Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

Potential of industrial By-Products based geopolymer for rigid concrete

pavement application
Muhammad Faheem Mohd Tahir a, b, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah a, b, *,
Shayfull Zamree Abd Rahim b, c, Mohd Rosli Mohd Hasan d, Mohamed Saafi e,
Ramadhansyah Putra Jaya f, Rosnita Mohamed b
a
Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), 01000 Perlis, Malaysia
b
Centre of Excellence Geopolymer & Green Technology (CEGeoGTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), 01000 Perlis, Malaysia
c
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), 01000 Perlis, Malaysia
d
School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Engineering Campus, 14300 Pulau, Pinang, Malaysia
e
Department of Engineering, Lancaster University, LA1 4YR Lancaster, United Kingdom
f
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26300 Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Rigid pavements are less expensive than flexible pavements and have a 20-year service life, making them more
Rigid concrete pavement suitable for areas with weak subgrade soil and poor drainage. However, the use of rigid pavements comes at the
Geopolymer expense of the environment. The production of cement has caused serious environmental problems, the most
Industrial by-product
serious of which is the emission of carbon dioxide gas (CO2) into the atmosphere, causing natural greenhouse
effect and global warming. Sustainable materials aid in the reduction of CO2 emissions as well as the use of
natural raw materials in cement production. In the past few decades, significant progress has been made to
develop alternative sustainable building materials (such as geopolymer cement/concrete) in order to control CO2
emissions. Numerous studies have found that geopolymer is comparable to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in
terms of strength and chemical resistance. However, only a few studies have been done on the usage of geo­
polymer as a rigid pavement. From the review that has been done, it can be concluded that, in addition to high
strength, the requirements for rigid pavement concrete material should include fast setting time, good work­
ability and high durability. The review emphasized that geopolymers have been proven to have excellent
strength, durability and processability which fulfil the requirement for rigid pavement application. Finally, this
review also introduces future research opportunities regarding the potential of geopolymers as an alternative to
OPC for rigid pavements.

1. Introduction
A pavement is a structure that supports vehicles on the road. Since
the bearing capacity of the foundation (soil in most cases) is usually not
considered during the route selection process, a structure is needed to
withstand the vehicle load and ensure that the surface has sufficient
flatness and slip resistance for vehicle use [1,2]. Road users need to be
provided with adequate comfort and safety. In the absence of such a
protective structure, the repeated loads imposed by the vehicle and
harsh environmental conditions can cause irreversible deformation of
the roadbed or possible failure [3–5].
The surface layer must provide the users with proper riding
experience (anti-slip, noise, water spray, etc.) and prevent water from
penetrating the road structure and eventually entering the roadbed.
Therefore, ideally, the surface layer should be impermeable; otherwise,
water seepage through holes or cracks will change the structural quality
of the underlying layer and reduce the bearing capacity of the pavement
[6,7]. A pavement is usually divided into two types according to the
composition and performance of the materials used in the top layer of
the pavement (flexible pavement and rigid pavement). The lower layer
of both types of pavements is usually composed of mechanically stable
granular materials, allowing the road to remain open to traffic while the
pavement is being constructed. This allows the road to remain open to
traffic, while also increasing the load-bearing capacity of the road

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail address: mustafa_albakri@unimap.edu.my (M.M.A.B. Abdullah).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128190
Received 28 January 2022; Received in revised form 11 May 2022; Accepted 17 June 2022
Available online 30 June 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.F. Mohd Tahir et al. Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190

