See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/351954434

Action Research in Academics: A Brief Introduction

Presentation · May 2021

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.36543.43684

CITATIONS READS

2 1,855

1 author:

Vaibhav Verma
Maharshi Dayanand University
9 PUBLICATIONS   2 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Skill Enhancement India View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Vaibhav Verma on 29 May 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

ACTION
RESEARCH
In Academics: A Brief Introduction

Vaibhav Verma
Student, B.A. B.Ed. Prarambh SIASTE
Email: vaibhav.siaste@gmail.com
Table of Content:
1 • Research and it's meaning

2 • Types of Research

3 • Action Research and it's definitions

4 • Brief History of Action Research

5 • Scope of Action Research

6 • Aims and Objectives of Action Research

7 • Characteristics and Importance of Action Research

8 • Principles and Types of Action Research

9 • Basic Elements and Models of Action Research

10 • Cycle and Steps of Action Research

11 • Advantages and Limitation of Action Research

12 • What is an AR; When and Why do Action Research

13 • Hypothesis; Meaning and Definitions

14 • Nature and Main Features of Hypothesis

15 • Roles and Functions of Hypothesis

16 • Importance and Characteristics of Hypothesis

17 • Sources of Hypothesis

18 • Types of Hypothesis

19 • Uses of Hypothesis

20 • Different Forms for stating Hypothesis

21 • Formulation of Hypothesis

22 • Testing and Challenging Hypothesis

23 • Limitations of Hypothesis

24 • Criteria for Evaluating Hypothesis

25 • Action Research Question

26 • Formulating an AR Question

27 • Action Plan; Meaning

28 • What is an AP; Why develop an AP; When develop an AP

29 • How does Action Plan help

30 • Components of an Action Plan Framework

31 • VMOSA

32 • Contents of the Action Plan

33 • Action Plan

34 • Action Plan Matrix

35 • Action Plan Proposal and Report Structure

36 • Credits and References

What is Research?

Research comprises of two words RE and SEARCH. The word Research

is derived from the Middle French ‘Recherché’, which means ‘to go about
seeking’.

Repetition, Examine,
Anew Look through
Meaning of Research

R- Rational way of thinking

E- Expert and exhaustive treatment
S- Search for solutions
E- Exactness
A- Analytical analysis of adequate data
R- Relationship of facts
C- Careful recording, critical observation, constructive attitude
H- Honesty and hard work in all aspects of the treatment of data
 What is Research?

According to Earl Robert Babbie, an American sociologist, “Research is a

systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.”

 Inductive research methods  Deductive research methods

used to evaluate an observed used for the analysis of the observed

occurrence/event and are related to event and more generally correlated
Qualitative research. with Quantitative research.
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Utilizes Inductive reasoning (‘Bottom-Up’ Utilize Deductive reasoning (‘Top-Down’

approach) approach)

Requires narrative data Requires numerical data

Measure variables in order to test hypothesis

Broader, more holistic approach to research
or answer research questions

Research designs may be nonexperimental or

No control or manipulation of variables
experimental

Non-experimental designs has no direct

Numerous research designs exist:
control over variables and Experimental
Phenomenological and Ethnographic studies,
designs has control over one or more
Grounded theory research and Case studies.
variables.
Mixed-Methods Research

Studies that combine both quantitative data and qualitative data.

Many individuals consider action research studies to be most similar to

mixed-methods research rather than purely quantitative data or
qualitative data.
What is Educational Research?

Education research is the scientific field of study that examines

education and learning processes and the human attributes, interactions,
organizations, and institutions that shape educational outcomes.

Education research embraces the full spectrum of rigorous methods

appropriate to the questions being asked and also drives the development
of new tools and methods.
Types of Educational Research:

Historical
Research

Ex post-facto Descriptive
Research Research

Experimental Philosophical
Research Research
Types of Research
Fundamental Research

Fundamental Research conjointly referred to as Pure or Basic research.

This aims at discovering basic truths and principles.
This builds up broad generalizations, principles, theories of education.
This results in the discovery of useful concepts.
It is not involved with day-to-day issues.
Sophisticated tools, procedures, and techniques are employed.
Greater controls are exercised.
Generalizations deduced have wide applications.
Applied Research

Applied Research is also known as Field research.

It concerns establishing relationships and testing theories in the field
setting.
It applies the same to other samples of the population.
Already discovered facts, knowledge, principles and are put to
application in educational settings.
Aims at solving practical problems faced by teachers, planners,
administrators, curriculum specialists as also improving a product or a
process.
Exercises less control and precision as compared to fundamental
research.

Most educational research is applied research.

Attempts to develop generalizations about teaching learning processes

and instructional materials.
Fundamental Reseach vs Applied Research
Action Research (AR)

Action research is a type of research related to one’s professional

practice and is a spot research.

It is a systematic and orderly way for educators to observe their

practice or to explore a problem and a possible course of action.

Action research is also a type of inquiry that is preplanned, organized,

and can be shared with others.
●
Fundamental Research vs Action Research
Criteria Fundamental Research Action Research

Develop and test educational theory To find solutions to problems in a

Objectives
and derive generalizations. specific context.

Intensive training is needed in

Training Limited training is needed.
Research Methodology.

Participating teacher identify

A wide range of methods are used to
Problem problems during the teaching-
select a problem.
learning processes.

Highly specific hypothesis are Specific statement of the problem

Hypothesis
developed. serves as hypothesis.

Literature An exhaustive and thorough review No such thorough review of

Review of literature is required. literature is needed.
 Criteria Fundamental Research Action Research

Students studying in the class of a

Sample Considerably large sample size is required.
teacher forms sample.

Well thought experimental design is

Experimental Procedures are planned only in general
developed to maintain comparable
Design terms.
conditions and reducing error and bias.

Simple analysis procedures are usually

Data Analysis Complex analysis is often called for.
sufficient.

Conclusions may be in the form of

Conclusions Findings are local specific.
generalizations and developing theories.

Findings are used immediately in the

Findings The generalizations have broad applicability classroom situations by participating
teachers to improve their own practices
Definitions of Action Research
The process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in
order to guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and actions in what number of
people have called action research. – Corey Stephen (1962)

“Action research is research used by teachers, supervisors and

administrators to improve the quality of their decisions and actions”.
– C.V.Good (1959)

"On the spot research aimed at the solution of an immediate problem is

generally known in education as Action Research“. – Mouly (1964)

"Action Research is focused on the immediate application, not on the

development of theory. It has placed its emphasis on a real problem, here and
now, in a local setting“. – Best (1963)
Action Research in Education
• In the field of education, it can be defined as the process of studying a school,
classroom, or teaching-learning situation with the purpose of understanding and
improving the quality of actions or instruction.

• Action research takes place in the classroom of a teacher which includes a series
of activities focused on recognizing a question or concern, gathering knowledge
on the issue, designing a strategy to resolve the issue, carrying out the plan, and
evaluating its effects.

• Action research is a preplanned and systematic observation of one’s teaching

practice or teaching situation.
• Action research can be used to bridge the gap between education
research and teaching practice.

• Teacher empowerment can be facilitated with action research.

• Action research can be used as a replacement for traditional in-

services to enhance teachers’ professional growth and development.
A Brief History of Action Research

Kurt Lewin, a socio-psychologist is the pioneer of Action Research. The

term "action research" was first introduced in the 1934 by him.

