Learning Objectives

• To learn the fundamental concept in Business

research methods (BRM)
• To understand the fundamental concept of
Business research methods (BRM)
• To apply the BRM in Thesis or Dissertation
writing
 Type of Research…..
• There 3 type of research…..
1. PhD / DBA Thesis
Research….Quantitative / Qualitative
2. Action Research – It makes a
contribution to practice and research
3. Case Study Research
1. PhD / DBA Thesis
Research….Quantitative / Qualitative
 Business research
• What is Business Research?
i. “The application of the scientific method in searching for the
truth about business phenomena. These activities include
defining business opportunities and problems, generating and
evaluating ideas, monitoring performance and understanding the
business processes” (Zikmund, 2010, pg#5)
ii. “Research is an organized, systematic and objective scientific
inquiry or investigation into a specific problem or issues,
undertaken with the aim of finding answers or solutions to it “
(Bryman & Bell, 2007)
iii. According to Clifford woody, research comprises defining and
redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making
deductions and reaching conclusions; to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis.

Source: Dr. Yudi and Dr. Anthony Yeong

 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
1. Is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon, problem or
to achieve new insights into it. (exploratory or
formative research studies)
2. To analyze and describe fairly the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group. (descriptive
research)
3. To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with something
else. (studies with this object known as diagnostic
research)
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables. (such studies are known as hypothesis
testing research)
Source: http://www.einsteincollege.ac.in/Assets/Department/Lecturer%20notes/MBA/Business%20Research%20Methods.pdf
 Characteristics of research
• Data for the research is collected
systematically
• Data for the research is interpreted
systematically
• There is a clear purpose of the research
study
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
• There are eleven types of research depending on whether
it is primarily “fundamental” or “applied” in nature. They
are as follows:
1. Applied research or decisional research is using existing
knowledge as an aid to the solution of some given
problem or set of problems.
2. Fundamental research or basic or pure research, seeks to
extend the boundaries of knowledge in a given area with
no necessary immediate application to existing problems.
3. Futuristic research is the systematic study of possible
future conditions. It analysis on how those conditions
might change as a result of the implementation of policies
and actions, and the consequences of these policies and
actions.
Source: http://www.einsteincollege.ac.in/Assets/Department/Lecturer%20notes/MBA/Business%20Research%20Methods.pdf
 Types and purpose of Research
4. Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. It tries to discover answers to the questions who,
what, when and sometimes how. Here the researcher attempts to
describe or define a subject, often by creating a profile of a group
of problems, people, or events. The major purpose of descriptive
research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
5. Explanatory research: Explanatory research goes beyond
description and attempts to explain the reasons for the
phenomenon that the descriptive research only observed. The
research would use theories or at least hypothesis to account for
the forces that caused a certain phenomenon to occur.
6. Predictive research: If we can provide a plausible explanation for
an event after it has occurred, it is desirable to be able to predict
when and in what situations the event will occur. This research is
just as rooted in theory as explanation. This research calls for a
high order of inference making. In business research, prediction is
found in studies conducted to evaluate specific courses of action
or to forecast current and future values.
Source: http://www.einsteincollege.ac.in/Assets/Department/Lecturer%20notes/MBA/Business%20Research%20Methods.pdf
 Types and purpose of Research
7. Analytical research: The researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyse these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
8. Quantitative research: Quantitative research is based on
the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
9. Qualitative research: It is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon (i.e.) phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind. This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews
for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are
word association test, sentence completion test, story
completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find
out how people feel or what the think about a particular
subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Source: http://www.einsteincollege.ac.in/Assets/Department/Lecturer%20notes/MBA/Business%20Research%20Methods.pdf
 Types and purpose of Research
10.Conceptual research: Conceptual research is
that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It
is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones.
11.Empirical research: It is appropriate when proof
is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way. Evidence gathered
through experiments or empirical studies is
today considered to be the most powerful
support possible for a give hypothesis.

Source: http://www.einsteincollege.ac.in/Assets/Department/Lecturer%20notes/MBA/Business%20Research%20Methods.pdf
 Type classification…..Think?????
• What do you classify the below?
1. Mr. Kana done a research on handphone usage among the
youngsters in Malaysia. He has done a questionnaire survey to
collect data and complete the research. He has completed his
documentation by giving some recommendation to the parents.
His report mentioned the age category that spend the most
money on handphone and how much money is spent yearly.
2. Mr. Kamil participated in a seminar in KL. They read many research
articles and then summarizes the finding on poor implementation
on Green initiatives in Malaysia. Beside that they also discuss in
groups and reviewed literature to complete a report for their
presentation at the end of the seminar.
3. Mr. Jeffery gathered information from news paper, internet,
literature review and research articles to write his findings and
then compile a report to be share in his own website.
What is Theory and how it is
used?
 What is Theory
• A formal logical explanation of some events that
includes predictions of how things related to one
another….(Zikmund, 2010, P39)

Theory and research are equally important to the process of accumulating knowledge
through the scientific method (Bringle, 2003; Bringle & Hatcher, 2000).
Source of Figure 1 : http://www.servicelearning.org/service-learning-research-primer/interplay-between-theory-and-research
 Use forcing functions well to speed up
the thesis process
• Competing with someone else
• Family pressure
• Financial pressure
• A job is waiting
• Advisor is leaving or project is over
• Equipment is retiring

Source: Practical Guide to Write a PhD Thesis ©2013 By: Nader Ale Ebrahim
 * What is research process, type of
investigation, research design
* Research strategy (Ontology / Epistemology)
* Deduction and Induction
* Qualitative & Quantitative research / strength
and weakness
* When is business research needed?
 Research Process

