sustainability

Article
Structural Performance of Shear Loaded Precast
EPS-Foam Concrete Half-Shaped Slabs
Sanusi Saheed 1 , Farah N. A. Abd. Aziz 1 , Mugahed Amran 2,3, *, Nikolai Vatin 4 ,
Roman Fediuk 5 , Togay Ozbakkaloglu 6 , Gunasekaran Murali 7 and
Mohammad Ali Mosaberpanah 8
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400,
Selangor, Malaysia; get2doubles@gmail.com (S.S.); farah@upm.edu.my (F.N.A.A.A.)
2 Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University,
Alkharj 11942, Saudi Arabia
3 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and IT, Amran University, Quhal 9677,
Amran, Yemen
4 Higher School of Industrial, Civil and Road Construction, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic
University, 195251 St. Petersburg, Russia; vatin@mail.ru
5 School of Engineering, Far Eastern Federal University, 8, Sukhanova Str., 690950 Vladivostok, Russia;
roman44@yandex.ru
6 Ingram School of Engineering, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX 78667, USA; togay.oz@txstate.edu
7 School of Civil Engineering, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur 613401, India;
murali@civil.sastra.edu
8 Civil Engineering Department, Cyprus International University, 99258 Nicosia, North Cyprus, Turkey;
mmosaberpanah@ciu.edu.tr
* Correspondence: m.amran@psau.edu.sa or mugahed_amran@hotmail.com




Received: 9 October 2020; Accepted: 12 November 2020; Published: 20 November 2020


Abstract: Precast concrete elements provide a feasible way to expedite on-site construction; however,
typical precast components are massive, making their use particularly undesirable at construction
sites that suffer from low load-bearing capacity or have swelling soils. This research aims to develop
an optimal lightweight expanded polystyrene foam concrete (EPS-foam concrete) slab through a
consideration of various parameters. The precast EPS-foam concrete half-shaped slabs were prepared
with a density and compressive strength of 1980 kg/m3 and 35 MPa, respectively. Quarry dust (QD)
and EPS beads were utilized as substitutions for fine and coarse aggregates with replacement-levels
that varied from 5% to 22.5% and 15% to 30%, respectively. The use of EPS beads revealed sufficient
early age strength; at the same time, the utilization of quarry dust in EPS-foam concrete led to a
more than 30% increase in compressive strength compared to the EPS-based mixtures. Two hundred
and fifty-six trial mixes were produced to examine the physical and mechanical characteristics of
EPS-foam concrete. Three batches of a total of four EPS-foam concrete half-shaped slabs with spans of
3.5 and 4.5 m and thicknesses of 200 and 250 mm were prepared. Findings showed that the ultimate
shear forces for the full-scale EPS-foam concrete half-shaped slabs were approximately 6–12% lower
than those of the identical concrete samples with a 2410 kg/m3 average density, and 26–32% higher
than the theoretical predictions. Also, it was observed that the self-weight of EPS-foam concrete
was reduced by up to 20% compared to the control mixtures. Findings revealed that the prepared
precast EPS-foam concrete half-shaped slabs could possibly be applied as flooring elements in today’s
modern infrastructure.

Keywords: precast concrete; lightweight concrete; expanded polystyrene beads; full-scale EPS-foam
concrete half-shaped slab; shear loads

Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679; doi:10.3390/su12229679 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679 2 of 17

1. Introduction
Prefabricated precast concrete slabs present numerous positive characteristics such as quality
control, accurate design, the need for less-skilled labor, and fast installation and assembly,
which ultimately leads to lower construction costs and a reduction in the volume of wastage at
construction sites [1–3]. Several types of half-slab components such as hollow-core slabs (HoCSs),
flat precast slabs (FPSs), double-tee slabs (DTSs), and multi-rib slabs (MrSs) have been industrialized,
and associated investigations on their performances have been dynamically implemented. FPSs have
a simple fabrication method and an easy reinforcement layout due to their thin flange design.
Furthermore, they require no permanent work (e.g., installation shores) to withstand construction
loads at the point of forming their topping concrete layer [4,5]. Meanwhile, HoCSs contribute to
lower self-weight due to the hollows in their design geometry, and can considerably enlarge the depth
of the section at specific locations where the applied load is exceptionally high [3,6–8]. However,
factory-made HoCSs using an extruder machine can be quite susceptible to shear stresses at the
end-boundaries of their webs; as a result, it is difficult to position shear bars on the webs [3,9,10].
In the meantime, MrSs and DTSs have different cross-sectional outlines that are quite effective at
resisting positive moments as a consequence of the elimination of needless concrete segments on the
bottom zone (tension side). This usually results in a thin top flange, which leads to continuation
problems at the end edges of the member [11–13]. In any case, the design of half-precast concrete slabs
is commonly improved by ensuring that the bottom and top flanges are varied at the ends and center
of the component so that they can withstand negative and positive moments efficiently [1,11].
Moreover, the general application of precast concrete is made with either lightweight or normal
concrete. Lightweight aggregates are used to form lightweight concrete (LC), which is secured from
either natural or artificial sources, namely, erupting volcanoes [14] or oil palm shells (OPSs) [15,16].
Aggregates obtained from erupting volcanoes are very costly and not easy to acquire in local
markets, while OPSs have high water absorption. On the other hand, artificial lightweight aggregates
(e.g., expanded polystyrene (EPS) and fly ash [17–19]) can provide a feasible alternative solution.
Several studies have investigated LC made with natural aggregates (vermiculite [20], scoria [14],
pumice [18,21]), manufactured aggregates (e.g., expanded clay [22,23], expanded silt [17]) and industrial
waste aggregates [24–27]. Additionally, quarry dust (QD), a waste of crushed rock, can be utilized as
a partial substitution for river sand, and makes environmentally sustainable LC, which contributes
to the enhancement of the compressive strength of concrete at an earlier age [28]. Utilization of QD
as a substitution material for fine aggregates by up to 20% can result in enhancement in the ultimate
load capacity of lightweight expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam-based concrete from 17 to 35 MPa,
and this can be utilized for the production of structural concrete elements [29]. Despite this, precast
concrete elements are usually produced using normal concrete, which results in components with a
heavy weight [30]. Henceforth, the self-weight of the system becomes very important. The self-weight
of slabs is responsible for 40–60% of the total deadweight of a residential house [30–33]. As such, a 10%
reduction in floor slabs can result in a 5% reduction in the deadweight of the whole building [30,34,35].
Precast flooring systems without concrete toppings are popular nowadays, but they usually suffer
from water leakage at the joints [16]. Furthermore, half-shaped slabs are typically chosen, as no
propping is required [16]. Over the past several years, designers have been searching for eco-friendly
and economical concrete products, such as foamed concrete (FC) [30,35]. Structural FC is mainly
applied to lower the self-weight of buildings and deliver the most efficient structural components [36].
Light structural elements facilitate easy construction and reduce on-site work, thereby lowering the
overall cost of construction [31]. Among the techniques used to lower the self-weight of precast concrete
panels is the utilization of lightweight materials like EPS beads as a part of the mix design proportions.
EPS beads are cheaper than other artificial aggregates and are made from a styrene monomer that is
developed in oriental sweet gum plants and natural gas. EPS beads are mainly used for packaging
materials and are disposed of after unpacking, which leads to a large amount of non-biodegradable
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679 3 of 17