According to him, the social environments may be improved by

collective processes requiring four phases.
Plan
Act
Observe
Reflect
(These steps proceed to the development of action research.)
Action research development takes place in three stages-
First stage- Identification of a method to resolve social issues.

Second stage- Improving practice and the need to engage

professionals.

Third stage- Participatory, emancipatory, or community-based

research in which groups take responsibilities for their own
emancipation and improvement.
Stephen Corey was the first to use action research in the field of
education.

In 1950 Action Research was attacked as unscientific, little more than a

common sense and the work of amateurs (McFarland & Stansell)
Scope of Action Research

Teaching &
Learning

Problematic Educational
Students psychology

SCOPE
Educational Educational
Sociology Technology

Educational
Administration
 To improve the
practice going on
presently in the
school.

To make the school

To remove the
or educational
notion that
personnel more
educational
cooperative and
research is the job
democratic in their
of specialists only.
world of work.

Aims and
Objectives
of AR
To make the
student, teachers
and educational To make the
administrators teacher and school
more conscious administrators
about their research minded.
problems and
immediate solution. To develop in the
practitioners the
required confidence
and ability to carry
out research for
solving their own
problems
Characteristics of Action Research
1 • It is situational

2 • It is a reflective inquiry

3 • It is based on scientific approach

4 • It is collaborative

5 • It is a small scale intervention

6 • It is a way to find remedies to overcome obstacles in learning

7 • It provides avenues for the teachers to be innovative

8 • It is a unified exercise to bridge the gap between theory and practice

9 • Its is context-specific and dynamic process

10 • It is self evaluative
 Importance of Action Research

Encourages school
improvements

Encourages a
cooperative
attitude towards
Enfranchise education
individuals by project
collaboration
Encourages
educators to give
more attention to
Promotes a their work
development
environment for
new concepts
 Principles of Action Research
What gives action research its unique flavour is the set of principles that guide the
research. Winter (1989) provides a comprehensive overview of six key principles.

1) Reflexive 3) Collaborative 5) Plural

critique Resource Structure

6) Theory,
2) Dialectical
4) Risk Practice,
critique
Transformation
 Reflexive critique

An account of a situation, such as notes, transcripts or official

documents, will make implicit claims to be authoritative, i.e., it implies
that it is factual and true. Truth in a social setting, however, is relative to
the teller. The principle of reflective critique ensures people reflect on
issues and processes and make explicit the interpretations, biases,
assumptions and concerns upon which judgments are made. In this way,
practical accounts can give rise to theoretical considerations.
 Dialectical critique

Reality, particularly social reality, is consensually validated, which is to

say it is shared through language. Phenomena are conceptualized in
dialogue, therefore a dialectical critique is required to understand the set
of relationships both between the phenomenon and its context, and
between the elements constituting the phenomenon. The key elements to
focus attention on are those constituent elements that are unstable, or in
opposition to one another. These are the ones that are most likely to
create changes.
 Collaborative Resource

Participants in an action research project are co-researchers. The

principle of collaborative resource presupposes that each person’s ideas
are equally significant as potential resources for creating interpretive
categories of analysis, negotiated among the participants. It strives to
avoid the skewing of credibility stemming from the prior status of an
idea-holder. It especially makes possible the insights gleaned from
noting the contradictions both between many viewpoints and within a
single viewpoint.
 Risk

The change process potentially threatens all previously established ways

of doing things, thus creating psychic fears among the practitioners. One
of the more prominent fears comes from the risk to ego stemming from
open discussion of one’s interpretations, ideas, and judgments. Initiators
of action research will use this principle to allay others’ fears and invite
participation by pointing out that they, too, will be subject to the same
process, and that whatever the outcome, learning will take place.
 Plural Structure

The nature of the research embodies a multiplicity of views,

commentaries and critiques, leading to multiple possible actions and
interpretations. This plural structure of inquiry requires a plural text for
reporting. This means that there will be many accounts made explicit,
with commentaries on their contradictions, and a range of options for
action presented. A report, therefore, acts as a support for ongoing
discussion among collaborators, rather than a final conclusion of fact.
 Theory, Practice, Transformation

For action researchers, theory informs practice, practice refines theory,

in a continuous transformation. In any setting, people’s actions are
based on implicitly held assumptions, theories and hypotheses, and with
every observed result, theoretical knowledge is enhanced. The two are
intertwined aspects of a single change process. It is up to the researchers
to make explicit the theoretical justifications for the actions, and to
question the bases of those justifications. The ensuing practical
applications that follow are subjected to further analysis, in a
transformative cycle that continuously alternates emphasis between
theory and practice.
 Types of Action Research

Types

Individual Collaborative School wide

Single Educator 2 – 4 Educators All Staff

Types of Action Research
Individual
Single issue in the classroom,
(classroom management,
Focus instructional
strategies, use of materials,
student learning, and so on).
Mentor /critical friend.
Possible
support Access to ICT and physical
required resources Leadership and
administrative support.
Collaborative School-Wide
May include few teachers or
groups interested in
addressing a common Issues common to all in the
classroom issue, trying out school such as the concern
one strategy in different on parental involvement,
classes or subjects or organizational structure.
common departmental
issues.
Mentor /critical friend. Access
Mentor /critical friend.
to ICT and physical resources
Access to ICT and physical
Proactive participation of the
resources Release time and
school community
substitute teachers.
Leadership & administrative
Leadership and administrative
support, Principal researcher
support.
from within the school.
 Individual Collaborative School-Wide
Self-improvement in the Self-improvement in the
delivery of curriculum, delivery of curriculum,
instruction and assessment instruction and assessment
Self-improvement in the
Enhanced team-work and Enhanced team-work and
delivery of curriculum,
Potential collaboration Develop a collaboration Strengthened
instruction and assessment
impact professional learning professional learning
Improved student learning
community Effective school community Effective school
outcome.
policy and procedure policy and procedure
Improved student learning Improved student learning
outcome. outcome.

Information about
the research and Disagreements on
Drawbacks Disagreements on process
findings may not be process
shared
 • A district issue
Focus • Organizational
structures

• Allocation of
District Wide resources,
Potential • Professional
Impact Development
Activities
• Policy

• District
• Improve commitment
Possible • Facilitator
Collegiality & Support
Collaboration • Recorder
required
• Team Building Side • Communication
• Shared Vision Effects • External Partners
• Disagreements on
Process
Basic Elements of Action Research
1 • Action research is systematic

2 • You do not start with an answer

3 • Action research projects vary in length

• The study must be adequately planned before

4
beginning to collect data

• Observations should be regular, but they do not

5
necessarily have to be long

6 • Action research is grounded in theory

7 • Action research is not an experimental study

Models of Action Research

1. Kurt Lewin’s model (1946)

2. Dave Ebbutt’s model (1985)

3. Kemmis and McTaggart’s model (1988)

4. Jean McNiff’s model (1988)

5. John Elliott’s model (1991)

6. JackWhitehead and McNiff’s model (2006)

 Kurt Lewin’s Model (1946)

His approach involves a spiral of steps,

‘each of which is composed of a circle of
planning, action and fact-finding about the
result of the action’. The basic cycle
involves the following:
The first step then is to examine the idea carefully in the light of the
means available. Frequently more fact-finding about the situation is
required. If this first period of planning is successful, two items emerge:
namely, “an overall plan” of how to reach the objective and secondly, a
decision in regard to the first step of action. Usually this planning has
also somewhat modified the original idea.

