images were portable & were carried by monks from place
to place for personal worship or installation at a vihara.
 Himachal Pradesh & Kashmir regions Buddhist & Hindu deities:
o Period: 8th, 9th & 10th.

o Growth of different types of iconographies of Vishnu images is seen.

o Worship of four-headed Vishnu: Chaturanana or Vaikuntha Vishnu.

 Nalanda School of Bronze (Buddhist):

o Emergence: 9th century CE. Pala Period.

o In regions of Bengal & Bihar.

o Four-armed Avalokiteswara: Good example of a male figure in the tribhanga pose.

o During the Vajrayana phase of Buddhism, worship of the female form was seen. Tara images were popular.
South India
 The bronze casting technique & the sculpting of bronze images reached its zenith in the south during the medieval
period.
 Pallavas:
o Best Pallava bronze: Icon of Shiva in Ardhaparyanka asana (one leg kept dangling).

o Right hand in Achamana Mudra (indicating he is about to consume poison).

o Period: 8th century.

 Cholas:
o Chola bronze art is the most sought-after today in the world of art.

o Period: 10th – 12th century CE.

o Exquisite pieces of art developed during this period. This technique is still practised in south India, particularly
in Kumbakonam.
o Great patron of Chola bronze work: widowed queen Sembiyan Maha Devi (10th century).
o World famous image: Shiva as Nataraja. (Discussed below)

o Wide range of Shiva iconography in the Tanjore region.

 o Kalyanasundara Murti: 9th century; marriage is represented by 2 separate statuettes; Shiva & Parvati’s
marriage or panigrahana.
o Ardhanarisvara image: union of Shiva & Parvati is represented.
o There are independent images of Parvati also.
 Vijayanagara:
o Period: 16th century.
o Portrait sculpture is seen wherein artists tried to preserve the knowledge of the royal patrons for the future
generation. O
o Tirupati: There is a life-size standing bronze sculpture of King Krishnadevaraya with his 2 queens Tirumalamba &
Chinnadevi.
o The physical body is shown as graceful & yet imposing.
o The king & his queens are in praying posture (Namaskara Mudra).
Nataraja (Chola bronze)


 Shiva’s dance is associated with the end of the cosmic world.
 Nataraja means ‘Lord of the Dance’.
 Shiva is seen balancing on his right leg. The foot of the right leg is suppressing the apasmara (the demon of
forgetfulness or ignorance).
 His left hand is in Bhujangatrasita stance (depicting kicking away tirobhava or illusion from the devotee’s mind).
 Four arms are outstretched.
 Main right hand is in Abhayahasta.
 Upper right hand holds the Damaru (his favourite musical instrument – a percussion instrument to keep rhythm).
 Main left hand is in Dolahasta & connects with the right hand’s Abhayahasta.
 Upper left hand carries a flame.
 Entire dancing figure is surrounded by the jvala mala or the garland of flames.
 Shiva’s locks fly on either side touching the jvala mala.
 Many variations of this model are found.

[12] Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic Architecture – Part I

Introduction
 Islam came to India in the 7th & 8th centuries CE chiefly through Muslim traders, merchants, holy men & conquerors.
 The religion spread in India over a time period of 600 years.
 Muslims in Gujarat & Sind had begun construction work in the 8th century itself. But it was only in the 13th century
that building activity on a large scale began by the Turkish State after the Turkish conquest of North India.
 Muslims absorbed many aspects of local architectural traditions & amalgamated them into their own practices.
 Architecturally, a mix of many techniques, stylised shapes & surface decorations evolved through continuous
amalgamation of architectural elements from the various styles. Such architectural entities that showcased multiple
styles are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
 While the Hindus were allowed to portray God in their art & were allowed to conceive manifestations of the
divine in any form, the Muslims were forbidden by their religion to replicate living forms on any surface. So, their
religious art & architecture mainly consisted of arabesque, calligraphy & geometrical patterns on plaster & stone.
 Types of architectural buildings: mosques for daily prayers, Jama Masjids, dargahs, tombs, hammams, minars,
gardens, sarais or caravansarais, madrasas, Kos minars, etc.
Categories of Styles
 Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate)
 Provincial Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, & Jaunpur)
 Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra, & Lahore)
 Deccani Style (Bijapur, Golconda)
Architectural Influences
 The architecture of Jaunpur & Bengal is distinct.
 Gujarat had more local influence than other styles. Example: toranas (gateways) from local temple traditions,
carvings of bell & chain motifs, lintels in mihrabs, & carved panels depicting trees.
 Example of provincial style: Dargah of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej (in white marble; 15th century).
Decorative Forms
 Designing on plaster through incision or stucco.
 Designs were either left plain or filled with colours.
 Motifs of varieties of flowers (both Indian & foreign) were painted or carved.
 In the 14th, 15th & 16th centuries, tiles were used to surface the walls & domes. Blue, green, yellow & turquoise
were the popular colours.
 In the wall panels, surface decoration was done by the techniques of tessellation (mosaic designs) & pietra dura (a
decorative art that is an inlay technique of using cut & fitted, highly polished coloured stones to create images).