waste. However, by employing heat treatment methods, this material can be modified to function as a
lightweight aggregate.
As a significant waste material in terms of ecological pollution, EPS makes up a substantial volume
of solid waste in garbage dumps in several countries. Since it is none-degradable, leading considerably
to the pollution of the environment, producers have become directly responsible for the collection,
recycling and re-economizing this material. EPS is light in weight, has a superior thermal insulation
characteristic, and has a lower cost, as a reduction in density contributes to reducing the consumption
of energy during production, transport, and construction processes in comparison with traditional
building materials. It is therefore endorsed within the field of sustainability. The use of sustainable
developments in low-cost residential buildings has caused the construction industry to implement
suitable measurements to benefit the environment, such as decreasing building energy consumption
and CO2 emissions. In addition to economic and technical issues, the selection of building materials is
also in the basis of the environmental aspects behind the application and use of this material. In this
sense, the development of substitutive, sustainable, and ecofriendly building materials such as EPS is
imperative, as it can lead to reduced risks to human well-being, contributions to economies, solutions to
environmental issues, and improvements to construction industry applications towards sustainability
by increasing the design and structural integrity of building materials. Therefore, this study contributes
to the development of an optimal EPS-foam concrete that could be used to produce full-scale EPS-foam
concrete half-shaped slabs, ultimately leading to self-weight reductions in the total self-weights of
concrete structural systems of more than 20%. This study also aims to determine the ultimate shear
force of the EPS-foam concrete half-shaped slabs, and compare them with identical control concrete
samples made of ordinary concrete.

2. Experimental Program; A Brief Description

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) (Type 2) was used in this study, as originally presented in the
first part of this research (Saheed et al. [37]). The fine and coarse aggregates used were river sand
and crushed granite gravel, respectively, and are detailed in the first part of this study. To produce a
workable concrete, a 1% cement volume of naphthalene-based super-plasticizer was used [37]. In this
study, 16 different samples were prepared, which were then divided into four series. In the first series,
the four samples were prepared with 0%, 15%, 22.5%, and 30% EPS contents without quarry dust
(QD). The remaining three series samples were prepared with the same amount of EPS, while 7.5%,
15%, and 22.5% QD were used as partial replacements for sand for the second, third, and fourth series,
respectively. The mixed composition of the 16 samples and casting procedures are provided in the
earlier study [37]. Overall, 16 concrete batches were accordingly prepared to fabricate 48 cylindrical
specimens with a 100- × 200-mm size and 144 cube specimens with a 100-mm size. Both cylindrical
and cubical specimens were de-molded after 24 hours and placed in a curing container with a 27 ± 5 ◦ C
temperature for 15, 28, and 90 days [37].
A slump test was performed on wet concrete in accordance with BS 1881 [38] to ensure an adequate
workability for structural applications. The compressive test was performed on 100-mm cube samples
at 7, 28, and 90 days, in accordance with BS 1881 [39], using a universal testing machine with a 5000-kN
capacity with a 2.5-kN/s loading rate. The splitting tensile test was performed on cylindrical samples
with 100-mm diameters and 200-mm heights in accordance with BS 1881 [39]. An ultrasonic pulse
velocity (UPV) test was performed in accordance with ASTM C 597 [40] on the cube samples at 28 days
before the destructive test. As mentioned above, a detailed explanation of the testing is discussed in
the earlier study [37].

3. Half-shaped Slab Configuration, Preparing, Casting Process and Production

The prepared slabs had spans of either 3500 or 4500 mm, and 1000-mm widths with either a 250- and
200-mm entire thickness for the 4500- and 3500-mm span slabs, respectively (see Figure 8 [37]). The span
dimensions were chosen following the PCI design code (PCI manual, 2003) [41,42]. In addition, steel bars
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679 4 of 17

with 12- and 10-mm diameters and 20-mm concrete covers were used as the ribs, while 200 × 200 mesh
bars with 6-mm diameters were employed as the topping bars. The details of reinforcement, span,
Sustainability 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19
concrete type, notations and thickness are all tabulated in the earlier study [37]. The notations are
given by the concrete type followed by the thickness of the slab. For instance, CC250 stands for an
The notations are given by the concrete type followed by the thickness of the slab. For instance, CC250
ordinary slab with a 250-mm thickness.
stands for an ordinary slab with a 250-mm thickness.
3.1. Preparing, and Casting Process and Production
3.1. Preparing, and Casting Process and Production
Formwork plywood was employed to form the half-shaped slab specimens (see Figure 9 [37]).
Formwork plywood
It was initially brushed wasoilemployed
with to preventtowaterform absorption
the half-shapedduring slab specimens
casting. After (see
that,Figure 9 [37]).
a plastic layer
It was initially brushed with oil to prevent water absorption during
was placed to ensure the reusability of the formworks, and to inhibit water loss while castingcasting. After that, a plastic layer
the
was placed
concrete. to ensure
Prior the the
to placing reusability
steel barsofinthe theformworks,
formwork, strainand togauges
inhibit5 water
mm inlosssizewhile casting
were fixed on the
the
concrete. Prior to placing the steel bars in the formwork, strain gauges 5
10- and 12-mm diameter reinforcement bars. Similarly, strain gauges of 2 mm in length were mounted mm in size were fixed on the
10-
on and 12-mmreinforcement
the 6-mm diameter reinforcement
bars to enable bars.theSimilarly, strain of
observation gauges
strainsof 2asmm
thein length wereslabs
half-shaped mounted
were
on the 6-mm reinforcement bars to enable the observation of strains as
loaded. To fix the strain gauges, the reinforcement bars’ outer surfaces were refined and later wipedthe half-shaped slabs were
loaded.
with alcoholTo fixtothe strainthey
ensure gauges,
werethe reinforcement
smooth. After that, bars’
the outer
strainsurfaces
gauges werewere glued
refined and epoxy
using later wiped
resin,
with alcohol to ensure they were smooth. After that, the strain
and silicon glue was utilized to provide protection during the casting process. gauges were glued using epoxy resin,
and silicon glue was utilized to provide protection during the casting process.
3.2. Arrangement, Instrumenting and Setup of Shear Test
3.2. Arrangement, Instrumenting and Setup of Shear Test
In total, four electrical strain gauges (ESGs) with 67-mm lengths were utilized in this test.
These Instrain
total, gauges
four electrical strain SG1
were labeled gauges (ESGs)
to SG4 (seewith
Figure 67-mm
1). Onelengths wereutilized
ESG was utilizedtoinrecord
this test.
theThese
strain
strain gauges were labeled SG1 to SG4 (see Figure 1). One ESG was utilized
at the top of the slab, while the remaining three ESGs formed a rosette shape to measure shear strains to record the strain at the
top
alongof the
the slab,
slabs’while the remaining
depths, (as illustratedthreeinESGs
Figure formed
8 [37]).a rosette shape tostrain
Furthermore, measure
gaugesshear
onstrains along
the concrete
the slabs’ and
interfaces depths,
steel(as
barsillustrated
were also usedin Figure 8 [37]).
to monitor theFurthermore,
strain curves at strain
thosegauges on Furthermore,
locations. the concrete
interfaces
the LVDT and steelatbars
located were also
a distance of 2used
timeto ofmonitor
beam depth the strain curves
from left at those
support waslocations.
utilized to Furthermore,
monitor the
the LVDT located
deflection at a distance
at a critical zone during of 2 shear
time of beam depth
testing. from ESGs
Also, three left support
of 67-mm wasconcrete
utilized were
to monitor the
fixed just
deflection at a critical
below the point load inzone during
the shear shear
test testing.
setup. Also,the
To record three ESGs during
readings of 67-mm concrete
testing, were fixed just
the instruments and
below the point load
their individual cablesinwere
the shear test setup.
connected to a dataTo record the readingsthe
logger throughout during
test. testing, the instruments
and their individual cables were connected to a data logger throughout the test.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Location
Locationof
of strain
strain gauges.
gauges.