The next step is ‘composed of a circle of planning, executing, and

reconnaissance or fact-finding for the purpose of evaluating the results of
the second step, and preparing the rational basis for planning the third
step, and for perhaps modifying again the overall plan’. What we can see
here is an approach to research that is oriented to problem-solving in
social and organizational settings, and that has a form that parallels
Dewey’s conception of learning from experience.
Dave Ebbutt’s model (1985)
Ebbutt began by questioning the existing action research model. As a
result, he developed Lewin’s original method. His main qualm was with
the choice of graphic used to display the action research process.

Ebbutt preferred to use a series of successive cycles that promoted the

possibility of generating feedback at ‘mid cycle’ or between/within the
action cycles.

Interestingly, this model reflects nascent project management theories of

the time and is adaptable to a range of spheres, including social sciences,
education, business and economy.
Kemmis and McTaggart’s model (1988)
A similar model as Lewin’s of the cyclical nature of the typical action
research process. Each cycle has four steps: plan, act, observe, reflect.

In this model, it shows how reflection leads on to the next stage of

planning. The planning stage is not separate from the previous stage but
is embedded in action and reflection.

The short and multiple cycles are to ensure rigour. As it is intended that
the end result is change, effective action research depends upon the
agreement and commitment of those affected by it. This is achieved by
involving them directly in the research process.
Jean McNiff’s model (1988)
An aspect of the original 1988 diagram of a generative transformational
evolutionary process.

The diagram shows the process of development as an expanding spiral.

The spirals of action reflection unfold from themselves and fold back
again into themselves.

They attempt to communicate the idea of a reality which enfolds all its
previous manifestations yet which is constantly unfolding into new
versions of itself, constantly in a state of balance within disequilibrium.
John Elliott’s model (1991)
John Elliott points out that in using Lewin’s model, one might assume
that the ‘general idea’ can be fixed in advance, that ‘reconnaissance’ is
merely fact finding, and that ‘implementation’ is a fairly straightforward
process.

Elliot argues that the general idea should be allowed to change, that
reconnaissance should include analysis as well as fact finding and should
occur throughout the action research process and not only at the
beginning.

Elliott says that implementation is not a simple task and one should
monitor the effects of action before evaluation takes place.
 JackWhitehead and McNiff’s model (2006)

Whitehead and McNiff’s model consists of

5 disciplined and systematic steps in a
research cycle known as “action reflection”.

The cycle is complete with a plan to modify

the action and move in new and improved
directions.

The critical aspect of action research is that

of the individual “I” being at the centre of
the process, the “first person”.
Kurt Lewin’s Action Research Cycle
Plan

Action Research
Reflect Act
Cycle

Observe
 Planning

First stage planning- In this stage, the teacher researcher asks questions and
identifies the area of practice that he or she wants to change or improve upon.
Upon identifying the area, he or she takes stock of the situation by carrying
out a reconnaissance (situational analysis, competence and literature review)
to develop the AR question. The AR proposal framework should be used at
this stage and a description of the data collection methods provided.

Second stage planning- At this stage, the action plan is developed. It can be
presented in a matrix form indicating the activity and the time lines. This is
the activity plan which will be implemented in the acting stage.
 Acting

The teacher researcher implements the action plan and simultaneously

reflects on the process and modifies the plans as and where necessary.
The teacher researcher collects and compiles data while documenting the
modification(s) made.
 Observing

The teacher researcher observes the action process, the effects of action
(intended and unintended), the circumstances of and constraints on
action, the way circumstances and constraints limit or channel the
planned action and its effects, and other issues which arise.

In this stage, the teacher researcher also monitors, collates, analyses data,
and shares findings with co-researchers or colleagues for interpretation.
 Reflecting

Reflection is based on the analysis and findings to ascertain whether the

intervention or strategy worked and to better understand the reason(s)
why it did or did not work. This could lead to the next cycle.
Steps of Action Research
Identify an
issue
Set issue in
Report of
a
the
theoretical
Findings
context

Plan for
Plan of
Data
Action
Collection
Steps

Collect and
Make
Analyze
Conclusions
Data

Analyze
Allowing
and
the issue to
Organize
change
Data
NOTE: Action research is a recursive process
that does not always proceed in a linear
fashion. Thus, some of these steps may
need to be repeated several times, or they
may have to be done in a different order.
Steps 1: Ask a question, identify a problem,
or select a research topic

The first step in an action research project is to decide what to study.

Here, the action researcher asks a question, identifies a problem, or

defines an area of interest for exploration within his or her learning
environment.
Steps 2: Set the problem or research topic
in a theoretical context

This means doing a review of the literature. Here, professional journals,

books, and other professional resources are examined to see what others
have found out or say about the research topic.

Relating the action research topic to current theories or research lends

credibility and provides a theoretical context for your findings.

This also enables the action researcher to link theory and research
directly to what is happening in his or her learning environment.
 Finally, grounding an action research project in a solid theoretical
context helps to understand the phenomena being observed.

There are two approaches that might be taken in doing a literature review:

The first approach is to do the review of the literature before collecting data. Besides
setting the study in a theoretical context, the literature might also be used to help
formulate the question, refine the pedagogical method to be studied, or provide ideas
for collecting data.

The second approach is to review the literature as the data is being reported and the
conclusions are being drawn.
Steps 3: Make a plan for data collection

In a research report, this is known as methodology. Here you address the

following:
What data are going to be examined?
How is it going to be collected?
How often will it be collected?

Action research is a systematic observation; therefore, the elements of data

collection must be determined before the research begins.
●
 Elements for data collection
1
Case Studies Field notes
14 2

Logs and Meetings 13 3 Surveys

Interviews

Report Cards 12 The collection of data is an

4 Individual Files
important step in deciding
what action needs to be
taken. Multiple sources of
data are used to better
understand the scope of
happenings in the classroom
Anecdotal Records 11 or school or college. 5 Checklists

Diaries
Students Work,
10 6 Journals
Projects, Performances

Photos 9 7 Questionnaires
8
Steps 4: Begin to collect and analyze data

After you have identified at least two kinds of data, the data collection
process begins.

As data are collected, they are analyzed. If you are collecting qualitative
data, you will look for themes, categories, or patterns to emerge.

This initial analysis often influences further data collection by providing

insight as to what sorts of things to look for.
Steps 5: If necessary, allow the question or
problem to change as data are collected

Action research is a dynamic, ever-changing process.

It is very common to change teaching strategies, sources of data, or even

the focus of the study as data are being collected.

This is acceptable as long as the change and the reasons for change are
fully described when reporting the action research.
Steps 6: Analyze and organize the data

If data have been analyzed and organized as it was collected, this should
be the final step of an ongoing process.

In analyzing data, it needs to be established how many total things were

recorded, how many categories or kinds of things there are, and how
many things are in each category.

For qualitative data, analytic induction is the process that is used here
Steps 7: Make conclusions and
recommendations

The next step is to interpret the data or tell what it means.

Based on the data, what conclusions can be drawn? Recommendations

are then made based on the conclusions.

Here the research question is answered or the problem is addressed.

Also, as stated in step two, some action researchers include their review
of the literature at this point in order to set their conclusions in a
theoretical context.
Steps 8: Create a plan of action

This is the ‘action’ in action research.