Source: SHAYA'A OTHMAN , Executive Director, Global Center of Excellence at INSANIAH University, Kedah, Malaysia
 Research Process
• Quantitative
– Concepts are in the form of
distinct variables
– Relationships are expressed
in hypotheses
– Measures are systematically
created before data collection
and are standardized
– Data are in the form of
numbers from precise
measurement
– Procedures are standard, and
replication is assumed
• Qualitative
– Concepts are in the form of
themes, motifs,
generalizations, and
taxonomies
– Measures are created in an
ad hoc manner and are often
specific to the individual
setting or researcher
– Data are in the form of words
and images from documents,
observations and transcripts
– Procedures are particular and
replication is very rare
 Types of investigation
in research
• Experiment: The researcher will manipulate an
independent variable in order to determine whether it
has an impact on a dependent variable (laboratory
experiment & filed experiment).
• Survey: The researcher use methods which investigates
the opinions and feelings of people. Information is
collected through questionnaire or interview in many
cases.
• Case study: The researcher makes a detailed study of a
particular single case. The researcher usually aims to
provide in-depth understanding of the specific features
of the case and its related settings. Data are collected
through observation, interview and document
research.
 Research design
• Qualitative research Understanding of human behavior and the
reasons that govern such behavior. Asking a broad question and
collecting data in the form of words, images, video etc that is
analyzed searching for themes. This type of research aims to
investigate a question without attempting to quantifiably measure
variables or look to potential relationships between variables. It is
viewed as more restrictive in testing hypotheses because it can be
expensive and time consuming, and typically limited to a single set of
research subjects. Qualitative research is often used as a method of
exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research
hypotheses. Qualitative research is linked with the philosophical and
theoretical stance of social constructionism.
• Quantitative research Systematic empirical investigation of
quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships.
Asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze
utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are
experimental, correlational, and survey (or descriptive). Statistics
derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the
existence of associative or causal relationships between variables.
Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical
stance of positivism.
Research Strategy

Source: Dr. Anthony Yeong

The Process of Inductive

Compare theory

Develop theory
Methodology
Look for patterns used in
qualitative
Form Categories research

Ask Questions

Gather information
The Process of Deductive

Methodology
used in
quantitative
research
Qualitative & Quantitative research
Qualitative & Quantitative research
 Strength and Weaknesses of
Quantitative research
Strength
• Easy to conduct the research
(survey, questionnaires)
• Fast way to gather research
data
• Use numerical research data
• Useful for larger sample size
• Fast analysis of Research data
using SPSS
• Easier to interpret the data
using statistical analysis
Weaknesses
• Theory and hypotheses might
not reflect real phenomena
• Data gathered for research
might be too general
• Researcher result or findings
might not be in-depth
• Unethical activity like biasness
or data meddling can happen
• Researcher could be biases
towards his own hypotheses
and theory in-order to fulfill his
research
 Strength and Weaknesses of
Qualitative research
Strength
• Good for conducting case study
or interviews
• Use to describe complex problem
or phenomena
• Can be use for specific
environment, condition and
context
• Express researcher and peoples
personal experience
• The research is more dynamic
and flexible
• The reply from people can explain
the phenomena better or in-
depth
Weaknesses
• The findings will more specific
to the research subject
(organization / Industry)
• Insufficient data to test
hypotheses and theory
building
• Data collection and analysis
will take longer time
• Data collection and analysis
will larger resources
• The final research result can
be influenced towards
researcher’s personal biases
 When is business research needed?

• Time Constraints – when have enough time

• The availability of data – when lack of data
then consider research
• Nature of the decision – Base on factual data
for strategically and tactical decisions
• Benefit versus costs – Findings to be applied
or just for knowledge
 * Data source and Type
* Characteristics of data
* Source of secondary data
* Triangulation
* Hypotheses
* Research Process
 Data source and type
• Secondary data
– The information collected by others for a purpose
other than the project at hand, but may be useful for
the project….or
– Data collected and processed by one researcher and
reanalyzed for a different purpose by another
researcher
• Primary data
– Original data collected for the purpose of the research
problem
• Observation, questionnaire, interview and tape recording,
experiment results
 Characteristics of data
• Level of abstractness: more metaphorical than
real (profits)
• Ability to be proven: produce the same results
consistently
• Difficulty in obtaining data: speed of change
• Level of representation of the phenomenon
under study: how close it is to the real
phenomenon
 Sources of secondary data
• Internal sources: accounting records, sales
data, commercial reports and other
miscellaneous records.
• External sources: academic journals,
directories, dissertations, thesis, newspapers,
books etc.
 Triangulation
• Triangulation is the process of using multiple
source of data collection methods to study the
same thing or a problem.
• Triangulation can be used in either qualitative
or quantitative research.
 Triangulation Process of data
collection
• Advantages
• It save time and cost
• It can be obtained easily and help to strengthen quality of
data collection
• Data collected can used to representativeness the local
population
• Data comparison lead to new discoveries
• Data collected is visible to readers and reported in thesis
Disadvantages
• Sometime it is do not meet the purpose of study
• Can be difficult or costly access in some cases
• Inappropriate findings due to time constraint
• Can be biases and low quality
 Hypotheses
• Type of Hypothesis
1. Descriptive hypotheses ask a specific question regarding some
phenomenon. Descriptive hypotheses are phrased as a question.
Example: What is the distribution of hypertensive patients by
income level?
2. Relational or Directional hypotheses are statements that describe
a relationship between two variables with respect to some case;
the relationship can be correlation or causal (explanatory).
Directional hypotheses are never phrased as a question, but
always as a statement Example: “University students who
participate in extracurricular activity spent less time studying and
lead to lower GPA”
• Role of Hypothesis
1. Helps in Guiding and directing the study
2. It help to focus and limits the study matter
3. Helps in identifies facts that are relevant
4. Helps is selecting the research design
5. Helps in concluding the study
 Criteria of Good Hypothesis