After 28
After 28 days
days ofof curing,
curing, the
the prepared
prepared slabs
slabs were
were positioned
positioned on on the
the testing
testing frame
frame and
and their
their sides
sides
were glazed
were glazed white
white to to allow
allow for
for easy
easy monitoring
monitoring of of the
the cracks
cracks during
during testing. The precast
testing. The precast EPS-foam
EPS-foam
concrete half-shaped slabs were installed with a simple support 100 mm
concrete half-shaped slabs were installed with a simple support 100 mm from their free-end from their free-end edges and
edges
loaded
and at 2 times
loaded the beam
at 2 times depthdepth
the beam from the
fromsupport, as shown
the support, in Figure
as shown in 2a,b, where
Figure d is
2a, b, the thickness
where d is the
thickness of the slab. To apply the load, a spreader beam was used, as shown in Figure 2b, and was
of the slab. To apply the load, a spreader beam was used, as shown in Figure 2b, and the beam the
linkedwas
beam to alinked
load cellto awith
loada cell
1500-kN
with capacity.
a 1500-kNAcapacity.
hydraulicAjack was employed
hydraulic jack wastoemployed
impose the to applied
impose
loadapplied
the on theload
slabson atthe
a rate ofat
slabs 0.1a kN/s.
rate ofPrior to testing,
0.1 kN/s. Prior toa testing,
trial loading
a trialwas performed
loading two times
was performed twoto
ascertain an intact slab setup and stable readings from the instruments. Consequently,
times to ascertain an intact slab setup and stable readings from the instruments. Consequently, the the specimens
were loaded
specimens wereat 2-kN
loaded increments, and at eachand
at 2-kN increments, increment the load was
at each increment thekept
loadconstant
was keptfor 15–35 sfor
constant before
15–
the LVDT and EGS readings were recorded. At the same time, the cracks
35 seconds before the LVDT and EGS readings were recorded. At the same time, the cracks that that appeared were marked
appeared were marked and their sizes were determined by means of a handheld microscope with
X40 amplification and a lowest count of 0.02 mm. The specimens were then loaded up until failure.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679 5 of 17
Sustainability 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19

sizes were determined by means of a handheld microscope with X40 amplification and a lowest count
and their sizes were
of 0.02 mm.determined by means
The specimens were of auphandheld
then loaded until failure.microscope with X40 amplification Commented
and a [M1]:
lowest count of 0.02 mm. The specimens were then loaded up until failure.

Figure 2. Typical setup of shear test.

Figure 2. Typical setup of shear test (a) schematic of testing device and (b) experimental test setup.
4. Results and Discussions
4. Results and Discussions
4.1. Properties of EPS-foam Concrete
4.1. Properties of As
EPS-foam
presentedConcrete
in the first part of this research (Saheed et al. [37]), replacing large aggregates with
expanded polystyrene beads (30%) reduced the workability of concrete due to its hydrophobic
As presented in the first part of this research (Saheed et al. [37]), replacing large aggregates
properties and an increase in the surface of the expanded polystyrene beads [37]. Additionally, 15%
with expanded polystyrene
and 30% substitutions beads (30%)reduced
of aggregate reduced the workability
the specific of concrete
gravity of EPS-foam due
concrete to its
by 5.8% hydrophobic
and
18%, respectively, compared with that of the ordinary cement concrete [37]. A higher
properties and an increase in the surface of the expanded polystyrene beads [37]. Additionally, 15% compressive
strength was observed at seven days in the case of EPS-foam concrete compared to traditional
and 30% substitutions of aggregate reduced the specific gravity of EPS-foam concrete by 5.8% and
concrete. This may have been be because of the thermal resistance of EPS-foam concrete maintaining
18%, respectively, compared with that of the ordinary cement concrete [37]. A higher compressive
strength was observed at seven days in the case of EPS-foam concrete compared to traditional concrete.
This may have been be because of the thermal resistance of EPS-foam concrete maintaining the heat
of hydration and subsequently upsurging the activity of the clinker minerals [37]. There was not
much strength gain in EPS-foam concrete compared to traditional concrete, which experienced a great
improvement in compressive strength as a result of the use of QD as a partial substitute for fine
aggregates. Replacing sand with QD by 7.5% and 22.5% increased the strength of the reference concrete
by almost 13% and 16%, respectively, at an age of 28 days. This may be attributable to the behavior
of small particles of QD that fill the pores. When substituting with 22.5% QD, the strength dropped
by about 10% compared to the 15% substitution, at which EPS-foam concrete reached its maximum
compressive strength [37]. The same trend was observed for 90-day-old samples. The maximum
compressive strength was observed in the mixtures of EPS-foam concrete with 30% EPS and 15% QD,
resulting in a 35.7-MPa compressive strength at a dry density of 1980 kg/m3 . The splitting tensile
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679 6 of 17

strength of EPS-foam concrete experienced a reduction as the EPS bead replacement increased. Tensile
strength increased with a 15% QD substitution, then decreased when the substitution was increased
to 22.5% [37]. The compressive strength obtained from the UPV exhibited a decreasing trend with
increases in the EPS content. Different sample series showed different treatments as the compressive
stress ranges varied from 55 to 35.1 MPa, 53.7 to 33.9 MPa, 58.6 to 35.1 MPa, and 53.2 to 34.5 MPa for
the series-1, -2, -3, and -4 samples. Consequently, the maximum compressive strength was observed in
the sample containing 0% EPS and 15% QD.

4.2. Precast EPS-foam Concrete Half-Shaped Slabs

The shear test results were reported in terms of load-deflection behavior, strain on concrete
surfaces, and crack patterns for two types of concrete (i.e., control concrete and EPS-foam concrete).
For each concrete type, two slabs with thicknesses of 200 and 250 mm were prepared. Each half-shaped
slab was tested twice, once on each end, giving two repetitive results. A total of four half-shaped slabs
were tested, having two different spans (3.5 and 4.5 m) for each of the 200- and 250-mm thicknesses,
respectively. The half-shaped slab specimens were notated as CC200A, CC200B, EPS200A, EPS200B,
CC250A, CC250B, EPS250A, and EPS250B.