Based on conclusions and recommendations, a plan of action is created.

Moreover, as the plan of action is implemented, it will need to be

evaluated as to its effectiveness.

Thus, the action research cycle continues.

Steps 9: Report your findings

This is where the facts or findings are presented, either in writing or in

some form of a professional presentation.

To be recognized by your school or district as a legitimate form of

professional development, you should be expected to produce some form
of a product or performance.

This could be a written report, or scholarly paper, or some type of

presentation.
Advantages of Action Research

It makes the teachers, students and educational administrators’

research and educational administrators’ research-minded.

It makes them improve their world of work habits and have practical
solutions to their problems. It makes them improve their practices
bring.

The results of such research findings can be best utilized for improving
their world of work and developing them professionally as much as
possible.
It helps in making the surroundings conditions and environment quite
conductive to proper teaching and learning.

It helps the teacher student and educational personnel to find the new
ways, acquire new interest, better motivation and enthusiasms for
playing their respective roles.

Action research makes the work environment of the school more co-
operative and democratic.
It helps in broadening the mental horizon and general outlook of the
student’s teachers and school personnel and educational administrator.

It makes the practitioners to acquire significant confidence to face and

solve the day to day problems with their own attempts within the
available resources.

It makes the teacher student and administrators not only to utilize

results of their findings but also to make use of the results of others
findings.
Limitations of Action Research

It lacks generalizability.

Action Research’s findings are relevant only to a specific classroom

that has been investigated, with its own unique characteristics. It may
give different results in other classrooms.

It requires time and special training. Teachers being unfamiliar with

research methods may become a disadvantage for them.

There is a range of models and processess.

 What is Action Research & what is NOT?

WHAT IS AR WHAT IS NOT AR

A process that improves education through
It is not problem solving, linear or conclusive.
change.
Its Collaborative, Cyclical, practical and
It is not about researching on or about people.
relevant.
It came within teacher’s environment. It is not Generalizing to larger populations.

It tells how things can be done in a better way. It is not about learning to do certain things.

It explores, discovers & seeks to find creative

solutions.
A way to improve instructional practice by
observing, revising, and reflecting.
Why do Action Research?

• To contribute to new practices

1
• (this is the action focus of action research)

• To contribute to new theory

2
• (this is the research focus of action research)

Both aspects are intertwined and interdependent.

Why do Action Research?

AR powers professional growth

AR makes change manageable

AR promotes collaboration

AR loves being shared

AR can power systems change

When to use AR and when Not

WHEN TO USE AR WHEN NOT TO USE AR

• Use action research when you want to
evaluate whether what you are doing is
influencing your own or other people’s
learning, or whether you need to do
something different to ensure that it is.
• Do not use action research if you want
to draw comparisons, show statistical
correlations, or demonstrate a cause
and effect relationship

• You may want to improve your

understandings, developing your
learning or influence others’ learning.
What is Hypothesis?

Hypothesis is a Greek word consists of two words Hypo & Thesis. he

word meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the
solution of the problem.

Hypo Thesis Hypothesis

Tentative Statement
verification about solution
Meaning of Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to

happen in your study. To be complete, the hypothesis must include three
components –
The variables.
The population.
The relationship between the variables.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the

hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of
research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong.
Definitions of Hypothesis
“It is a tentative supposition or provisional guess which seems to explain the
situation under observation.” – James E. Greighton

“It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally

adopted to explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further
investigation.” – John W. Best

“A theory when stated as a testable proposition formally and clearly and

subjected to empirical or experimental verification is known as a hypothesis.”
– M. Verma

“A hypothesis then could be defined as an expectation about events based on

generalization of the assumed relationship between variables.” – Bruce W.
Tuckman
 Assumption, Postulate And Hypothesis

Hypothesis: A hypothesis is different from

Assumption: Assumption means taking both of these. It is the presumptive statement of
Postulate: Postulates are the working a proposition which the investigator seeks to
things for granted so that the situation is
beliefs of most scientific activity. A prove. It is a condensed generalization. This
simplified for logical procedure.
postulate is a statement assumed to be generalization requires knowledge of
Assumptions are not the very ground of
true without need of proof of any kind. principles of things or essential characteristics
our activity as the postulates are. They which pertain to entire class of phenomena.
A postulate states an assumption that
merely facilitate the progress of an The theory when stated as a testable
we make about some relationship
agreement a partial simplification by proposition formally and clearly and subjected
between objects. to empirical or experimental verification is
introducing restrictive conditions.
known as hypothesis.
Nature of Hypothesis

The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be

investigated. It should be specified before research is conducted and
openly stated in reporting the results. This allows to Identify…

The research objectives.

The key abstract concepts involved in the research.
Its relationship to both the problem statement and the literature review.
Main Features of A Hypothesis
•It is conceptual in nature.

•It is a verbal statement in a declarative form.

•It has the empirical referent.

•It indicates the tentative relationship between two or more variables.

•It is a powerful tool of advancement of knowledge, consistent with existing knowledge and conducive to further enquiry.

•It can be tested, verifiable or falsifiable.

•It is not moral or ethical questions.

•It is neither too specific nor to general.

•It is a prediction of consequences.

•It is considered valuable even if proven false.

Roles of Hypothesis

Helps in the testing of the theories.

Serves as a great platform in the investigation activities.
Provides guidance to the research work or study.
Hypothesis sometimes suggests theories.
Helps in knowing the needs of the data.
Explains social phenomena.
Develops the theory.
Also acts as a bridge between the theory and the investigation.
Provides a relationship between phenomena in such a way that it leads
to the empirical testing of the relationship.
Helps in knowing the most suitable technique of analysis.
Helps in the determination of the most suitable type of research.
Provides knowledge about the required sources of data.
Research becomes focused under the direction of the hypothesis.
It is very helpful in carrying out an enquiry of a certain activity.
Helps in reaching conclusions, if it is correctly drawn.
Functions of Hypothesis

There are five main functions of hypothesis in the research process

suggested by Mc. Ashan-

1. It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth

which enables an investigator to start his/her research works.

2. It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may
provide possible solutions to the problem.

3. Each hypothesis may lead to formulate another hypothesis.

4. A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.

5. Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement

which may be objectively tested and accepted or rejected and leads for
interpreting results and drawing conclusions that is related to original
purpose.
Importance of Hypothesis

It serves as
Separating
the Act as a guide
Relevant
investigator’s and Prevents
From
eyes and do blind
Irrelevant
to the point research.
observation.
enquiry.
Development
of Research
Direction of
Technique
research.
with clear and
specific goals.
Characteristics of A Good Hypothesis

It is never formulated in the form of a question.

It should be empirically testable, whether it is right or wrong.

It should be specific and precise and not be contradictory.

It should specify variables between which the relationship is

to be established.

It should describe one issue only. A hypothesis can be

formed either in descriptive or relational form.
It does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to
be true.

It guarantees that available tools and techniques will be

effectively used for the purpose of verification.

It should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so

that the same is easily understandable by all concerned.

It must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
explanation.

It should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time.

Sources of Hypothesis

Hypothesis are originated from essentially the same background that

serves to reveal problem. These sources are namely theoretical
background, knowledge, insight and imagination that come from
instructional program and wide reading experiences, familiarity with
existing practices.

The major sources of hypothesis are mentioned ahead

 Considering Offshoots of
Specialization of Instructional existing research
an educational programs practices and studies in the
field. persuaded. needs. field.