 Other decorative forms: arabesque, calligraphy, high & low relief carving & a profuse use of jalis.


 The roof was generally a mix of the central dome & other smaller domes, chatris & tiny minarets.
 There was generally an inverted lotus flower motif & a metal or stone pinnacle atop the central dome.
Construction materials
 The walls were quite thick & made of rubble masonry.
 They were then coated with chunam or limestone plaster or dressed stone.
 Stones used: sandstone, quartzite, buff, marble, etc.
 Polychrome tiles were also used.
 Bricks were used from the 17th century.
Forts
 Forts symbolise the seat of power of a ruler. Many large forts with embattlements were built in the medieval times.
 When a fort was captured, it meant the ruler who owned the fort had to surrender.
 E.g.: Chittor, Gwalior & Daulatabad
 Chittorgarh is the largest fort in Asia.
 Forts were constructed using great heights so that they were impregnable to enemy forces.
 Inside there were places for offices & residences.
 Many complex features were added in the structure & design so as to making breaching the walls of the forts
challenging.
 Golconda Fort (Hyderabad) had concentric circles of outer walls. Daulatabad Fort had staggered entrances so that
even elephants could not be used to open the gates.
Minars
 Minar was a form of stambha or tower.
 Examples of medieval minars: Qutub Minar in Delhi, Chand Minar at Daulatabad Fort.
 Everyday use of the minar: azaan (call to prayer).
 Qutub Minar:

o 13th century.

o Construction started by Qutub-ud-din Aibak (Delhi Sultanate ruler) & completed by his successor
Iltutmish.
o UNESCO World Heritage Site.

o 234 feet high.

o Tower is divided into five storeys.

o Mix of polygonal & circular shapes.

o Material: red & buff sandstone with some marble in the upper storeys.

o Highly decorated balconies.

o There are inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs

o It came to be associated with Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, a revered saint of Delhi
 Chand Minar, Daulatabad:

o 15th century.

o 210 feet high.

o Tapering tower has four storeys.

 o Work of architects from Delhi & Iran.

Tombs
 Tombs are monumental structures over the graves of rulers & royalty.
 They were a common medieval feature in India.
 Examples: tombs of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Akbar, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Itmaduddaula.
 Idea behind the tomb according to Anthony Welch was “eternal paradise as a reward for the true believer on the Day
of Judgement.”
 Walls had Quranic verses. Tombs were generally placed within paradisiacal elements like a garden or a water body
or both (as in the Taj Mahal).
Sarais
 Sarais were built on a simple rectangular or square plan around cities.
 They were meant to provide temporary accommodation to travellers, traders, pilgrims, etc.
 They were basically public spaces & a hub of cross-cultural interaction.
Structures for Common People
 Buildings such as those for domestic usage, temples, mosques, dargahs, khanqahs, pavilions in the buildings &
gardens, bazaars, commemorative gateways, etc.
 Here also, a mixing of styles, techniques & decorative patterns were seen. This was a feature of the medieval period.
Jama Masjid
 Large mosques sprang up during the medieval times in India.
 Congregational prayers were held every Friday afternoon. A quorum of 40 Muslim male adults was required for this
to take place.
 At the time of the prayers, a khutba was read out in the name of the ruler along with his laws for the realm.
 Generally, a city had one Jama Masjid & this place became the centre of the town for religious, commercial &
political activities.
 Generally, Jama Masjids were large with open courtyards.
 They were surrounded on three sides by cloisters with the Qibla Liwan to the west. The mihrab & the mimbar for the
Imam were located here.
 The mihrab indicated the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca & so people faced the mihrab while offering prayers.
[13] Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic Architecture – Part II
Architecture in Mandu, Madhya Pradesh
 Mandu is located 60 miles from Indore in Madhya Pradesh.
 The city is at an elevation of 2000 feet overlooking the Malwa Plateau to the north & the Narmada Valley to the
south.
 It was constantly occupied by the Parmara Rajputs, Afghans & Mughals because of its natural defence.
 It was the capital of the Ghauri Dynasty (1401 – 1561) founded by Hoshang Shah.
 Great example of the medieval provincial style of art & architecture.
 It has many official & residential pleasure palaces, mosques, artificial reservoirs, pavilions, baolis, embattlements,
etc.
 Most structures have arched pavilions, & are light & airy, so that they do not retain heat.
 Local stone & marble were used.
 Great example of architectural adaptation to the environment.
 Royal Enclave: Set of romantic buildings built around 2 artificial lakes.
 Hindola Mahal:

o Audience hall of the Sultan.

o Resembles a railway viaduct bridge with its large buttresses to support the walls.
 o Batter was used to give the impression of swinging (hindola) walls

 Jahaaz Mahal:

o Two-storeyed ship-palace.

o Built b/w 2 reservoirs.

o Has open pavilions, balconies & a terrace.

o Built by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji possibly for using as his harem.

o Had a terrace swimming pool.

 Rani Rupamati’s double pavilion.