4.2.1. Load-Deflection Profiles

Figure 3 illustrates the load-deflection relationship for the slabs with a 200-mm thickness.
The load-deflection profiles for the tested samples followed the uncracked response up to the cracking
load, after which the load-deflection profile followed the cracked response due to a reduction in
stiffness caused by cracking, as seen in Figure 3. Eventually, as yielding of the reinforcements took place
due to an increase in load, the load-deflection profiles reached a plateau, indicating a rapid increase in
deflection with little or no increase in applied load, followed by a drop after failure. The uncracked
load-deflection responses for the CC and EPS specimens were almost identical; interestingly, however,
the cracked response for the EPS specimen was different from that of the CC sample, where the
EPS-foam concrete specimen had less stiffness compared to the latter. It was also observed that the
deformation behavior of the EPS slabs had a slightly lower range than the ones for CC slabs due to
the CC slabs being more ductile than the EPS slabs. In particular, the pattern of the load deflection
profile after the first cracks appeared resembled the research findings reported by Ibrahim et al. [43].
In addition, the observed failure loads differed slightly, as the destruction load of sample CC200A was
6% higher than that of sample EPS200A.
The maximum deflections of all specimens were within the range of 22.2 to 28 mm after the first
crack formed. Furthermore, CC200 failed in shear-compression only, while EPS200 failed through
de-bonding and shear-compression, as given in Table 1. The theoretical and experimental shear
capacities of CC200 and EPS200 were compared together (in compliance with BS8110 (1985)), and are
summarized in Table 1. It is apparent that the experimental capacity for the slabs was greater than
the corresponding theoretical calculations according to BS 8110. Moreover, the capacity ratio for
EPS200 was 7–14% lower than that of CC200, indicating that the ordinary concrete slabs achieved a
greater shear capacity. Finally, it can be seen from the Figure 3 that the toughness (the area under the
load-deformation curve) of EPS200 was less than CC200, indicating a lower load bearing capacity.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679 7 of 17
Sustainability 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19

80
70
60
50
Load kN

40
30
20 CC200A
CC200B
10
EPS200A
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deflection mm
Figure 3. Load-midspan deflection relationship for test specimens with a 200-mm thickness. CC200A = control
Figure 3. Load-midspan deflection relationship for test specimens with a 200-mm thickness. CC200A
concrete specimens; EPS200A = expanded polystyrene (EPS)-foam concrete specimens.
= control concrete specimens; EPS200A = expanded polystyrene (EPS)-foam concrete specimens.
Table 1. Experimental shear force and mode of failure.
The maximum deflections of all specimens were within the range of 22.2 to 28 mm after the first
Specimen
crack formed. Furthermore, CC200 Fufailed
, kN in shear-compression
Mode of Failure
only, while EPS200 failed through de-
bonding and shear-compression,
CC200B as given in Table 1. The theoretical and experimental shear
71.9
capacities of CC200 and CC200A
EPS200 were 65.8compared together (in compliance with BS8110 (1985)), and are
Shear-compression
summarized in TableCC250B 1. It is apparent81.1
that the experimental capacity for the slabs was greater than
CC250A 93.7
the corresponding theoretical
EPS250A calculations
82.2 according to BS 8110. Moreover, the capacity ratio for
Shear-compression
EPS200 was 7–14% lower EPS200A than that of
61.8 CC200, indicating
Shear-compression that and
the de-bonding
ordinary concrete slabs achieved a
greater shear capacity. Finally, it can be seen from the Figure 3 that the toughness (the area under the
load-deformation curve) of EPS200 was less than CC200, indicating a lower load bearing capacity.
The load-deflection relationships for the 250-mm slabs are shown in Figure 4. Again, a similar
behavior to the 200-mm slabs was observed, where the deflection increased gradually along the
Table 1. Experimental shear force and mode of failure.
uncracked response until the first crack formed at approximately 47 kN for specimen CC250 and
Specimen
26.7 kN for specimen EPS250. FThis u, kN represented a first-crack Mode of Failure
strength reduction of 55% for EPS250
when comparedCC200B 71.9
with CC250. Subsequently, the load-deflection profiles followed the cracked response
until reinforcementCC200Ayielding could 65.8take place, which was followed by failure of the specimens and
Shear-compression
CC250B From the81.1
immediate unloading. deflection profiles, it is clear that the CC250 specimen was a bit
CC250A
stiffer than its EPS counterpart, and 93.7that the pattern of the load-deflection curves was similar to that
EPS250A 82.2
of Sarbini et al. [44]. The maximum deflections of all specimens Shear-compression
were within the range of 14.8 to
20.6 mm, whichEPS200A
was less than 18 61.8L/d. In addition, Shear-compression
both CC250 and EPS250 and de-bonding
failed in shear-compression
(Table 2), and the ultimate shear-load of CC250A was 12% greater than that of specimen EPS250A.
The load-deflection
The theoretical relationships
and experimental for the 250-mm
shear capacities of the CC250 slabsand
areEPS250
shownsamples
in Figure are4.listed
Again,
in aTable
similar
2.
behavior
The to the shear
experimental 200-mm slabs for
capacity wasspecimen
observed,CC250
wherewas the51%
deflection
higher increased gradually capacity,
than the theoretical along the
uncracked
while response until
the experimental shearthe strength
first crackofformed
specimen at approximately
EPS250 was 32.6% 47 kN higher
for specimen
than the CC250 and 26.7
calculated
kN for specimen
theoretical EPS250.
shear capacity. In This represented
addition, a first-crack
the experimental shearstrength
strengthreduction of 55%
of specimen for EPS250
EPS250-A was 12%when
compared
lower with
than the CC250. Subsequently,
experimental shear capacity the load-deflection
of specimen CC250A, profilesbut
followed the cracked
25% higher response until
when compared to
reinforcement yielding could take place, which was followed by failure of
the theoretical shear load. Therefore, the shear capacity of EPS precast slabs was adequate when related the specimens and
toimmediate unloading.
the theoretical From the
shear capacity deflection
of normal profiles,
concrete. it isshows
This clear that
that the
the CC250 specimen
theoretical was a bit stiffer
shear calculation of
than its
normal EPS counterpart,
concrete is practical and that the pattern
for EPS-foam concrete.of It
thecanload-deflection
also be observed curves
the was
load similar
bearingtoofthat
EPSof
Sarbini
was et al.CC250A,
less than [44]. Theasmaximum
the underdeflections
curve areaofofall specimens were of
load-deformation within
EPS250 thewas
range of 14.8
clearly to 20.6
smaller
mm,
than which was less than 18 L/d. In addition, both CC250 and EPS250 failed in shear-compression
CC250A.
(Table 2), and the ultimate shear-load of CC250A was 12% greater than that of specimen EPS250A.
The theoretical and experimental shear capacities of the CC250 and EPS250 samples are listed in Table
 12% lower than the experimental shear capacity of specimen CC250A, but 25% higher when
compared to the theoretical shear load. Therefore, the shear capacity of EPS precast slabs was
adequate when related to the theoretical shear capacity of normal concrete. This shows that the
theoretical shear calculation of normal concrete is practical for EPS-foam concrete. It can also be
observed the load bearing of EPS was less than CC250A, as the under curve area of load-deformation
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679 8 of 17
of EPS250 was clearly smaller than CC250A.