1. Adequate: a descriptive hypothesis must

clearly state the condition, size or distribution
of some variables in terms of values
meaningful to the research task
2. Testable: requires techniques to test
3. Better: simple and requires few conditions
 Research Process adopted from
Sekaran 2003
OBSERVATION THEORETICAL
Broad area of PROBLEM FRAMEWORK
research IDENTIFICATION Variables
interest clearly HYPOTHESES
Research
identified identified and GENERATION
Problem
delineated labeled

SCIENTIFIC
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
DATA DESIGN
GATHERING DEDUCTION
Interview & Hypotheses
Literature substantiated?
DATA COLLECTION,
Survey Research questions
ANSLYSIS AND
answered
INTERPRETATION
 * Research Ethics
* Topic to choose
* Research Proposal
* Research Design
Cross-Sectional Research
Compares separate groups of individuals
at the same point in time
Efficient in terms of time and resources
Cannot directly observe developmental
changes
 Research ethic
• Ethics are norms or behaviour in maintaining integrity
and high standards or relationships with others. They
refer to the appropriateness of the behaviour in
relation to the rights of those who will become the
subject of the research or who may be affected by the
pursuant of the research.
• Privacy, Confidentiality, : key ethical issues
• Non-disclosure items, Protection of Information
• Deception - when the participants are told only part of
the truth
• Ethical issues may be related to a researcher
attempting to work or data of other researcher
• Secondary data is subjected to ethical issue.
 To choose a topic
• Subject / general problem: an area of interest can
be narrowed down to a suitable topic
• Topic: clearly defined area of interest that could
be thoroughly investigated within the limits of
the resources available to undertake the research
• Thesis: a general statement that announces the
major conclusions that may be reached after a
thorough analysis of all sources
• Hypothesis: the right direction by indicating the
specific questions that need answers
Source; Dr Yudi, USM
 Research Proposal
• Is document that presents a plan for a
research undertaking or project to be given to
reviewers for evaluation.
• Benefit for preparing proposal:
1) Clarifies problem investigated;
2) Evaluate the quality and value of
proposed project

Source; Dr Yudi, USM

Elements of a good research proposal
• Addresses an important research question: solution for
applied research
• Follow all instructions, is well written, is easy to follow with
• clearly stated objectives
• Describes the research procedures
• Indicates plans to disseminate results and evaluate success
• that meets objectives
• A well-designed plan with realistic budgets and schedules
• Indicates the researcher’s experience or background to
• successfully complete the project

Source; Dr Yudi, USM

 Research Design
• Blueprint for the implementation of research
process
• Measurement concept and variable used
must be defined
• Show relationships among the variables
• Lay out each procedure

Source; Dr Yudi, USM

Measurement and Scales
 Type of variables
1. Dependent DV (criterion variable) is the variable of
primary interest to the researcher. The goal is to
understand and describe the dependent variable, to
explain its variability.
2. Independent IV (predictor variable) is one that influences
the dependent variable either in a positive or a negative
way. The variance in the dependent variable is accounted
for by the independent variable.
3. Moderating MV: is a second independent variable
included and has a significant or a strong contingent
contributory effect on the original stated IV-DV
relationship.
4. Extraneous (control) EV: is a variable that has impact on
the relationship in random way and has little effect.
5. Intervening IVV: shows the link between IV and DV; it acts
as DV with respect to an IV and as an IV with respect to a
DV.
 Relationship between Variables
Example 1

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

HRM Practice
• Supervision Job Satisfaction
• Job Training
• Pay practices

Example 2

Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

HRM Practice
• Supervision Job Satisfaction Turnover
• Job Training
• Pay practices
 Human Resource Management Practice, Job Satisfaction,
Turnover: The Relationship and Conceptual Framework
(Hamdia Mudor, Prince of Songkla University)
Example 1

Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

HRM Practice
• Supervision Job Satisfaction Turnover
• Job Training
• Pay practices

Example 2

Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

HRM Practice
• Supervision Job Satisfaction Turnover
• Job Training
• Pay practices
Age

Moderating Variable
The Relationship between Work Demands, Work Resources,
and Work-Family Conflict: A Conceptual Framework Dr. Siti
Meriam Ali (UiTM Lecturer)

Independent Variable

Work demands
Work overload
Working hours
Time pressure Dependent Variable
Inflexible work schedule
Role conflict
Role ambiguity

Work-family conflict

Job involvement
Work resources Gender
Work Flexibility
Supervisor Support

Moderating Variable
 Theoretical framework

WCM initiatives and practices put in place by Local

Malaysian Companies in achieving performance
Objectives and Sustainable Organizational
Competitiveness
Source: Dr. Mirza Abdullah
 Type of Scale
• Nominal data - Nominal scale are categorical scales used to identify, label or
categorise objects or persons or events. A familiar example is the use of
alternative numbering system by our Physical Education Teacher in our school
days to engage us in a game. The teacher as a result would form two groups
one labeled 1 and the other 2. It don’t break up the group by gender, marital
status, ethnicity etc. Other example (i.e., Male = 0 and Female = 1).
• Ordinal Measure: Ordinal scale is a ranking scale that indicates ordered
relationship among the objects or events. In our research for the bread
company we ranked and numbered 1, 2, 3 and so on. E.g. taste varieties of
bread or the packaging preference by using rating scale of 1 to 5,
representing strongly dislike, dislike, neutral, like, strongly like.
• Interval measure: In interval measurement the distance between attributes
does have meaning or measure the distance between any two point of scale.
It allows to calculate mean and standard deviations of the responses on the
variables e.g. 5 Likert scale (1strongly disagree, 2 disagree, 3 neutral, 4 agree,
5 strongly agree)
• 4. Ratio measure: is an interval scale with a true zero point. E.g. temperature
time measures in seconds, minutes, hours; blood pressure measured in
millmeters of mercury
 Type of Scale

Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/​measlevl.php
 Scaling Techniques: Rating Scales
1. Dichotomous Scale: used to elicit a Yes or No; do you know
about green initiatives in Malaysia?
2. Category Scale (single response): uses multiple items to
elicit a single response; nominal scale is also used to
measure the response. Where did you eat your Lunch
today? A) at the Nasi Kandar restaurant, B) at the Shopping
mall food court, C) at the fast-food restaurant D) at the road
side stall, E) Home made
3. Category Scale (multiple response): What item that you eat
daily from the list below, which ones do you like to eat the
most? A) Beef B) Mutton C) Chicken D) Fish E) Vegetable F)
Others (specify)_____
4. Likert Scale: is designed to examine how strongly subjects
agree or disagree with statements on five-point scale. (1.
strongly agree; 2. agree; 3. neither agree nor disagree; 4.
disagree; 5. Strongly disagree)
 Scaling Techniques: Rating Scales.....
5. Semantic Differential Scale: is used to assess respondent’s attitudes towards a
particular brand, advertisement etc. How do feel about the idea of self-service
technology in airport?
Bad_ _ _ _ _ Good
6. Numerical scale: is similar to the semantic scale, with the difference that
numbers on a five-point or seven-point scale are provided, with the bipolar
adjectives at both ends. . How do feel about the idea of self-service technology
in airport? Bad 1 2 3 4 5 Good
7. Fixed or constant sum scale: respondents are asked to distribute a given number
of points across various items. In choosing the accommodation facility, indicate
the importance to attach the following five aspects by allotting points for each to
a total of 100.
– Room space ___
– Room décor ___
– Cleanliness ___
– Price ___
– Housekeeping service ___
– Total points ____100
8. Staple Scale: Provides simultaneous measures of direction ranging from +3 to -3
on either side of the item. The scale gives an idea on how close or distant the
individual response to the stimulus is. Please indicate how you would rate the
restaurant with respect to each of the characteristics mentioned below, by
circling the appropriate number. Service level in restaurant from -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
 Ranking Scale
1. Paired Comparison: Paired comparison scaling as its name indicates
involves presentation of two objects and asking the respondents to
select one according to some criteria. Example chose between two TV i.e
Sony and Samsung.
2. Rank order scaling - If many objects to compare then the greater the
number of paired comparisons that will be presented to the
respondents. In rank order scaling is done by presenting the respondents
with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them
based on a particular criterion. For example, the customers may rank
their preference for TVs among several brands.
3. Forced Choice: this choice enables the respondents to rank objects
relative to one another, among alternatives provided. This is easier for
the respondents, especially if the number of choices to be ranked is
limited in number.
4. Comparative Scale: this scale gives a benchmark or a point of reference
or standard to assess attitudes towards the current object, event or
situation under study. The technique is ideal if the respondents are
familiar with the standard.
 Measurement Quality
• Reliability: is related to the dependability or
consistency of the measurement, which means
the repeated things or recurrences are measured
with an identical method or under very similar
conditions.
• Validity is concerned with truthfulness, that is,
the match between a construct, or the way the
idea is conceptualized in a conceptual definition
and measures.
• Reliability and validity are considered as the
scientific criteria of the measurement.