surface without significantly increasing costs. In some cases, cement or

slag stabilizers can be used to improve the bearing capacity of these
layers [8–11].
Whether it is a flexible pavement or a rigid pavement, both are vital
to the economic and social development of a country because they can
provide education, health, employment and social services. The me­
chanical and durability characteristics of the road surface are equally
important for providing resistance to degradation processes throughout
the expected life of the road surface. The durability of concrete mainly
depends on the characteristics of the pore structure of the pavement and
the size of the cracks. The penetration of water, chloride ions, CO2, acids
(including chlorides), and sulphates into the pavement are all related to
its durability [2,12–15].
In the current research, the potential of geopolymers as substitute for
OPC in pavement production is explored because of its significant pos­
itive impact on the environment, society, and economy. The use of this
industrial waste to produce geopolymer concrete/cement is significantly
beneficial to the environment, society, and economy. In this case, it is
important to define the basic indicators of sustainable pavement mate­
rials, such as environmental, social and economic factors. When it comes
to geopolymer energy efficiency, the synthesis of geopolymers made
from fly ash uses 40% less energy than cement-based concrete. Geo­
polymer research programs may be able to meet the sustainability re­
quirements of building materials. However, its performance as a rigid
pavement material is limited, and there is no compelling evidence that it
could replace typical OPC concrete firm pavements. There is still a sig­
nificant gap in establishing its long-term performance when compared Fig. 1. The layers of a common pavement; (a) flexible pavement and, (b)
to typical materials. Therefore, this article aims to briefly review the concrete pavement (rigid) (not to scale) [19].
potential of fly ash-based geopolymers as a substitute for traditional
Portland cement concrete pavements as rigid pavements. The under­ impermeable surface can effectively protect the foundation from water
standing provided by this review will be valuable for emphasizing the intrusion. A two-stage construction is required for this sort of pavement.
potential of fly ash-based geopolymers for the possible gains from such Nonetheless, the time necessary to open the road to traffic is far lesser
initiatives, namely the preservation of rigid pavements. than when concrete is used [24,25,26].

2. Types of road pavement 3. Rigid pavement

The criterion used to classify the pavement is the nature of the ma­
terial making up the upper layer [2,11,15]. Therefore, asphalt materials
are used to make the top layer of flexible pavements, usually known as
asphalt pavements [14]. Asphalt pavements, unlike concrete pavements,
do not require joints to adapt to different expansion/contraction mo­
tions caused by temperature fluctuations, where the road has high
recoverable deformation and good driving quality [13,16]. Rigid pave­
ments also require longer time to be opened to traffic because the con­
crete must reach sufficient strength before it can be used [10,13,17].
Rigid pavements, on the other hand, perform better than flexible
pavements in terms of durability and design life, assuming that the
pavement is properly designed [9,14,18]. As shown in Fig. 1, in order to
determine applicability and apply multilayer technology for road
building, all countries use almost similar (but not identical) criteria.
There are also semi-rigid (or composite) pavements, which consist of
a mixture of asphalt and cement-bonded (or concrete) layers. The former
is on a higher level, whereas the latter is on a lower level. If the cracking
of the cement foundation is controlled, this kind of pavement can also be
called a long-term pavement. In this case, the pavement will combine
the stiff pavement’s strong bearing capacity with the flexible pavement’s
good riding quality [10,20]. However, if the base cracking is not
controlled, reflective cracking will occur, and the pavement’s surface
will begin to show signs of early deterioration [7,21,22].
Semi-flexible pavement is a type of pavement that is defined by the
composition of the surface layer and includes semi-flexible materials
[7,21,23,24]. This composite material is made up of a porous asphalt
skeleton into which cement slurry is poured to completely fill the gaps.
This type of pavement combines the best features of both flexible and
rigid pavements, including no asphalt joints, a long life span, and a high
carrying capacity [17,23–25]. The grouted gravel mixture’s
Rigid pavement (also called concrete pavement) has two structural
layers: concrete slab and subbase. Composite slabs can be used to put
various aggregates in the upper and lower levels of sub-base layer
[27,28]. By sandwiching a low-cost material between the subgrade and
the foundation, the cover can be used to improve and protect the weak
subgrade. The purpose is to improve the stratum supporting the sub­
base’s stiffness modulus and strength [28,29].
To reduce heat cracking, Unreinforced Concrete Pavement (UCP),
also known as Jointed Concrete Pavement (JPCP), is built without steel
reinforcement and with induced joints (spaced 5 m or fewer). It is thick
enough to withstand cracking caused by traffic [7,21,24,28]. If the crack
develops, it tends to grow rapidly, resulting in the loss of interlocking of
the particles, as shown in Fig. 2. Detritus entering the fracture causes
spalling, while water entering the crack causes the sub-base to deterio­
rate, resulting in fines pumping. Low-strength concrete may be the most
typical cause of such cracks [27,30].
Transverse joints are normally made by sawing at least one-third of
the concrete slab’s thickness. Expansion joints are only employed in
certain situations, such as on approaching bridges or other structures,
and on rare occasions, in winter construction. Longitudinal joints are
always built between traffic lanes if the road width is more than 4.50 m
to prevent longitudinal cracks along the road axis. The joint is usually
coated with an asphalt sealant except on light traffic highways, after
cutting a suitable groove in the upper part of the joint [21,23,30].
Positioning rods are used in lateral joints on major roadways to
prevent vertical movement between slabs under traffic loads and to shift
the load to the next slab. On the other hand, due to thermal expansion or
contraction, the positioning rod allows the horizontal plate to move.
The steel bars of concrete slabs can also be used to build rigid
pavements. CRCP (Connected Reinforced Concrete Pavement) and CRCP

2
M.F. Mohd Tahir et al. Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190

Fig. 2. Cracks in an unreinforced concrete pavement [27].

(Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement) are the two forms of
pavement used in this scenario [2,13,28]. The connecting reinforced
concrete pavement is made up of slabs that are three to four times the
width of the road and are reinforced with longitudinal steel bars. The
reinforcement keeps the final transverse cracks from forming by
concentrating them at the slab’s end, where the reinforcement is broken
[31], preventing water and debris from entering the pavement structure
and causing any kind of damage due to the sealed joints.
To uniformly disperse the huge number of cracks that the steel bars
maintain closed, CRCP uses dense steel bars with no gaps or seams. This
requires many more steel bars than those normally used to connect
reinforced concrete pavements [8,11,28]. Fig. 3 illustrates the types of
cracks that may occur in a pavement that has been carefully designed
and constructed with continuous steel bars. Even a large crack in such a
sidewalk indicates that it has broken and requires immediate care. The
failure of welded rebar or the use of low-strength concrete batches are
the most typical causes. Before relying on concrete, the entire area
surrounding the fracture must be demolished, and any damaged steel
bars must be re-welded [27,28,32,33].
Continuously reinforced concrete pavements have the advantage of
allowing the surface to crack freely since cracking is controlled by a
suitably dimensioned reinforcing grid, resulting in a network of fine

Fig. 3. Typical cracking in continuously reinforced concrete pavement [27].