Published Analyze of Extension of

studies, the area the
abstracts studied. investigation.
research
journals.
Researcher employs these sources for formulating hypothesis of his/her
investigation. S/he has to use two logical processes to drawn upon in
developing a hypothesis.

The processes are known as –

(a) Inductive thinking.
(b) Deductive thinking.
Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

Theory Theory

Tentative Hypothesis
Hypothesis

Patterns Data

Observations Confirmation
Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

Deduction is a process which goes from the general to the specific. In deduction,
general expectations about problems or events based on presumed relationships
between variables are used to arrive at more specific expectations.

Induction is a process which goes from the specific to the general. In the
induction process researcher starts with specific observations and combines them
to produce a more general statement of relationship namely a hypothesis.

Many researchers begin by searching the literature for relevant specific findings
in order to induce a hypothesis, and other often run a series of exploratory studies
before attempting to induce a hypothesis.

Induction begins with data and observations or empirical events and proceeds
toward hypothesis and theories, while deduction begins with theories and general
hypothesis and proceeds towards specific hypothesis.
Sources of Hypothesis
Hunch or intuition: A hypothesis may be based simply on hunch or intuition of a
person. It is a sort of virgin idea. Such a hypothesis, if tested, may ultimately
make an important contribution to the existing science or body of knowledge.

Findings of other: A hypothesis may originate from findings of other study or

studies. A hypothesis that rests on the findings of other studies is obviously free
from the first limitation, i.e. there is no assurance that it may relate with other
studies.

General social culture: General social culture furnishes many of its basic
hypothesis. Particular value-orientation in the culture, if it catches attention of
social scientists for their careful observation, generates a number of empirically
testable propositions in the form of hypothesis.
Analogy: Analogies may be one of the fertile sources of hypothesis. Analogies
stimulate new valuable hypothesis. They are often a fountainhead of valuable
hypothesis. Even casual observation in the nature or in the framework of another
science may be a fertile source of hypothesis.

Personal experience: Not only do culture, science and analogy, among others,
affect the formulation of hypothesis. The way in which an individual reacts to
each of these is also a factor in the statement of hypothesis.

Thus, a hypothesis may originate from a variety of sources, in isolation or in

combination with another. However, in spite of these fertile sources of
hypothesis, it is not easy to formulate a usable or workable hypothesis. It is often
more difficult to find and formulate a problem than to solve it.
Types of Hypothesis

Non-
Associative
directional

Directional Casual

Inductive &
Complex
Deductive

Simple Types Null

Simple Hypothesis:
This predicts the relationship between a single independent variable (IV)
and a single dependent variable (DV). For example: Lower levels of
exercise postpartum (IV) will be associated with greater weight retention
(DV).
Complex Hypothesis:
This predicts the relationship between two or more independent
variables and two or more dependent variables. Example of a complex
multiple independent variable hypothesis - low risk pregnant women
(IV) who value health highly; believe that engaging in health promoting
behaviors will result in positive outcomes; perceive fewer barriers to
health promoting activities; are more likely than other women to attend
pregnancy-related education programs (DV).
Directional Hypothesis:
This may imply that the researcher is intellectually committed to a
particular outcome. They specify the expected direction of the
relationship between variables i.e. the researcher predicts not only the
existence of a relationship but also its nature. Scientific journal articles
generally use this form of hypothesis. The investigator bases this
hypothesis on the trends apparent from previous research on this topic.

Considering the example, a researcher may state the hypothesis as, ‘High school students who participate in
extracurricular activities have a lower GPA than those who do not participate in such activities.’ Such
hypothesis provide a definite direction to the prediction.
Non-directional Hypothesis:
This form of hypothesis is used in studies where there is no sufficient
past research on which to base a prediction. Do not stipulate the
direction of the relationship.

Continuing with the same example, a non-directional hypothesis would read, ‘The academic performance of
high school students is related to their participation in extracurricular activities.’
Associative Hypothesis:
Associative hypothesis propose relationships between variables, when
one variable changes, the other changes. Do not indicate cause and
effect.
Causal Hypothesis:
Causal hypothesis propose a cause and effect interaction between two or
more variables. The independent variable is manipulated to cause effect
on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is measured to
examine the effect created by the independent variable.

For the example mentioned, the causal hypothesis will state, ‘High school students who participate in
extracurricular activities spend less time studying which leads to a low GPA.’ When verifying such
hypothesis, the researcher needs to use statistical techniques to demonstrate the presence of a relationship
between the cause and effect. Such hypothesis also need the researcher to rule out the possibility that the
effect is a result of a cause other than what the study has examined.
Inductive and Deductive hypothesis:

Inductive hypothesis are formed through inductively reasoning from

many specific observations to tentative explanations.

Deductive hypothesis are formed through deductively reasoning

implications of theory.
Null Hypothesis:
This is a hypothesis that proposes no relationship or difference between
two variables. This is the conventional approach to making a prediction.
It involves a statement that says there is no relationship between two
groups that the researcher compares on a certain variable. The
hypothesis may also state that there is no significant difference when
different groups are compared with respect to a particular variable.

For example, ‘There is no difference in the academic performance of high school students who participate in
extracurricular activities and those who do not participate in such activities’ is a null hypothesis. It asserts
that there is no true difference in the sample statistic and population parameter under consideration. It is
denoted as H0.
The rejection of the null hypothesis indicates that the differences have statistical significance and
the acceptance of the null hypothesis indicates that the differences are due to chance.
Alternate or Research Hypothesis:
This hypothesis proposes a relationship between two or more variables,
symbolized as H1.

For example, if a researcher was interested in examining the relationship

between music and emotion, s/he may believe that there is a relationship
between music and emotion.
Alternate or Research Hypothesis:
H1 (the research/alternate hypothesis): Music at a fast tempo is rated by
participants as being happier than music at a slow tempo.
H0 (the null hypothesis): Music at a fast tempo and at a slow tempo is
rated the same in happiness by participants.

The two hypothesis we propose to test must be mutually exclusive; i.e.,

when one is true the other must be false. And we see that they must be
exhaustive; they must include all possible occurrences.
Statistical Hypothesis:
Statistical hypothesis is an assumption about statistical populations that
one seeks to support or refute. The null hypothesis and alternative
hypothesis together are called statistical hypothesis.
Uses of Hypothesis in Educational
Research
The educational researches may be classified into four types: experimental research;
normative survey research; historical research; and complex casual research.

hypothesis are indispensable for experimental researches. The experiments are

conducted to collect empirical data to verify hypothesis. The experimental
method or experimental designs are based on hypothesis. hypothesis are the
crucial aspects of such researches.
●
In normative survey research the investigator may or may not employ
hypothetical type thinking, depending upon the purpose of the research study.
hypothesis are essential for analytical studies and there is little scope in
descriptive type studies.
 In historical research the purpose may be either to produce a faithful record of
the past events irrespective of present day problem or to extend the experience
with phenomena in the present to past in order to make the view of the
phenomena. There is a little scope of hypothesis in historical research because
hypothesis has the future reference and its verification on empirical data. Case
study method has no scope for constructing hypothesis because it is
developmental type study.
●
In complex casual research the hypothesis have important role in such
investigations. These types of studies are conceptual in nature whereas
historical are more factual in nature. Therefore formulation of hypothesis is a
crucial step of this type of studies.
Different Forms for Stating AH

Declarative
form

Question
form

Predictive
Null form
form
Declarative form: An action hypothesis may be formulated as a
statement with a positive relationship between the two factors identified,
one being the cause and the other being the effect. This is also called a
directional hypothesis.