Source: Dr. Yudi, USM

 Sources of measurement errors
1. Respondent as an error source - Due to different
understanding or background. Respondent reluctant to
give his views, not have much knowledge of the
situation, fatigue, variations in moods.
2. Situational factors – other situational factor that impact
the measurement wither using survey or interview or
others methods cause strain and Respondents feel
being intruded an not willing to give frank opinion.
3. Measurer as an Error source – using of wrong wording,
changes the wordings or paraphrases could lead to
errors.
4. Instrument as an Error Source – Wrong or defective
measurement instrument is used.
Primary Data Collection
 Term in Sampling
• Population: total collection of elements or cases in which to make
inferences; it refers to the entire group of people, events or things of
interest that the researcher wants to study.
• Population case or element: it is a single member of the population on
which measurement is taken.
• Census: When sample no less then 30 then count of all elements in a
population
• Population Frame: aggregation of elements from which sample is
taken; it is a listing of all the elements in the population from the
sample drawn.
• Sample: a subset of the population; it is made up of some members
selected from the population. These are some, not all, elements of the
population that form the sample.
• Sampling unit: element or set of element considered for selection in
the sample; it is the single member of the sample.
• Sampling frame: actual list of sampling units from which sample is
taken.
 Criteria of a good sample
• It should reflect the characteristics of the
population it is supposed to represent.
• Sample used must have accuracy and
precision.
• Accuracy: sample not bias.
• Precision: smaller standard error is better
cause higher precision.
 Type of sampling designs
• Probability or representative sampling is
widely used in surveys and to a lesser extent
in experimental research.
• Non-probability or judgmental sampling is use
in case study research.
 Type of Probability Sampling
• Simple random sampling: Samples are drawn and it allows each
element in the population to have a known and equal probability of
selection.
• Systematic sampling population: At beginning the unit will be
selected randomly from 1 to Z following sample fraction is selected
for every element. Example in 101 recorder first one will be selected
from 1 to 101 but the subsequent units might be selected from every
10 unit select one.
• Stratified sampling: A stratified sample is a mini-reproduction of the
population. Before sampling, the population is divided into
characteristics of importance like gender, education level, religion etc
for the research.
• Double sampling (Sequential, multiphase): The sampling plans were
invented to give a questionable lot another chance. For example, if
the results of the first sample are not conclusive with regard to
accepting or rejecting, then a second sample is taken.
• Cluster Sampling: population is divided into internally
heterogeneous subgroups each with elements in it.
 Example of clustering
• Cluster sampling is a sampling technique where the population is divided
into groups, or clusters, and a random sample of these clusters are
selected. All observations in the selected clusters are included in the
sample.
• Cluster sampling is typically used when the researcher cannot get a
complete list of the members of a population they wish to study but can
get a complete list of groups or 'clusters' of the population.
• It is also used when a random sample would produce a list of subjects so
widely scattered that surveying them would prove to be far too expensive,
for example, people who live in different postal districts in the UK.
• Example:
• Suppose that the Department of Environment wishes to investigate the use
of hazardous chemical and material in Malaysia. A cluster sample could be
taken by identifying the different counties in Malaysia as clusters. A sample
of these counties (clusters) would then be chosen at random, so all Factory
owner in those counties selected would be included in the sample. It can
be seen here then that it is easier to visit several factories in the same
county than it is to travel to each farm in a random sample to observe the
green practices.
 Non-probability Sampling Design:
advantages
• It meet the sampling objectives.
• Incur low cost and time.
• Result produce in less bias compared to
probability sampling.
• The best method if population is not available
for study.
 Type of Non-probability Sampling
• Convenience sampling: In this sampling technique the
subjects are selected because of their convenient
accessibility and proximity to the researcher.
• Purposive or judgmental sampling: The researcher selects
units to be sampled based on their knowledge, professional
judgment or confirm to certain criteria.
• Quota sampling: The selection of the sample is made by
the interviewer, who has been given quotas to fill from
specified sub-groups of the population. For example, an
interviewer may be told to sample 50 males between the
age of 40 and 55.
• Snowball sampling: A sampling techniques that is
appropriate to use when the members of a population are
difficult to locate. The researcher collects data on the few
members and then this members try to locate other
members of that population whom they know.
 Sample Size
• Minimum sample size is 30
• Less than 30 then should do census
• Accept if a 95% level of certainty exist.
* Survey Method in Research
* Administrative error
 Survey Method in Research
• Observation method: Here the researcher collect
the data by watches, observes, examines and
interviews various people in the organization. It is
called Ethnographic research (participant
observation).
• Survey Method:
1. The self-completion methods : normal mail and
electronic surveys
2. The Personal interviews methods : structured or
unstructured
 Self-Administered Survey
• A normal mail send by postal is a questionnaire
that is filled in by the respondent rather than an
interviewer and send the hardcopy of
questionnaire to us again. Costly and poor
response.
• The electronic survey is self-administered
questionnaires that best illustrated by completing
internet or e-mail survey questionnaires. It is
cheap, fast and can reach far. Length of mail can
be long.
 Personal Interviews
• Personal interview method is where the
researcher speaks to the respondent personally
(directly / Phone) asking and recording answers
for his questionnaires.
• The Interviews can be conducted from home, at
work, office etc)
• Face to face meeting during data collection so can
use visual aid to make him / her understand
better
• Can obtain immediate feedback
 Types of Personal Interviews
• Structured Interview: interviewer uses an
interview sequence with predetermined
questions.
• Semi-structured interviews: it is a mix of
structured and unstructured effort in getting the
• Unstructured interviews: It is conducted without
the use of any interview sequence (random
questionnaires)
• Depth interview: is an unstructured face-to-face
discussion session between a trained interviewer
and interviewee.
 Personal Interviews
Advantages Disadvantages
• Opportunity for feedback • Costly cause to many
on matters not clear follow-ups
• Opportunity to follow-up on • Anonymity of respondent
pending matters • Callbacks is disturbing
• Length time of interview is privacy
flexible
• Build social interaction
• Can use visual aids
• High two-way participation
 Administrative error
• Interviewer cheating - filling in fake answers
or falsifying interviewers.
• Data processing error - incorrect data entry,
computer programming, or other
procedural errors during the analysis stage.
• Sample selection error –improper sample
design or sampling procedure execution.
• Interviewer error - field mistakes.
 TIME SPAN FOR SURVEYS
• CROSS-SECTIONAL – The data are gathered from
various segments of a population. Data are collected at
a single moment in time. Data are collected once over
a time period of days, weeks or months.
• LONGITUDINAL - A survey done by tracking a specific
group of individuals over different time. The study
undertaken on a particular subject matter or group or
individual at several points in time . Same subjects are
observed or measured repeatedly over a period of
months or years Developmental changes can be
assessed more precisely over time. Example a study
done for before and after privatisation of postal service
Plagiarism
 WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?
1. “Plagiarism is the practice of using or copying someone
else's idea or work and pretending that you thought of
it or created it.”(Collins COBUILD Dictionary, 2006)
2. Plagiarism is the "wrongful appropriation" and
"purloining and publication" of another author's
"language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions," and the
representation of them as one's own original work.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism)
 WHY DO YOU PLAGIARISE?
• You like a short-cut path to get a result fast
• It is easy to take other hard-work but unfortunately a BAD HABIT!
• Most of the time we are not aware that we plagiarize
• Because your research area is a new area of study which has
– Many technical terms that sounds odd to you
– Weak language command lead to poor understanding and ability to
rewrite with own words become difficult
• Not clear on the difference between primary/secondary schools
and University requirements
– Primary/Secondary schools: LEARN and REPEAT
– University: LEARN, THINK (≈swallow), SUMMARISE (≈chew), and
PRESENT (≈spit out)
• Lack of new idea contribution due to poor knowledge and
experience
Source: "To be or not to be a plagiarist" - RANAIVO-MALANÇON
 YOU ARE A PLAGIARIST IF
• Copy and translate someone’s text without
indicating the reference source.
• When someone’s idea is used without their
knowledge and although you write with your
own words but not citing the original author.
• Plagiarism cannot be detected automatically
by a plagiarism detector, but the domain
experts can detect it easily and sue you.
Source: "To be or not to be a plagiarist" - RANAIVO-MALANÇON
WHAT TO AVOID BEING A PLAGIARIST?
• What the best you can do?
– If you like someone’s else idea, work or research material,
then rewrite it with your own words and display the
reference source. This will show the ability of you
understanding and reproducing the idea or data in your
own words.
• What the least you can do? (if and only if necessary)
– Expressing the idea you like using simple words within a
few sentences
– You can then
• cite the source correctly
• or paraphrase the source properly
Source: "To be or not to be a plagiarist" - RANAIVO-MALANÇON
LEARN TO WRITE USING OWN WORDS
WITHOUT PARAPHRASING
• Read the text or articles as many time until you understand
clearly the content and then express using your own words.
• Use dictionaries or internet if you do not understand the
meaning of some terms or phrases.
• Check your understanding on material read by:
– Don’t see the text but try to memorise what you have read
– List the ideas you have read in a piece of paper
– Then open the text to counter verify
– Counter verify what you have written against what you have
read.
– Test the understanding of the ideas and phrase written by
expressing and sharing with you friends, counterpart
professional, lecturers etc.