100
90
80
70
Load kN

60
50
40
30
20 CC250A
CC250B
10 EPS250A
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deflection mm
Figure 4. Load-midspan deflection relationship for the test specimen with a 250-mm thickness.
Figure 4. Load-midspan deflection relationship for the test specimen with a 250-mm thickness.
Table 2. Comparison of experimental and theoretical shear forces.
Table 2 Comparison of experimental and theoretical shear forces.
Ultimate Shear Force, V (kN) Capacity Ratios =
Name of Sample (a/d) Ratio Experimental valve
Ultimate Shear Force,Theoretical
Experimental V
Name of (a/d) Capacity
Theoretical Ratios
valve =
CC200A (kN) 𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐥
1.3 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐯𝐞
Sample Ratio 2.0 65.8 49
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥
CC200B 2.0 Experimental
71.9 Theoretical
49 1.4 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐯𝐞
CC250A
CC200A 2.0 2.0 65.8 93.7 49 62 1.5
1.3
CC250B 2.0 81.1 62 1.3
CC200B 2.0 71.9 49 1.4
EPS200A 2.0 61.8 49 1.2
CC250A
EPS250A 2.0 2.0 93.7 82.2 62 62 1.5
1.3
CC250B 2.0 81.1 62 1.3
EPS200A 2.0 61.8 49 1.2
4.2.2. Concrete Strain Curves
EPS250A 2.0 82.2 62 1.3
The load-strain curves for the concrete topping of the tested slabs are shown in Figure 5. It is clear
that theConcrete
4.2.2. strain increased gradually as the applied load increased, and negative strains were recorded
Strain Curves
that indicated compression of the topping concrete. Furthermore, no crushing failure was observed at
The load-strain curves for the concrete topping of the tested slabs are shown in Figure 5. It is
the ultimate shear load, as the strains were between 250 to 550 µ, which is much smaller than the
clear that the strain increased gradually as the applied load increased, and negative strains were
maximum crushing strain of 3000 µ. It can be seen that EPS200A detected a large strain just before the
recorded that indicated compression of the topping concrete. Furthermore, no crushing failure was
failure load, possibly due to that the location of the concrete strain gauge, which was absorbing large
observed at the ultimate shear load, as the strains were between 250 to 550 µϵ, which is much smaller
amounts of energy prior to the fracture and thus affording an opportunity to take remedial action before
than the maximum crushing strain of 3000 µϵ. It can be seen that EPS200A detected a large strain just
an actual fracture could occur. The completely different natures of the control sample and the EPS-foam
before the failure load, possibly due to that the location of the concrete strain gauge, which was
concrete can be seen by comparing the load-strain curves. Samples EPS200A and EPS250A were capable
absorbing large amounts of energy prior to the fracture and thus affording an opportunity to take
of withstanding heavy loads (75–95 kN), but they experienced brittle behavior, showing ultimate
remedial action before an actual fracture could occur. The completely different natures of the control
strains of 250–300 µ. Specimens CC250A and CC250B, on the other hand, were able to withstand
much higher strains without failure (up to 500 µ), but at the same time had a minimum breaking
load is 60 kN. The results obtained can be explained by the different microstructures of these two
specimens; namely, traditional concrete is denser and stronger, while expanded polystyrene concrete
is less dense and more elastic. This latter microstructure is due to a lower interfacial bond-strength
resulting from the hydrophobic nature of EPS aggregate, as well as the compressibility of EPS aggregate,
which increases the crashing rate of EPS-foam concrete and subsequently increases the topping concrete
strain of EPS-foam concrete.
 other hand, were able to withstand much higher strains without failure (up to 500 µɛ), but at the same
time had a minimum breaking load is 60 kN. The results obtained can be explained by the different
microstructures of these two specimens; namely, traditional concrete is denser and stronger, while
expanded polystyrene concrete is less dense and more elastic. This latter microstructure is due to a
lower interfacial bond-strength resulting from the hydrophobic nature of EPS aggregate, as well as
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679
the compressibility of EPS aggregate, which increases the crashing rate of EPS-foam concrete9 of 17
and
subsequently increases the topping concrete strain of EPS-foam concrete.
100
90
80
70
60

Load kN
50
40
30
20
10
0
-600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Strain (µϵ)
Figure5.5.Topping
Figure Toppingconcrete
concretestrain
strainresults.
results.

Rosette
Rosette strain
straingauges
gaugeswere
wereglued
gluedononthe
thecritical
criticalshear
shearposition
positionofofthe
the slabs
slabs halfway
halfway between
between the
point
pointof of
loadloadapplication
applicationandandthethe
support. Each
support. Eachrosette
rosettegauge
gauge measured
measured strain
strainreadings
readings at at
45 45
degrees
degrees in
both horizontal
in both and vertical
horizontal directions,
and vertical and the
directions, andresults are shown
the results in Figures
are shown 6–8 for
in Figures 6–8the 200-mm
for slabs
the 200-mm
and Figures
slabs 9–11 for9–11
and Figures the 250-mm slabs. High
for the 250-mm slabs.strain
Highvalues
strain were expected
values to be recorded
were expected by the rosette
to be recorded by the
strain gauges,
rosette strainfollowed
gauges,byfollowed
breakingby of the gaugesofasthe
breaking shear cracksas
gauges intercepted
shear cracks them. Considering
intercepted the
them.
200-mm slab specimens,
Considering the 200-mm strain
slabobservations of the observations
specimens, strain entire tested ofsamples showed
the entire lower
tested strainshowed
samples values
(below
lower300 strain as the first
µ) values cracks
(below 300 formed. However,
µϵ) as the as the
first cracks loads passed
formed. However, 40 kN,
as thehigher
loadsstrain values
passed 40 kN,up
tohigher
2500 µstrain
werevalues
observed up for
to 2500
sampleµϵ EPS200A
were observed
(Figurefor8).sample EPS200A
Generally, (Figure and
both EPS200 8). Generally,
CC200 showedboth
Sustainability 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19
EPS200 and
similarities CC200strain
in shear showed similarities
distributions, andin high
shearstrain
strainvalues
distributions, and high
were recorded priorstrain values were
to failure.
recorded prior to failure.
Samples CC200A (Figure 70 9) and CC200B (Figure 10) showed the highest susceptibilities to
vertical deformations, both in terms of maximum load and maximum stress, amounting to 65 kN and
800-1100 µɛ, respectively. 60 On the other hand, the EPS200A (Figure 8) and EPS250A (Figure 11)
samples showed the highest susceptibilities to 45-degree deformations. In this case, the maximum
loads were 60–80 kN at strains of 1200–2100 µɛ. Samples CC250A (Figure
50
Horizontal
9) and CC250B (Figure 11)
showed uniform behaviors only for loads at 45 degrees, while instability 45 of behavior was noted for
other loads up to the appearance of negative strains. Interesting results were observable for the
vertical
Load kN

EPS200A sample (Figure40 8), where no horizontal or vertical strains were recorded with an increase in
load from 0 to 43 kN, then horizontal strains increased sharply to 400 kN while the vertical strains
did not change at all. 30

20

10

0
-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Strain (µϵ)
Figure 6. Load versus rosette strain on CC200A.
Figure 6. Load versus rosette strain on CC200A.