Predictive form: An action hypothesis clearly predicting the expected out

come which would emerge after the action plan is implemented. This can
be stated using ‘if and then’ statement.
Question form: Questions can be raised as action hypothesis as what
would be the result of the intended action plan.

Null form: A null hypothesis states that no relationship exists between

the factors considered in the problems. This form is mostly used when
rigorous statistical techniques are to be used. (A thoroughly worked out
example for all these forms is given in the next unit). Thus, an action
hypothesis provides clarity and direction to solve a problem. Hence it is
considered an important stage in action research.
 Formulation of Hypothesis
To form a hypothesis the investigator should:
Make a real
effort to look at
the problem in
new ways other
Have a than the regular
thorough practices (come
knowledge out form Think of many
about the conventional alternative State the
problem thinking) solutions. hypothesis

Be clear about Give Thoroughly

the desired goal importance for examine the
(solution) imagination and conditions/cont
speculation exts in which
the problem
exists and then
Testing and Challenging Hypothesis

The degree of challenge to the hypothesis will depend on the type of

problem and its importance. It can range from just seeking “a good
enough” solution to a much more rigorous challenge.

The term “challenging” may include:

Verification Justification Refutability Validity Rectification Repeatability

There are two possibilities:

Nothing Happened

The Null Hypothesis - Ho

Something Happened

The Alternative Hypothesis - H1

●
 Hypothesis testing is a four-step procedure:

Stating the Setting the

Evaluate the
hypothesis (Null criteria for a Collecting data
Null hypothesis
or Alternative) decision
There are two types of errors in the context of hypothesis.

Type I Error Type II Error

Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis (H0) is wrongly rejected.

Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis (H0) is not rejected
when it is in fact false.
●
 Type I Error

A Type I error, also known as an error of the first kind, occurs when the null hypothesis (H0) is
true, but is rejected.
A Type I error may be compared with a so called false positive.

A Type I error occurs when the investigator believe a falsehood.

The rate of the Type I error is called the size of the test and denoted by the Greek letter α (alpha).

It usually equals the significance level of a test.

If Type I error is fixed at 5 %, it means that there are about 5 chances in 100 that the investigator
will reject H0 when H0 is true.
 Type II Error

Type II error, also known as an error of the second kind, occurs when the null hypothesis is false,
but erroneously fails to be rejected.
Type II error means accepting the hypothesis which should have been rejected.

A Type II error may be compared with a so-called False Negative.

A Type II error is committed when we fail to believe a truth.

A Type II error occurs when one rejects the alternative hypothesis (fails to reject the null
hypothesis) when the alternative hypothesis is true.
The rate of the Type II error is denoted by the Greek letter β (beta) and related to the power of a
test (which equals 1-β).
If there is a diagnostic value distinguish the choice of two means, moving
it to decrease type I error will increase type II error (and vice-versa)
 Differences Between Type I Errors And Type II Errors

TYPE I ERROR TYPE II ERROR

A type 2 error is when a statistic does not give enough
A type 1 error is when a statistic calls for the rejection
evidence to reject a null hypothesis even when the
of a null hypothesis which is factually true.
null hypothesis should factually be rejected.

We may reject H0 when H0 is true is known as Type I We may accept H0 when infect H0 is not true is
error. known as Type II Error.

A type 1 error is called a false positive. A type 2 error is a false negative.

It denoted by the Greek letter α (alpha). It denoted by the β (Beta).

Null hypothesis and type I error Alternative hypothesis and type II error
 Type III Error

Many statisticians are now adopting a third type of error, a type III,
which is where the null hypothesis was rejected for the wrong reason.

In an experiment, a researcher might assume a hypothesis and perform

research. After analyzing the results statistically, the null is rejected.

The problem is, that there may be some relationship between the
variables, but it could be for a different reason than stated in the
hypothesis. An unknown process may underlie the relationship.
Limitations of Hypothesis Tests

We have some important tests (both parametric and non parametric)

often used for testing hypothesis on the basis of which important
decisions may be based. But there are several limitations of the said tests
which should always be borne in mind by a researcher.

Important limitations are mentioned ahead

 The tests should not be used in a mechanical fashion. It should be kept
in view that testing is not decision-making itself; the tests are only
useful aids for decision-making. Hence, proper interpretation of
statistical evidence is important to intelligent decisions.
●
Test do not explain the reasons as to why do the difference exist, say
between the means of the two samples. They simply indicate whether
the difference is due to fluctuations of sampling or because of other
reasons but the tests do not tell us as to which is/are the other reason(s)
causing the difference.
 Results of significance tests are based on probabilities and as such
cannot be expressed with full certainty. When a test shows that a
difference is statistically significant, then it simply suggests that the
difference is probably not due to chance.
●
Statistical inferences based on the significance tests cannot be said to
be entirely correct evidences concerning the truth of the hypothesis.
This is specially so in case of small samples where the probability of
drawing erring inferences happens to be generally higher. For greater
reliability, the size of samples be sufficiently enlarged.
All these limitations suggest that in problems of statistical significance,
the inference techniques (or the tests) must be combined with adequate
knowledge of the subject-matter along with the ability of good judgement.
Criteria for Evaluating Hypothesis

Some hypothesis are considered more satisfactory than others. The

following are the serious considerations of a satisfactory hypothesis and
these criteria may be helpful to make this judgement.

Plausibility Roots in
Adequacy Simplicity of
of Existing
of Scope Explanation
Explanation Theories

Usefulness Suitability
Testability of
of False for Intended
Explanation
hypothesis Purpose
Hence, the basic criteria for evaluating research hypothesis are –

(a) stated in declarative form;

(a) (b) consistent with known facts, prior research, or theory;
(b) (c) logical extension of the research problem;
(c) (d) states an expected relationship between two or more variables;
(d) (e) can be tested;
(e) (f) is clear and concise.
Action Research Question
As a result of doing reconnaissance, the teacher researcher develops a research question. There
are two sets of criteria that can be used to frame AR question as given below:

General criteria for developing AR questions:

Limit the question to one that is meaningful and doable in the confines
of daily work.
Be higher-order questions and not yes or no questions.
Be stated in common language avoiding jargons.
Be concise and specific.
Not already have an answer.
Be specific, achievable, strategic and improvement oriented.
Maxwell’s criteria for developing AR questions:

Specific (Can I gather data about this?)

Strategic (Will it make a difference to my practice or the situation or
both?)
Do ability (Can I possibly change this in the time given?)
Some Examples of AR Questions

1. How can I collaborate to improve student assessment?

2. How can I improve the conferencing process using student led conferences?

3. Will dictation of difficult words help students improve their English spelling?

4. What strategies can I use to become an effective classroom manager?

5. Would more time spent in cooperative learning groups help students

understand concepts at a higher level?

The above five questions are all acceptable AR questions. Some questions appear as a yes or no
type questions (question 3 and 5). However, these questions are action oriented. They are
asking the researcher to act or do something for improvement and are of a higher order.
Formulating an AR Question

The following three steps can be followed if one finds it difficult to

frame an AR question.

Step 1.