Source: "To be or not to be a plagiarist" - RANAIVO-MALANÇON

 Example: How to write in your own
words?
Original text
Intellectual honesty is the admission that humanity is linked together in a kind of
collective learning process. Very little is discovered "de novo," that is, without a solid
foundation in other researchers' previous exploration and understanding. Citation is an
act of humility and an act of appreciation for what other scholars have pieced together
about the nature of a particular problem or an aspect of some phenomenon.

Correct Paraphrase
Hoemann says that there is very little absolutely new knowledge. Most of our
discoveries take advantage of work done by those who have gone before us.
The process of learning is, in fact, a long tradition passed on from generation
to generation. Acknowledging the source of ideas gives recognition to the
contributions of others in this tradition and is, as Hoemann says, an “act of
humility.”

Source: http://library.csusm.edu/plagiarism/howtoavoid/how_avoid_paraphrase.htm#
 Example: How to write in your own
words?
Unacceptable Paraphrase
Intellectual honesty is the admission that humanity is linked together in a kind of
joint learning process. Not very much is discovered new without really
understanding other scholars' previous research and knowledge. Citing shows
you are grateful and appreciate what other researchers have figured out about a
particular issue.

Source: http://library.csusm.edu/plagiarism/howtoavoid/how_avoid_paraphrase.htm#
 Example: How to write in your own
words?
• If you have written a research paper sometime
ago and now reuse some portion of your previous
write-up inside the current research paper or
article, then do you need to provide the
reference source in you paper?
• Answer: Yes. If not, it is called “self plagiarism”

Source: http://library.csusm.edu/plagiarism/howtoavoid/how_avoid_paraphrase.htm#
2. Action Research
 Differences

Fundamental Action
1. Main objective is to devt. of 1. Main objective is to immediate solution
theory/principles. of school related problems.

2. Expert training is needed 2. An average teacher can do it

3. A particular classroom children can be
3. Vast area is needed taken
4. Action research procedures are followed
4. A suitable research design is
followed 5. A simple understanding of the problem
5. RRL is needed to analysis is needed
6. Random methods are followed for 6. No need of any sampling
sample selection
7. Findings are generalized 7. Findings are used only upon that grp.
Adopted Source: Dr. Niradhar Dey G.G. University, Bilaspur, C.G., India (www.hrmars.com/admin/pics/15.ppt)
 What is action research?
• Action research is known by many other names,
including participatory research, collaborative inquiry,
emancipatory research, action learning, and contextual
action research, but all are variations on a theme.
action research is "learning by doing" - a group of
people identifies a problem, does something to resolve
it, sees how successful their efforts were, and, if not
satisfied, tries again. While this is the essence of the
approach, there are other key attributes of action
research that differentiate it from common problem-
solving activities that we all engage in every day.