80

70

60
 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Strain (µϵ)

Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679 Figure 6. Load versus rosette strain on CC200A. 10 of 17

80

70

60

50 Horizontal
Load kN

45
40
vertical
30

20

10

0
-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Strain (µϵ)
Sustainability 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19
Figure 7. Load versus rosette strain on CC200B.
Figure 7. Load versus rosette strain on CC200B.
70

60

50 Horizontal
45
Load kN

40
vertical
30

20

10

0
-400 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Strain (µϵ)
Figure 8. Load versus rosette strain on EPS200A.
Figure 8. Load versus rosette strain on EPS200A.
Samples CC200A (Figure 9) and CC200B (Figure 10) showed the highest susceptibilities to
Figuresdeformations,
vertical 9–11 show the bothload-strain curves forload
in terms of maximum theand
CC250 and EPS250
maximum samples. In
stress, amounting general,
to 65 kN andstain
800–1100 µ, respectively. On the other hand, the EPS200A (Figure 8) and EPS250A (Figure
observation of the tested samples showed lower strain values (below 100 µϵ) before the first crack 11) samples
showed
formed. the highest
As the susceptibilities
load passed to 45-degree
45 kN, higher straindeformations.
values of upIntothis
1200case,
µϵthe maximum
could loads were
be observed, and, as
60–80 kN at strains of 1200–2100 µ. Samples CC250A (Figure 9) and CC250B
before, EPS250 and CC250 slabs showed similarity in terms of shear strain distributions, (Figure 11) showed
with high
uniform behaviors only for loads at 45 degrees, while instability of behavior was noted for other loads
strain values recorded before failure. In addition, based on visual observations during testing, EPS-
foam concrete samples were more compressible and able to withstand stress after failure due to the
EPS aggregate, which caused a strain with increased absorption (and no destruction) compared to
conventional concrete samples.
80
 20

10

0
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679 11 of 17
-400 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Strain (µϵ)
up to the appearance of negative strains. Interesting results were observable for the EPS200A sample
(Figure 8), where no horizontal or vertical strains were recorded with an increase in load from 0 to
43 kN, then horizontal strainsFigure 8. Load sharply
increased versus rosette
to 400 strain on EPS200A.
kN while the vertical strains did not change
at all.
Figures 9–119–11
Figures show thethe
show load-strain
load-straincurves
curvesforforthe
theCC250
CC250andandEPS250
EPS250samples.
samples. InIngeneral,
general,stain
observation of the tested
stain observation of thesamples showed
tested samples lowerlower
showed strainstrain
values (below
values 100100
(below µϵ)µ)
before
beforethe
thefirst
firstcrack
formed.
crackAs the load
formed. As passed
the load45 kN, higher
passed 45 kN, strain
highervalues of up of
strain values to up
1200to µϵ
1200could be observed,
µ could be observed,and, as
and,EPS250
before, as before,
andEPS250
CC250and CC250
slabs showedslabssimilarity
showed similarity
in terms inofterms
shearofstrain
sheardistributions,
strain distributions,
with high
with high strain values recorded before failure. In addition, based on visual observations
strain values recorded before failure. In addition, based on visual observations during testing, EPS- during testing,
foamEPS-foam
concreteconcrete
samplessamples were more
were more compressible
compressible andand ableable to withstandstress
to withstand stressafter
after failure
failure due
duetoto the
EPS the EPS aggregate, which caused a strain with increased absorption (and no destruction) compared to
aggregate, which caused a strain with increased absorption (and no destruction) compared to
conventional concrete samples.
conventional concrete samples.
80

70

60
Horizontal
50
45
Load kN

40 vertical
30

20

10

0
-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Sustainability 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW Strain (µϵ) 12 of 19
Loadversus
Figure9.9.Load
Figure versus rosette
rosettestrain
strainononCC250A.
CC250A.
90
80 Horizontal
45
70 vertical
60
Load kN

50
40
30
20
10
0
-500 -300 -100 100 300 500 700 900 1100
Strain (µϵ)
Figure
Figure 10. Load
10. Load versus
versus rosettestrain
rosette strainon
onCC250B.
CC250B.

100
90
 0
-500 -300 -100 100 300 500 700 900 1100
Strain (µϵ)
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679 12 of 17
Figure 10. Load versus rosette strain on CC250B.

100
90
80
70 Horizontal
60 45
Load kN

50 vertical
40
30
20
10
0
-200 0 200 400 600 800
Strain (µϵ)
Figure 11. Load versus rosette strain on EPS250A.
Figure 11. Load versus rosette strain on EPS250A.
4.2.3. Steel Bar Strain Curves
4.2.3. Steel Bar Strain Curves
Figures 12 and 13 show the moment-strain distributions of the main bars for the 200- and 250-mm
Figures
precast 12 and slabs;
half-shaped 13 show the moment-strain
respectively. distributions
Initially, the moment-strain of the mainfollowed
curves bars forantheelastic
200- and 250-
behavior
mm precast half-shaped slabs; respectively. Initially, the moment-strain curves
until the opening of the first crack; subsequently, the steel strain was augmented consistently until followed an elastic
behavior until the
the steel yielded opening
at about 1172 ofandthe
1071 first crack;
µ for subsequently,
the CC200 and EPS200 the specimens,
steel strainand was
366augmented
and 407 µ
consistently
for the CC250 until
andthe steel yielded
EPS250 specimens, at about 1172 andAfter
respectively. 1071 yielding
µε for the ofCC200
the bars,and EPS200
the specimens,
load-strain curve
and 366 and
followed the407 µε for the CC250
strain-hardening and EPS250
response, specimens,
and failure respectively.
ultimately After
took place yielding
at 2025 and of
2408theµbars,
for the
load-strain
CC200 and EPS200curve followed
specimens, theandstrain-hardening
1177 and 1310 µ response, and failure
for the CC250 ultimately
and EPS250 took place
specimens, at 2025
respectively.
and 2408 µε for
All EPS-foam the CC200
concrete slabs and EPS200
showed specimens,
a slower and 1177
rise in strain and 1310 µε
in comparison forthe
with thehalf-shaped
CC250 andconcrete
EPS250
specimens,
reference slabs respectively.
due to the All EPS-foam
former’s inherentconcrete
higherslabs showed
ductility a slower
and ability rise in strain
to engross in comparison
extra energy. It could
with theobserved
also be half-shaped thatconcrete
EPS-foam reference
concrete slabs
wasdue to the
able former’s
to attain inherent
its full strainhigher ductility
capacity underand theability
shear
toSustainability
engross 2020, 10,
extra x FOR It
energy. PEER REVIEW
could also be observed that EPS-foam concrete was able to attain its13full
of 19
load. Moreover, the topping steel strain was augmented elastically until reaching 95% of the ultimate
strain capacity
shear load. Theunder the shear
topping bars didload.
notMoreover, the topping
yield in either steel strain
the reference was augmented
concrete or EPS-foamelastically
concrete
until reaching 95% of the ultimate shear load. The topping bars did not yield in either the reference
half-shaped slabs.
concrete or EPS-foam concrete half-shaped slabs.
80