3
M.F. Mohd Tahir et al. Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190

fissures that do not impede the surface’s performance. On average, the Table 1
fractures should be 1 to 3 m apart, with a maximum width of 0.5 mm Research works utilising OPC with different additional materials on rigid con­
[28,30,32,33]. crete pavement.
Rigid pavements typically have a service life of 30 to 40 years Researcher Raw Materials Mix Design Findings
(although some may be designated as indefinite), during which they Singh et al. • Ordinary • mixture of 1; 3; 6 • Compared with
should maintain structural soundness. However, these sidewalks are [32] portland proportions of DRAP, WRAP
often surface treated throughout their service life to restore riding Cement (OPC) cement, sand, and mixture shows
ability, especially slip resistance. The development of large cracks across Washed aggregates. better workability.
reclaimed coarse RAP 0% Compared with
the entire width of the slab is usually related to failure criteria. The
alphalt − 50% DRAP, adding
width of concrete pavement fractures can be classified into three cate­ pavement water content WRAP to DLC
gories, according to the Highway Bureau: narrow cracks (0.5 mm wide, (WRAP) 5% − 7% performs better in
full aggregate interlocking and load transfer); medium cracks (0.5 to 1.5 Dirty terms of
mm, partial load transfer, water seepage); large cracks (greater than1.5 reclaimed mechanical
alphalt properties and
mm, no load transfer, allowing water and fine debris to enter) [34]. pavement durability.
Due to the rigid behaviour of concrete, rutting has nothing to do with (DRAP) The 10 MPa
rigid pavement compared with flexible pavement [26,35,36]. Rigid benchmark reached
pavements are usually degraded due to cracking or settlement of con­ 20% after 21 days
of curing;
crete slabs caused by temperature or traffic. The most recent occurrence
therefore, this
was caused by subgrade level issues, specifically fine particle movement means that further
(pumping) and underlying soil shrinkage caused by moisture. construction such
Correctly designed and constructed concrete roads have the potential as PQC layers can
to extend structural life and reduce maintenance costs. Although a begin after 21 days
of curing.
renewable asphalt overlay may be required to maintain acceptable slip
Pandey and • Ordinary • OPC is partially • Optimum strength
resistance, experience has shown that a road planned for 40 years may Kumar Portland replaced by straw gain is 22 MPa with
have a longer structural life [7,27,35,36]. However, compared with [38] Cement (OPC) ash and micro- 7.5% OPC
flexible pavement, the repair of local concrete pavement damage Rice Straw Ash silica fume (by replacement.
(RSA) weight) at fixed
(shallow peeling, loss of joint sealing) is usually more expensive and
intervals of 5%
complicated because it usually requires full-depth repair. This situation (up to 30%) and
is more challenging on continuous steel pavements due to the large 2.5% (up to 10%)
amount of heavy steel bars in the slab. Karthik • Ordinary • mix proportions • Compressive
When a rigid pavement reaches the end of its usable life, it can either et al. Portland 1:1.6:2.8 strength reduced
[39] Cement (OPC) water/cement compared to
be cracked or repaired before being replaced with a new layer of con­
Fly Ash (FA) ratio of 0.45 conventional
crete or asphalt, or it can be removed, crushed, and reused as a base GGBS FA and GGBS mixing (range
layer [7,33,35,36]. Semi-rigid (or composite) pavement is a concrete substitution to between 41 and 29
pavement with an asphalt layer on it. A recent survey of the overall OPC is 20 % MPa).
Shill et al. • Ordinary • epoxy to cement/ • Compared with
standards in use has found that the pavement construction codes of most
[40] Portland SF ratio is 0.20 ordinary PC
countries do not differ greatly in basic concepts [7,35–37]. Table 1 Cement (OPC) water to mortar, modified
shows the current research and results of using OPC and various sup­ Epoxy cement/SF ratio is PC mortar shows
plementary materials on rigid concrete pavements. Silica Fumes 0.40 excellent durability
Singh et al. [32] prepared a rigid pavement by replacing part of (SF) fine aggregate Exposure to high
to cement/SF ratio heat cycle causes
natural aggregate with up to 50% washed recycled asphalt. A nominal
is 3 65.85% loss of
mixture of 1:3:6 consisting of cement, sand and aggregate is used. The compressive
amount of recycled asphalt varies from 0% to 50%, and the water con­ strength.
tent varies from 5% to 7% of the total mixture. The best compressive Researcher Raw Materials Mix Design Findings
strength obtained by replacing the water-washed reclaimed asphalt is
Debbarma • Sugarcane • SA/FA /SF • Only SF mixtures, i.
about 20%. Compared with dry recycled asphalt, water-washed recycled et al. [41] Ash (SA) replacement of OPC e., 5% and 10% SF
asphalt mixture shows better workability characteristics. However, Silica is 10 % & 15 % and 15% FA
adding water-washed recycled asphalt to concrete pavement, will Fumes (SF) mixtures meet the
degrade the density and mechanical qualities of the concrete. Fly Ash minimum standards
(FA) as a surface layer.
Pandey and Kumar [38] determined the level of partial replacement
The addition of
of OPC with straw ash for rigid pavement. OPC is partially replaced by the considered
up to 30% straw ash and up to 10% microsilica fume (by weight) at fixed waste reduces the
intervals of 5% (up to 30%) and 2.5% (up to 10%). The compressive strength properties
strength of rice straw ash partially substituted for OPC was raised by 5%, of concrete, such as
compressive
according to the findings. Unfortunately, there is a limitation in straw strength, modulus
ash percentage where the compressive strength was significantly lower of rupture, and split
than that of the control sample when OPC was partially replaced by tensile strength.
more than 10% straw ash. Krishna et al. • OPC • Silica sand as 0%, • The strength of 50%
[42] GGBS 25%, 50% and 75% replacement silica
In rigid pavements, Karthik et al. [39] partially replaced OPC with a
Silica replacement of sand is 0.21%
composite of fly ash and GGBS, in which a composite of fly ash and GGBS Sand sand higher than
was added to the concrete mixture to replace regular OPC. To replace GGBS 35% ordinary concrete.
20% of OPC, fly ash, GGBS, and a mixture of fly ash and GGBS are partially replaces The 50%
employed. M30 grade concrete is used, with a mix ratio of 1:1.6:2.8 and OPC and its volume replacement
is used for concrete strength is
a constant water-cement ratio of 0.45. It was found that adding indus­
47.35MPa, which is
trial waste to OPC-based concrete pavement had a negative impact on its
(continued on next page)
performance, such as reducing compressive strength and an increasing

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M.F. Mohd Tahir et al. Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190

Table 1 (continued ) a negative impact on the performance of the concrete.