Identifying the problem – The starting point to formulate an AR question

is the problem statement or problem identification.

For example – a problem can be – ‘students do not engage in reading

independently’.
Step 2.

Why is this problem occurring? – Try to hypothesize the possible causes

of the problem. List down all that comes to one’s mind.

For example –

Lack of Lack of Poor study Lack of Lack of support

knowledge resources habits motivation at home

From the above five possible causes, choose the one that is the main
cause.
Let us say the main cause is the lack of motivation.
Step 3.

Brainstorm possible actions - Brainstorm all the possible actions that can
be carried out to address the lack of motivation.

Example –

Setting up a
Calling parents Letting students Providing reading
learning contract to
every day read on computer materials
provide motivation.

Now choose the best possible action. The best one can be setting up a
learning contract to provide motivation.
Following the three steps mentioned before, one can finally design an
AR question as suggested below:

If I draw a learning contract that I will reward students for reading

independently, will the amount of time they spend in reading increase?

Or

How can I help students increase their independent reading time by

establishing a contract of rewarding students?
Meaning of Action Plan

An Action Plan is a plan created to organize a district- or school-

improvement effort. It may take the form of an internal school document
or a website that can be viewed publicly. Action plans may be reviewed
and revised annually—based on progress made over the course of the
preceding year or to reflect evolving school goals and values—but
multiyear action plans are also common.
Action plans typically include information such as the following:

A school’s improvement goals, such as targets for improved student test

performance or graduation rates
The specific actions or strategies a school will undertake to achieve its goals
The roles and responsibilities assigned to staff members
The project timeline or the deadlines to be met
The resources allocated to its execution
The milestones or growth targets expected to be achieved at specific stages of
the plan’s execution
The data or other forms of evidence that will be collected for the purposes
of action research or project evaluation
While the “plan of action” concept is straightforward, the design, use, and
purpose of action plans may differ significantly from district to district or school
to school. That said, there are generally two basic forms of action plan:
A systemic action plan is designed to organize a comprehensive or multifaceted educational-
improvement plan focused systems-level changes—major redesigns of the structure and operations
of a district or school, particularly its academic program. A systemic plan would map out and
organize the complexities of coordinating such an initiative, typically for the purpose of making sure
that the plan is coherently designed (all the parts are feasible and work together), aligned in both
purpose and execution (all the parts make sense and are focused on achieving the same goals), and
understood and agreed on by all those responsible for its execution.

A project-specific action plan is similar in all major features to a systemic action plan, except that
its scope would be limited to a district program, grant-funded initiative, academic department, or
some other subordinate part of a school system. The potential downside of a project-specific action
plan is that it may fail to take into account potential effects on the larger system, or its execution may
result in redundancies or other unforeseen conflicts with pre-existing plans or programs.
What is an Action Plan?

A process to increase your community’s ability to:

 Affect conditions and outcomes by working together over time and

across issues of interest.

An action plan outlines:

 What should happen to achieve the vision.

 Desirable changes and proposed activities.
 Who will do what by when.
Why Develop an Action Plan?
To lend
credibility to
your
organization.

Don't
For
overlook
accountability
details.

For For
efficiency. feasibility.
When should you utilize an AP?

Within the first 6-12 months of starting an initiative or organization, an

action plan should be created.

The action plan should be revisited frequently and revised to meet

changing needs.

The "A" in VMOSA

How does Action Planning Help?

Understand the issues.

Generate action steps.

Assure inclusive and integrated participation.

Build consensus on what should be done.

Specify concrete ways to take action.

An action plan helps assure that

No detail is overlooked.

Proposed action steps are feasible.

Collaborators follow through with their commitments.

Measurable activities are documented and evaluated.

Components of an AP framework

Determine people and Develop an action

Convene a planning
sectors of the plan to address
group.
community to involve. proposed changes.

Review your action Communicate

Implement the plan.
plan for completeness. progress.

Celebrate progress
Document progress. and revisit and revise
the action plan.
VMOSA

Vision

Action Mission

Strategies Objective
Vision

Craft a vision statement that is:

Understood and shared by members of the organization.

Broad enough to include a diverse variety of perspectives.
Inspiring and uplifting.
Easy to communicate.
Mission

Create your mission statement to be:

Concise.
Outcome-oriented.
Inclusive.
Objectives

Develop objectives that are “SMART+C”:

Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Relevant
Timed
Challenging
Strategies

Broad strategies for change include:

Advocacy
Coalition building
Community development
Education
Networking
Policy or legislative change
Contents of the action plan

What action or change will occur?

Who will carry it out?

By when (for how long)?

What resources are needed?

Communication (who should know what?)

Action Plan

An action plan summarizes the Action Research thoughts into a plan that
will guide the teacher researcher.

It is presented in a tabular format as given ahead (Action Plan A) or in a

matrix form indicating the activity and timeline.

Additional information necessary for such things as resources required

may be inserted under the remarks column.
Action Plan A
Action Plan

Action Plan B has been developed incorporating important steps that are
required in applying for the Sherig Endowment Fund.

A Flow Chart has also been created to show the order of process for the
application of Sherig Endowment Fund.
Action Plan B
Action Plan Matrix
Action Research Proposal Structure

Having a proposal is necessary for carrying out Action Research in a

formal context, and to avail funds and support required during the
research process. Developing a proposal helps the researcher think
through the process of research and to address the research objective.

An Action Research proposal is developed consisting of the following

components:
Action Research Proposal Structure

Title: Related to the Action Research question (It should not be in a

question form)
Introduction: Short paragraph on the background or context of your
Action Research
Aims and objectives of the Action Research
Reconnaissance: Situational analysis, literature review and
competence (Capture problem formulation under situational analysis).
Action Research questions: State the AR questions.
Data plan (Methodology): Describe the methods of data collection.
Intervention plan: Describe the intended intervention methods
Ethical clearance: Complete the Ethics Clearance Form (Annexure 2)
and apply for ethical clearance
Action plan (Timeline): Describe the activities and state the Timeline
References: List the references used using APA style
Appendixes: Include necessary materials developed such as
questionnaires, interview questions and budgetary plan if applying for
fund.
Action Research Report Structure

Action research report is a detailed document on intervention, research

process, methodology, data interpretation, conclusions reached, lessons
learnt and changes made in the researcher’s practice. The report is
necessary for documentation, knowledge dissemination, and publication.
Action Research Report Structure
The AR report consists of the following:

Title: Related to the Action Research question

Introduction: Short paragraph about the potential benefit of the Action
Research and your situation. State or outline the model you plan to use
in the study.
Reconnaissance: Situational analysis, competence and literature
review
Action Research questions: State the AR question
Data plan (Methodology) and Action plan (Timeline)

Act: What you did including differences from the action plan; clearly
show how you modified your plans as the actions were monitored.

Observe: Present each data set separately as a trend. Compare and

triangulate.

Reflect: Did your action improve behaviour or situation? Why do you

think these outcomes occurred? Did your competence improve?
Conclusion: Briefly summarize main findings, suggest future cycle or
research project ideas
Reference: List the references used in your study using the APA style
of referencing
Appendixes: Include necessary materials developed such as
questionnaires and additional materials used.
 CREDITS

This work on "Action Research In Academics:

A Brief Introduction" is solely done by
Vaibhav Verma, Student of B.A. B.Ed. at
Prarambh State Institute of Advanced Studies
in Teacher Education, Jhajjar, Haryana.