70

60

50
Load, kN

40

30

20
CC200A
10 EPS200A
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Strain, (µϵ)
Figure 12.Steel-reinforcement
Figure12. Steel-reinforcementload-strain
load-strainrelationship
relationshipofofspecimens
specimensCC200A
CC200Aand
andEPS200A.
EPS200A.

90

80
 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Strain, (µϵ)
SustainabilityFigure
2020, 12,12.
9679
Steel-reinforcement load-strain relationship of specimens CC200A and EPS200A. 13 of 17

90

80

70
Load, kN 60

50

40

30

20 CC250B
10 EPS250B
0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Strain, (µϵ)
Figure 13.Steel-reinforcement
Figure13. Steel-reinforcementload-strain
load-strainrelationship
relationshipofofspecimens
specimensCC250B
CC250Band
andEPS250B.
EPS250B.

4.3. Crack Patterns

4.3. Crack Patterns
The location of crack patterns was carefully recorded and studied. The cracks on the EPS-foam
The location of crack patterns was carefully recorded and studied. The cracks on the EPS-foam
concrete and reference half-shaped slab specimens showed similarities in terms of the gradual crushing
concrete and reference half-shaped slab specimens showed similarities in terms of the gradual
of concrete, appearance of multiple crack lines during deflection, and lack of an explosion at failure.
crushing of concrete, appearance of multiple crack lines during deflection, and lack of an explosion
An example of the slab crack pattern observed can be seen in Figure 14, where the crack patterns
at failure. An example of the slab crack pattern observed can be seen in Figure 14, where the crack
are noticeable at each load increment. The observed cracks in the tested precast EPS-foam concrete
patterns are noticeable at each load increment. The observed cracks in the tested precast EPS-foam
half-shaped slabs are comparable
concrete half-shaped to those exhibited
slabs are comparable in one-way
to those exhibited reinforced
in one-way concrete concrete
reinforced slabs [45,46].
slabs
Moreover, the failure mode of all samples was shear-compression, and
[45,46]. Moreover, the failure mode of all samples was shear-compression, and two specific two specific failure patterns
failure
were observed,
patterns including including
were observed, shear crackingshearand interface
cracking and failure.
interfaceFor instance,
failure. For sample
instance,CC200-A failed
sample CC200-
through
A failedshear
throughcracking
shearas the shear
cracking as cracks
the shearspread
cracksfrom the base
spread fromofthethebase
slaboftothe
theslab
point
to of
thesupport
point of
atsupport
approximately
Sustainability 34
2020, 10, x FOR degrees,
PEER REVIEWwhich is beneath the 45 degrees specified
at approximately 34 degrees, which is beneath the 45 degrees specified in BS8110 in BS8110 [47]. In addition,
14 of 19
[47]. In
the shear cracks cut across the rosette-shaped strain gauges, as shown in Figure 14 and all specimens
addition,
exhibited thesimilar
shear shear
crackscracks
cut across
despitethedifferent
rosette-shaped strain gauges,
failure loads. As for theas location
shown in ofFigure 14 and
the shear cracksall in
specimens
the CC200exhibited
specimen,similar shear
all cracks cracks
formed ondespite different
the rib of the slabfailure loads. As gradually
and propagated for the location
upwards of as
thethe
shear cracks in the CC200 specimen, all cracks formed on the rib of the slab and
loading on the tested samples increased. Cracks were prolonged along the concrete’s topping and propagated gradually
upwards
there was as the loading on the
no de-bonding, tested
which samples
indicates increased.
decent Cracks
composite were prolonged along the concrete’s
work.
topping and there was no de-bonding, which indicates decent composite work.

a b

Major shear cracks (Think cracking pattern) Major shear cracks (Thin cracking pattern)
Figure 14. Shear failure of slab (a) CC200A and (b) EPS200A.
Figure 14. Shear failure of slab (a) CC200A and (b) EPS200A.
Moreover, shear failure at the concrete interface occurred due to de-bonding of the topping layer
Moreover,
from shear
the precast unitfailure at 15),
(Figure the concrete interface
and a diagonal occurred
crack along due to de-bonding
the height of the
of the slabs wastopping
clearly layer
visible.
from the precast unit (Figure 15), and a diagonal crack along the height of the slabs was clearly
Sample EPS200A failed as a result of interface shear from the extreme end up to the point of loadingvisible.
Sample EPS200A failed as a result of interface shear from the extreme end up to the point of loading
and shear cracking, as shown in Figure 14. Interface shear failure could be seen with 90–95% of the
ultimate shear force applied. This mode of failure was similar to that observed by Girhammar [48],
where de-bonding of the topping concrete took place with approximately 90-95% of the ultimate
shear load applied. Despite both EPS200 and CC200 failing as a result of shear cracking, de-bonding
 Major shear cracks (Think cracking pattern) Major shear cracks (Thin cracking pattern)

Figure 14. Shear failure of slab (a) CC200A and (b) EPS200A.

Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679 14 of 17

Moreover, shear failure at the concrete interface occurred due to de-bonding of the topping layer
from the precast unit (Figure 15), and a diagonal crack along the height of the slabs was clearly visible.
Sample EPS200A
and shear failed
cracking, as a result
as shown of interface
in Figure shear from
14. Interface shearthe extreme
failure endbeupseen
could to the point
with of loading
90–95% of the
and shearshear
ultimate cracking,
forceas shown This
applied. in Figure
mode14.ofInterface
failure wasshear failure
similar could
to that be seen by
observed with 90–95% of [48],
Girhammar the
ultimate shear force
where de-bonding ofapplied. Thisconcrete
the topping mode oftook
failure
placewas
withsimilar to that observed
approximately 90–95% by Girhammar
of the [48],
ultimate shear
where de-bonding
load applied. of the
Despite bothtopping
EPS200 concrete
and CC200 took placeaswith
failing approximately
a result 90-95%
of shear cracking, of the ultimate
de-bonding of the
shear load
topping applied.inDespite
concrete bothwas
the former EPS200 and CC200
a significant failing asbetween
difference a result the
of shear cracking,
two when de-bonding
considering the
of the topping
modes concrete in the former was a significant difference between the two when considering
of failure.
the modes of failure.

De-bonding of topping concrete

Figure
Figure 15.
15. Interface
Interfacefailure
failure of
ofEPS200A.
EPS200A.