 Baz Bahadur’s palace.
 Asharfi Mahal – a madrassa.
 Hoshang Shah’s tomb:

o Example of the robustness of Afghan structures.

o Majestic structure with a beautiful dome.

o Has marble jail work, courts, porticos & towers.

o Also has lattice work, toranas & carved brackets

 Jama Masjid:

o Has a grand gateway & a squat dome o Building is faced with red sandstone.

o Mihrab has a lotus bud fringe o Qibla Liwan is supported on carved brackets.

Taj Mahal


 Built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
 Built from 1632 & took almost 20 years to complete.
 Built by 20000 specialised workers.
 It is a mausoleum.
 It has a simple plan & elevation.
 One of the most famous architectural marvels of India worldwide.
 The structure is breathtakingly symmetrical.
 Made of white marble brought from the Makrana Mines, Rajasthan.
 It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Its monumental gateway is made of red sandstone.
 The tomb is set in a Chahar Bagh, criss-crossed with paths & water courses, along with pools & fountains.
 The tomb is on a floor terrace. On the four sides of the terrace, there are four tall minarets which are 132 feet high
each.
 The main building has a drum & a dome with four cupolas.
 Towards the west of the structure is a mosque made of red sandstone.
 Towards the east is a similar structure to maintain the balance.
 Interior arrangements of the mausoleum: crypt below, vaulted, octagonal tomb chamber above; there is a room at
each angle which are all connected via corridors.
 Light comes into every corner of the building through perforated & carved jalis that are set in the arched recesses of
the interior.
 A double dome helps create a void that makes the ceiling as high as the façade.
 Four types of embellishments:
o Stone carvings in high & low relief on the walls.

o Marble carving onto the jalis & volutes.

o Creation of arabesques with pietra dura on walls & tombstones, & geometric designs with tessellation.
o Calligraphy – used in the inlay of jasper in white marble to write verses from the Quran.
Gol Gumbad


 Location: Bijapur, Karnataka.
 Mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah (1626–1656), Adil Shahi Dynasty of Bijapur (1489–1686).
 Built by Muhammad Adil Shah himself.
 Tomb is a complex consisting of a gateway, a mosque, a Naqqar Khana, & a sarai within a bigwalled garden.
 The building is a huge square one with a circular drum. Above the drum is a majestic dome.
 Material: dark gray basalt with decorated plasterwork.
 The whole building is over 200 feet high.
 The tomb has a square chamber.
 The dome is the largest in the world with a diameter of 125 feet & an uninterrupted floor space of 18337 square feet.
 Pendentives helped build the hemispherical masonry dome over the square base.
 The building has an impressive acoustic system with a whispering gallery where sounds get magnified & echoed
multiple times.
 At the four corners of the building there are seven-storeyed octagonal spires or minarets.
 This structure is a mix of many styles including local, Timurid & Persian styles.

[14] Difference b/w Gandhara & Mathura School of Art

GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ARTS
 During Kushana rule the Gandhara art prospered during the Kushana rule in India. Above all Kanishka, the greatest
of the Kushanas was a famous backer of art & architecture. The Gandhara School of art flourished in his reign.
Gandhara School was profoundly influenced by Greek methodologies.
 The figures of Buddha were more spiritual & carved mainly in grey & bluish-grey color & finest detailing.
MATHURA SCHOOL OF ARTS
 The Mathura School of Art was entirely influenced by Indianism. The stone used in Mathura school of arts was red
sandstone. The sculptures were less spiritual.
 They mostly used the spotted red sandstone for making sculptures & statues. The initial images of the
 Buddha & the Bodhisattva are happy & fleshy figures with little spirituality about them. The Mathura School of arts
prided themselves on creating images of Buddha & they also made statues of many gods & goddesses such as Jain
Tirthankaras.
DIFFERENCE b/w GANDHARA & MATHURA SCHOOL OF ARTS
Basis Gandhara School of Art Mathura School of Art

Reign Kushana Dynasty Kushana Dynasty

Area Northwest Frontier Mathura

Purely indigenous
Outside influences Greek influence
No foreign influence

Hinduism
Buddhism Buddhism
Religious influence
Hellenistic realism Jainism
Secularism

Bluish- Grey sandstone

Material Used Spotted red sandstone
Grey sandstone

Spiritual Buddha
Sad Buddha
Bearded Buddha
Less ornamentation
Great detailing
Buddha in Yogi postures
Features of Buddha Greek factors like wavy hair, Kausambhi
sculptures large forehead, long ears
Mudras of Buddha Abhayamudra - Don’t fear.
Delighted Buddha
Less spiritual
Shaven head & face
Muscularity
Energetic
Graceful posture of Buddha
Seated in Padmasana
Buddha surrounded by two monks
Padmapani (holding Lotus) & Vajrapani (Holding Vajra)
Halo around the head of Buddha decorated with
geometrical motifs
The Standing Buddhas of the Sravasti, Sarnath, &
Sarvatobhadrika image of 4 Jain Jinas
 Bhumisparshamudra -
Touching of the earth.
Dhyana mudra – Meditation.
Dharmachakramudra - A
in the Gandhara Art preaching. mudra.