● Email: vaibhav.siaste@gmail.com
 REFERENCES
Action Plan. (2013). https://www.edglossary.org/action-plan/

Action research in relation to other types of research. (2011).

https://wikieducator.org/ACTION_RESEARCH_IN_RELATION_TO_OTHER_TYPES_OF_RESEARC
H#Web_Resources

Action Research. (2009). http://sathitech.blogspot.com/2009/06/action-research.html

Aylara, P. (2014). Action Research. https://www.slideshare.net/aylaraprejith/action-research-38530286

Bharti. (2016). Action Research. https://www.slideshare.net/Bharti8/action-research-62568175

Chauhan, N. (2020). Understanding Hypothesis Testing for Data Science.

https://medium.datadriveninvestor.com/understanding-hypothesis-testing-for-data-science-df952bbc1ef9
 REFERENCES
Choeda, Choeda & Drukpa, Pema & Yuden, & Dukpa, Pedup & Chuki, Sonam. (2018). A Guide to
Action Research: Enhancing Professional Practice of Teachers in Bhutan.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326647992_A_Guide_to_Action_Research_Enhancing_Profess
ional_Practice_of_Teachers_in_Bhutan

Choo. Y. (2018) TSL3133 Topic 5 Action Research Concepts and Models

https://www.slideshare.net/YeeBeeChoo/tsl3133-topic-5-action-research-concepts-and-models

ClipArt’s were retrieved from: http://clipart-library.com/

Community Action Guide A Framework for Addressing Community. (2014).

https://slidetodoc.com/community-action-guide-a-framework-for-addressing-community/

Connecting Practice to Research (and back to Practice): Making the leap from design practice to design
research - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-
Action-Research-Cycles-based-on-McNiff-and-Whitehead-2006_fig2_255550987
 REFERENCES
Dave Ebbutt’s Model (1985) https://detactionresearchbfc.wordpress.com/dave-ebbutts-model-1985/

Dawes, M. (2016). The Invention of The Airplane. https://discover.hubpages.com/education/The-

Invention-of-The-Airplane

Delaware 10-Digit Dialing. (n.d.). https://www.delaware-surf-fishing.com/delaware-10-digit-dialing/

Ebbutt, D. (1985) Educational Action research: some general concerns and specific quibbles, in: Burgess,
R. (ed.) Issues in Educational Research: qualitative methods. Lewes, Falmer.

Enhancing Web Course Design Using Action Research - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Retrieved
from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Ebbutts-action-research-model-Ebbutt-1985-
166_fig5_228718833

Formulation of action hypothesis. (2008). Retrieved from

https://wikieducator.org/index.php?title=Formulation_of_action_hypothesis&oldid=145416
 REFERENCES
Johnson, A. (2012) Introduction to Action Research. A Short Guide in Action Research 4th Edition.
Pearson publication.

Joseph, A. (2016) Steps for Action Research https://www.slideshare.net/ArunJoseph22/steps-for-action-

research

Kabir, Syed Muhammad. (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research. FORMULATING AND TESTING
HYPOTHESIS.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846748_FORMULATING_AND_TESTING_HYPOTHESI
S

Kabir, Syed Muhammad. (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846997_METHODS_OF_DATA_COLLECTION

Kumar, A. (2019). Best Free Online Research Courses. https://www.freestudy.com/best-free-online-

research-courses/

Lewin, K. (2020). https://twitter.com/KurtLewin1890/photo

 REFERENCES
MCJ. (2020). What is Research?. https://mcjresearch.com/what-is-research/

McNiff, J & Whitehead, J. (2006). All You Need To Know About Action Research. SAGE Publications.
London. Page 107 – 153

McNiff, J. (2013) Action Research: Principles and Practice (3rd. ed.). New York: Routledge.
https://kapanjadibeda.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/action-research-princip-and-practice.pdf

Meaning and Definition of Teaching Task. (2015). http://edtechchapter6.blogspot.com/2015/07/meaning-

and-definition-of-teaching-task_23.html

Metcalfe, T. (2020). The largest electric plane yet completed its first flight — but it's the batteries that
matter. https://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/largest-electric-plane-yet-completed-its-first-
flight-it-s-n1221401

Mohanty, S. (2015). Action Research in Education. https://www.slideshare.net/sankar1975/action-

research-in-education-55307305
 REFERENCES
Music, Mental Health and Wellbeing (Issue 6. Vol.1) - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available
from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Cycle-of-action-research-McNiff-and-Whitehead-
2009_fig2_333995744

O'Brien, R. (2001). Um exame da abordagem metodológica da pesquisa ação [An Overview of the
Methodological Approach of Action Research]. In Roberto Richardson (Ed.), Teoria e Prática da
Pesquisa Ação [Theory and Practice of Action Research]. João Pessoa, Brazil: Universidade Federal da
Paraíba. (English version) Available: http://www.web.ca/~robrien/papers/arfinal.html

Pfau, S. (n.d.). Section 9. Community Action Guide: Framework for Addressing Community Goals and
Problems. https://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/overview/model-for-community-change-and-
improvement/community-action-guide/main

Porter, C. (2012). CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Action Research.

https://www.slideserve.com/collier/introduction-to-action-research
 REFERENCES
Prajapati, S. (2013). Type i and type ii errors. https://www.slideshare.net/p24ssp/type-i-and-type-ii-errors

Research and It’s Definitions. (n.d.). https://www.licitelite.com/research-skills-pge-1

Shirvalkar, R. (2019). Action Research. https://www.slideshare.net/RajashekharShirvalka/action-

research-143594360?qid=df11ac79-5946-44da-b493-2745c71b594d&v=&b=&from_search=3

Smith, M. K. (1996; 2001, 2007, 2017) What is action research and how do we do it?’, The encyclopedia
of pedagogy and informal education. https://infed.org/mobi/action-research/

Tan, S. (2017). Top 5 Best Full Display Smartphones: Apple iPhone X, Samsung Galaxy S8, S8+, Note8
and Other. https://www.colourmylearning.com/2017/10/top-5-best-full-display-smartphones-apple-
iphone-x-samsung-galaxy-s8-s8-note8-and-other/

The action research in ELICOS Program: Refining the development of a national model. - Scientific
Figure on ResearchGate. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Kemmis-and-McTaggart-
model-198811-14-cited-in-Burns-2010_fig1_282201927
 REFERENCES
Thorson, T. Beliveau, K. (2012). Action Research.
https://actionresearchiied.files.wordpress.com/2018/01/actionresearchtrudythorson.pdf

Type I and type II errors. (2016). https://infogalactic.com/info/Type_I_and_type_II_errors

Venables, M. (2020). Quantitative, Qualitative, or Maybe Both?.

https://towardsdatascience.com/quantitative-qualitative-or-maybe-both-542553d09918

Wallace, G. (2019). Stephen Jared Corey https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/106370589/stephen-

jared-corey/photo

What is Educational Research?. (n.d.). https://www.aera.net/About-AERA/What-is-Education-Research

Whitehead, J., & McNiff, J. (2006). Action research living theory. London: SAGE Publications.

Whitehead, J., & McNiff, J. (2006). All you need to know about Action Research. https://another-
roadmap.net/articles/0002/0972/mcniff-a-jack-whitehead-all-you-need-to-know-about-action-research-
2006.pdf
View publication stats