Adopted Source: Overview of the Methodological Approach of Action Research by Rory O'Brien
(http://www.web.ca/robrien/papers/arfinal.html)
 What is action research?
• Action research can be described as: any research into practice
undertaken by those involved in that practice, with an aim to
change and improve it. Action research is about both ‘action’ and
‘research’ and the links between the two. It is quite possible to take
action without research or to do research without taking action, but
the unique combination of the two is what distinguishes action
research from other forms of enquiry. Action research:
 Is very systematic work
 Directs towards the solution of the problem
 Is a very formal work
 Is based upon intensive
observation I- Identification of the Problem
 Involves the scientific methods II- Objectives and Hypothesis
 Involves the steps like: Formulation
III- Observation/Collection of Data
IV. Preparation of suitable action Plan
V- Analysis of Observed Facts/Data
VI- Result and Conclusion

Adopted Source: Dr. Niradhar Dey G.G. University, Bilaspur, C.G., India (www.hrmars.com/admin/pics/15.ppt)
 Definition of Action Research is….
• "Action research...aims to contribute both to the practical concerns
of people in an immediate problematic situation and to further the
goals of social science simultaneously. Thus, there is a dual
commitment in action research to study a system and concurrently
to collaborate with members of the system in changing it in what is
together regarded as a desirable direction. Accomplishing this twin
goal requires the active collaboration of researcher and client, and
thus it stresses the importance of co-learning as a primary aspect of
the research process.“
• “Action research is focused on the immediate application and not
on the development of theory. It has placed its emphasis on a real
problem in a local setting. Its finding are to be evaluated in terms of
local applicability, not in terms of universal validity” (John Best &
Khan)

Adopted Source: Overview of the Methodological Approach of Action Research by Rory O'Brien
(http://www.web.ca/robrien/papers/arfinal.html)
 Action Research Cycle

(Adopted Source: A classical cycle description of action research (Susman & Evered, 1978)
 Steps of Action Research
I. Identification of the Problem
II. Formation of Objectives and Hypothesis
III. Collection of Data by using suitable
Tools/Techniques
IV. Preparation of suitable Action Plan
V. Analysis and Interpretation of Data
VI.Result and Conclusion

Adopted Source: Dr. Niradhar Dey G.G. University, Bilaspur, C.G., India (www.hrmars.com/admin/pics/15.ppt)
 Getting Started
1. Identification of the Problem
http://quality.cr.k12.ia.us/documents/
Lesson_PDSA.doc
 Effective Instructional Strategies- Action
Research Model
• PLAN - Defining the System
 Which standard(s) do I wish to address? Why?
 What improvement in project am I looking for?
 How am I currently planning for instruction? How is my current planning impacting
learning?
 What data could I collect to measure my current method current method of planning
and its impact on project achievement?

• PLAN - Assess the Current Situation

 What do I know about my project current level of problem? How are project
currently performing?
 Collect baseline data according to the measures selected in “Defining the System”.

• PLAN - Analyze the Cause

 Regarding my planning for instruction, what could be causing the student results that I
am currently getting?
 Can I identify the root cause that is producing the results I am getting?
 Developing a theory- What planning strategies will improve student learning?
Source Adopted: http://karenbrooks.wikispaces.com/file/view/Action+Research+Examples+and+Process.pdf)
 Effective Instructional Strategies-
Action Research Model
• DO - Try Out the Improvement Theory
• Develop an action plan based on root causes identified & the improvement theory
created in the previous step. Determine the necessary steps to carry out the action.
• Collect data again after several weeks of implementing the action plan and compare
to the baseline data.
•
• STUDY - Study the Results
• Did my improvement theory work? What improvement in project has occurred?
• What changes have occurred in my planning for instruction?
•
• STUDY - Standardize Improvement
• How has my professional planning changed? How will I sustain these changes?
• How have changes in my professional planning improved project? How will I sustain
these changes? How will I measure the future impact of planning on sucess?
•
• ACT - Plan for Continuous Improvement
• How will I plan future instruction? What is the next area of instruction to use the
PDSA cycle to improve?

Source Adopted: http://karenbrooks.wikispaces.com/file/view/Action+Research+Examples+and+Process.pdf)

 Action Research Model
Plan Define the
Continuous System
Improvement

Standardize
Improvement ACT Assess
Current
PLAN Situation
STUDY
Study the
Results
DO

Try Out Analyze

Improvement Causes
Theory

Source Adopted: http://karenbrooks.wikispaces.com/file/view/Action+Research+Examples+and+Process.pdf)

 PDSA PROBLEM SOLVING CYCLE…..
http://quality.cr.k12.ia.us/documents/PDSA_questions.doc
 What system do I want to improve? Why?
 How is it connected to the mission and goals?
 How will I sustain the positive
 What is the current way this process is done or
changes?
handled?
 What area will I work on next?
 What are the key measures for this process?
What is important about this process in which
data could be collected?
 How can I
incorporate the
new way of doing
things (that Plan For
produced positive Continuous Define the
results) to make it Improvement System
part of my regular
practice?
Standardize
Improvement ACT  How big of a problem is it?
s  What data do I have that
PLAN
Assess show current levels of
Current performance (baseline data)
 Did my improvement STUDY
Situation of the area I’m trying to
theory work? Study The
 What data do I have Results DO improve?
that show the new level
of performance?
 How does this new Try Out
Improvement Analyze
data compare to Causes
Theory
the baseline
data?
 Based on the root causes,
 In reviewing the baseline data, what
what can I do differently to
are the root causes that are producing
get more positive results?
the results I’m getting?
 What’s my improvement
 What does research say about how this
Marino- 06/21/13 theory based on best-
system could be improved?
practices?

Source Adopted: http://karenbrooks.wikispaces.com/file/view/Action+Research+Examples+and+Process.pdf)

 Some Pitfalls

Time!!
Risky Business

Confusion
3. CASE STUDY RESEARCH
METHOD
 Case Study Research
• Case study is known as a triangulated research strategy. Snow and
Anderson (cited in Feagin, Orum, & Sjoberg, 1991) asserted that
triangulation can occur with data, investigators, theories, and even
methodologies. Stake (1995) stated that the protocols that are used to
ensure accuracy and alternative explanations are called triangulation. The
need for triangulation arises from the ethical need to confirm the validity
of the processes. In case studies, this could be done by using multiple
sources of data (Yin, 1984). The problem in case studies is to establish
meaning rather than location.
• Designing Case Studies
• Yin (1994) identified five components of research design that are
important for case studies:
– A study's questions
– Its propositions, if any
– Its unit(s) of analysis
– The logic linking the data to the propositions
– The criteria for interpreting the findings (Yin, 1994, p. 20).