Furthermore, because the

Furthermore, because thede-bonding
de-bondingofofthe the topping
topping concrete
concrete occurred
occurred at 95%
at 95% of theof ultimate
the ultimate
load,
load, the shear cracks shared the same pattern. The failure mode of the 250-mm
the shear cracks shared the same pattern. The failure mode of the 250-mm precast half-shaped slabs precast half-shaped
slabs was similar
was similar for the
for both both the normal
normal and EPS-foam
and EPS-foam concrete concrete slabs (Figure
slabs (Figure 16a).
16a). For For CC250,
CC250, shear
shear cracks
cracks
extendedextended
from the from theof
point point
loadofapplication
load application
to aboutto 100
about mm 100 mmthe
from from the supports.
supports. The cut
The crack crack cut
across
across the rosette
the rosette strainstrain
gaugegauge
to thetobase
the base of the
of the topping
topping concrete,
concrete, then
then totothe
thepoint
pointof of load application
application
(see
(see Figure
Figure 16a, b). The shear crack
16a,b). crack ofof sample
sample EPS250
EPS250 started
started 100
100 to
to 110
110mmmmaway
awayfromfromthethesupport.
support.
The
The crack
crack cutcut across
across the
the 45-degree
45-degree rosette
rosette strain
strain gauge,
gauge, andand extended
extendedtowards
towardsthe thetopping
toppingconcrete,
concrete,
ending
ending atat the
the point
point ofof load
load application.
application. TheTheultimate
ultimatefailure
failureload
loadwaswasrelatively
relativelydifferent
different for
for samples
samples
CC250A
CC250A (Figure
(Figure 13a)
13a) and
and EPS250A
EPS250A (Figure
(Figure 13b),
13b), but
butthe
thecrack
crackpatterns
patternswere
werequite
quitesimilar,
similar, regardless
regardless
the
the type
type ofof concrete
Sustainability concrete
2020, used
used
10, x FOR to cast
PEER the EPS-foam concrete slabs.
REVIEW 15 of 19

a b

Major shear
Figure 16. cracks (Thick of
Shear cracking cracking
CC250A pattern) Majorslabs:
and EPS250A half-shaped shear(a)cracks (Thin cracking
thick cracking pattern)
pattern, (b) thin
cracking pattern.
Figure 16. Shear cracking of CC250A and EPS250A half-shaped slabs: (a) thick cracking pattern, (b)
5. Conclusions
thin cracking pattern.
This research study presented the findings of an experimental investigation into EPS-foam concrete
5. Conclusions
half-shaped slabs subjected to shear loading. The experimental campaign started with the development
of structural precast study
This research EPS-foam concrete
presented half-shaped
the findings ofslabs
an using QD and EPSs
experimental as partialinto
investigation substitutes
EPS-foam for
sand and half-shaped
concrete crushed stone, respectively.
slabs subjectedAtotrial andloading.
shear error procedure was performed
The experimental to produce
campaign startedEPS-foam
with the
concrete with strength of 35 MPa. The replacement of fine and coarse aggregates
development of structural precast EPS-foam concrete half-shaped slabs using QD and EPSs was made astesting
partial
different amounts of the two (0–30% and 0–22.5%, respectively). To ascertain
substitutes for sand and crushed stone, respectively. A trial and error procedure was performedthat the optimum mixto
through
producewhich
EPS-foamto achieve the with
concrete required design
strength ofstrength,
35 MPa. material tests (i.e., of
The replacement a compressive
fine and coarsetest,aggregates
a splitting
tensile
was madetest,testing
and UPV non-destructive
different amounts oftests)
the twowere carried
(0–30% andout on different
0–22.5%, mix proportions.
respectively). To ascertain In that
the
process, a total of 256 trial mixes were made to investigate the physical and mechanical
the optimum mix through which to achieve the required design strength, material tests (i.e., a characteristics
of the EPS-foam
compressive test,concrete
a splittingmixtures, andand
tensile test, a total
UPVofnon-destructive
four EPS-foamtests)
concrete
wereslabs (ofout
carried 3.5-onand 4.5-m
different
mix proportions. In the process, a total of 256 trial mixes were made to investigate the physical and
mechanical characteristics of the EPS-foam concrete mixtures, and a total of four EPS-foam concrete
slabs (of 3.5- and 4.5-m spans) with different thicknesses (200 and 250 mm) were prepared. The
findings showed that the ultimate shear force for the full-scale EPS-foam concrete half-shaped slabs
was 6–12% lower when compared to identical control concrete samples with a 2410-kg/m3 average
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9679 15 of 17

spans) with different thicknesses (200 and 250 mm) were prepared. The findings showed that the
ultimate shear force for the full-scale EPS-foam concrete half-shaped slabs was 6–12% lower when
compared to identical control concrete samples with a 2410-kg/m3 average density, and 26–32% higher
than the theoretical calculation values according to the BS 8110 design code. Furthermore, a substantial
decrease in the density of the EPS-foam concrete mixes was observed (approximately a 20% reduction
when compared to the control mixtures). From the aforementioned results, it can be asserted that EPS-foam
concrete has the potential to be utilized for the slab systems of sustainable buildings in the present-day
construction industry. Furthermore, this study suggests several recommendations for future research works:

• to concentrate on enhancing the structural behavior of EPS-foam concrete half-shaped slabs, (e.g.,
addressing the stiffness and allowable deflections of the design system in order to satisfy the
serviceability limit state);
• to further predict the feasibility of the developed precast EPS-foam concrete half-shaped slab via
numerical simulations; and
• to enhance the connection efficiency between precast EPS-foam concrete half-shaped slab elements.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.S., and F.N.A.A.A.; methodology, S.S., F.N.A.A.A. and M.A.;
resources, F.N.A.A.A., S.S., and M.A.; Investigation, S.S., F.N.A.A.A. and M.A.; data curation, F.N.A.A.A., M.A.,
T.O. and G.M.; formal analysis, S.S., F.N.A.A.A., M.A., T.O., G.M. and M.A.M.; supervision, F.N.A.A.A.; Validation,
S.S., F.N.A.A.A., M.A., R.F., N.V., T.O., G.M., and M.A.M.; visualization, S.S., F.N.A.A.A., M.A., R.F., N.V., T.O.,
G.M., and M.A.M.; writing—original draft, S.S., and M.A.; writing—review & editing, S.S., F.N.A.A.A., M.A.,
R.F., N.V., T.O., G.M., and M.A.M.; project administration; F.N.A.A.A., N.V., R.F., and M.A.; funding acquisition,
F.N.A.A.A. and N.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The experimental work was funded by Universiti Putra Malaysia (Vote No: 62302). This research was
supported by Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Russian Academic Excellence Project ‘5-100’.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the experimental work fund provided by the Universiti
Putra Malaysia and the publication support given by the Peter the Great Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg,
Russia, and the cooperation of the Deanship of Scientific Research at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University,
Alkharj, Saudi Arabia and the Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and IT, Amran University,
Yemen, for this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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