Adopted Source: Introduction to Case Study by Winston Tellis

The Qualitative Report, Volume 3, Number 2, July, 1997, (http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.html)
 What is case Study research?
• A case study research is an empirical enquiry
that investigates a contemporary
phenomenon within a real-life context where
the boundaries between phenomenon and
context are not clearly evident, and in which
multiple sources of evidence are used. (Yin
1984)

Source adopted: IM Pandey , Prof of Finance, University of Delhi. Case Method for Teaching & Research: Myths & Realities
www.cwam.org.my/Slide%201%20Case%20Method%20for%20Teachin...‎
 Case studies
• To analyze fewer events or conditions and their
interrelationships
• Focused and cannot be used to make
comparisons
• Involve in-depth and contextual analyses of
matters relating to similar situations in
organizations
• Useful in understanding certain phenomena
• Generating further theories for empirical
testing
 Roadmap for Case Research
• Object
• Case selection
• Literature review
• Propositions/hypotheses
• Data collection
• Data organization
• Data analysis
• Findings and theory building
Source adopted: IM Pandey , Prof of Finance, University of Delhi. Case Method for Teaching & Research: Myths & Realities
www.cwam.org.my/Slide%201%20Case%20Method%20for%20Teachin...‎
 Case Study Research Design: Theory
Building (Eisenhardt, 1989)
Step Activity Reason
Getting Definition of research question Focuses efforts
started A priori constructs Better grounding for constructs
measures
Selecting Neither theory nor hypotheses Retains theoretical flexibility
cases Specified population Constrains extraneous variation
& sharpens external validity
Theoretical, not random Focuses efforts on theoretically
sampling useful cases

Crafting Multiple data collection Strengthens grounding of theory

instruments methods by triangulation of evidence
& protocols Synergistic view of evidence
Qualitative & quantitative data Fosters divergent perspectives
combined strengthens grounding
Source adopted: IM Pandey , Prof of Finance, University of Delhi. Case Method for Teaching & Research: Myths & Realities
www.cwam.org.my/Slide%201%20Case%20Method%20for%20Teachin...‎
 Case Study Research Design: Theory
Building (Eisenhardt, 1989)
Step Activity Reason
Entering the Overlap data collection & Speeds analysis & reveals
field analysis, including field helpful adjustments to data
notes collection
Flexible & opportunistic Allows researcher to take
data collection methods advantage of emergent
themes & unique case
features

Analysing Within case analysis Gains familiarity with data &

data preliminary theory generation
Cross-case pattern search Forces researcher to look
using divergent techniques beyond initial impressions &
see evidence through multiple
lenses
Source adopted: IM Pandey , Prof of Finance, University of Delhi. Case Method for Teaching & Research: Myths & Realities
www.cwam.org.my/Slide%201%20Case%20Method%20for%20Teachin...‎
 Case Study Research Design: Theory
Building (Eisenhardt, 1989)
Step Activity Reason
Sharpening Iterative tabulation of evidence Sharpens construct definition,
hypotheses for each construct validity and measurability
Replication, not sampling, Confirms, extends and sharpens
logic across cases theory
Search evidence “why” behind
relationships Builds internal validity
Enfolding Comparison with conflicting Builds internal validity, raises
literature literature theoretical level, and sharpens
construct definitions
Comparison with similar Sharpens generalizability,
literature improves construct definition and
raises theoretical level

Reaching Theoretical saturation when Ends process when marginal

closure possible improvements become small
Source adopted: IM Pandey , Prof of Finance, University of Delhi. Case Method for Teaching & Research: Myths & Realities
www.cwam.org.my/Slide%201%20Case%20Method%20for%20Teachin...‎
 Collecting data in case study: sources
• Documentation
• - Existing measures and evaluations
• Statistics
• Interviews and surveys
• Direct or participant-observation (e.g. meetings)
• Physical artifacts
• - Testing the resulting product
Source : http://www.cs.tut.fi/~ihtesem/k2007/materiaali/luento3.pdf
 The difference between action
research and case study?????
1. Action research is a process of progressive problem-solving designed to improve
strategies, practices or a working environment.
2. Case study is an in-depth examination of a single ‘case’, an individual or an event.
3. There are several key differences between these approaches:
• Action research is, as the name suggests, an active process, in which people solve
problems to learn, whereas case study is a more intellectual process, where
people examine examples to learn.
• Action research allows us to find better ways of doing things through active
problem-solving.
• Case study provides a systematic way of looking at events, collecting and
analysing data and reporting the results.
• It therefore allows us to understand why things happened the way they did, and
make changes based on past examples, rather than our own actions.

(http://www.blurtit.com/q6881748.html)
 Case studies -when to apply?
• Answering to “how” or “why” questions
• Broad and complex phenomenon
• A phenomenon cannot be studied outside the
context in which it occurs
• To find relevant issues for theory
• To capture process, time related data
Source : http://www.cs.tut.fi/~ihtesem/k2007/materiaali/luento3.pdf
 Action research – when to apply?
• To address complex real-life problems
• To understand social practices and the change
processes in social systems (Hult and Lennung,
1980)
• To enhance the competence of the respective
actors, training

Source : http://www.cs.tut.fi/~ihtesem/k2007/materiaali/luento3.pdf