Researcher Raw Materials Mix Design Findings Muthaiyan and Thirumalai [43] investigated the effects of varying
cement content, partial replacement of cement with 10% and 20% fly
basically the same
as ordinary
ash, and partial replacement of coarse aggregate with fine aggregate
concrete. (5% to 15%) on the characteristics of pervious concrete. The cement part
Muthaiyan • OPC • 10% and 20% (by • For permeable was replaced by fly ash 10% and 20% (by weight), and the coarse
and Fly Ash weight) of cement cement concrete (28 aggregate part was replaced by fine aggregates 5%, 10% and 15% (by
Thirumalai (FA) are partially days) with a cement
weight). The compressive strength of permeable cement concrete (28
[43] replaced by fly ash. content of 200 to
The coarse 300 kg/m3, its days) with cement content of 200 to 300 kg/m3, whether fine powder is
aggregate is compressive present or not, ranges from 5.8 to 13.80 MPa. When fly ash (by weight)
partially replaced strength ranges is used instead of cement, the compressive strength is reduced by 10% to
by fine aggregate from 5.8 to 13.80 20%. Nevertheless, replacing cement with fly ash in concrete resulted in
for 5%, 10% and MPa, whether it
15% (by weight) contains fine
a reduction in total voids, which could be attributed to fly ash’s micro-
. aggregate or not. filler effect, which increases the percentage of loss in cement concrete.
Using fly ash (by As a conclusion, most researchers used OPC with various supple­
weight) mentary materials on rigid concrete pavements to improve the
instead of cement
compressive strength and durability of the pavement. However, major­
reduces the
compressive ity of the supplementary materials utilised induced unfavourable mod­
strength by 10% ifications on the mechanical properties of the pavement. Apart from
and 20%. that, some works neglected the long term effects of the employed sup­
plementary materials on mechanical properties of the pavement
produced.
workability; when compared to the typical OPC blend, the compressive
Each country has its own highway bureau under the Highway
strength is reduced by 29–41 MPa.
Administration. International standards, particularly the American So­
Shill et al. [40] studied the durability of epoxy resin and silica fume
ciety for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the American Association of
modified cement mortar, focusing on the compressive strength of rigid
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), have a significant
pavements under the operating conditions of military air bases. The
influence on national road authority specifications (ASTM). The base
ratio of epoxy resin to cement and silica fume is 0.20, the ratio of water
layer and fundamental materials are specified in both international
to cement and SF is 0.40, and the ratio of fine aggregate to cement and
standards. In Malaysia, local road authority specification must adhere to
SF is 3. Modified cement mortar has superior durability as compared to
JKR Standard Specification for Road Works where it states that the
regular cement mortar. Nonetheless, deformation, expansion, and
concrete mix must have at least the required minimum cement content
plasticization were observed in the cement mortar after the epoxy resin
and a target mean strength that is at least the current margin more than
was exposed to high temperature. The sample lost 65.85% of its
the required characteristic strength. Table 2 shows the standard pre­
compressive strength after being exposed to high heat cycles. This could
scribed mixes for concrete rigid pavement according to JKR Standard
lead to a severe loss of mechanical characteristics. An extraordinary
Specification for Road Works [44].
percentage of residual compressive strength is maintained by the
The specification covers the quality and grades of the following
adhesion of PC, SF, and epoxy resin and their interacting products.
materials used to construct the base, subbase, and surface layers: stone,
Debbarma et al. [41] replaced concrete with recycled materials by
gravel, sand, or slag screen, coarse aggregate crushed from crushed
using various industrial and agricultural wastes (such as silica fume, fly
stone, slag, or gravel, with soil mortar, or any combination of these
ash, and sugar cane ash) as part of the replacement of traditional cement
components [9]. However, this material is a natural material that affects
for concrete pavement applications. Sugarcane ash and fly ash are
environmental sustainability. The need to find alternative sustainable
wastes that are often thrown into open areas, but they contain active
materials is crucial. Therefore, the use of waste or recycled materials
silica, which can be used to partially replace Portland cement due to the
into rigid pavement production is the key to overcoming sustainability
secondary pozzolanic reaction. On the other hand, silica fume improves
issues.
the performance of concrete buildings due to its higher active silica
concentration (greater than85%). Sugar cane ash is used as a partial
4. Reusing waste materials in rigid pavement
substitute for Portland cement in the proportions of 10% and 15%.
Similarly, silica fume and fly ash are used at 5% and 10% and 15% and
In many developed and developing countries, sustainable infra­
30%, respectively. The results obtained also support that the considered
structure is a priority. Many governments, research institutes, and
waste does not provide any beneficial effects on the durability of rigid
paving companies throughout the world are conducting research on the
concrete, but instead increases the total permeability voids, water ab­
use of alternative sustainable materials. Construction and demolition
sorption and water absorption coefficient rates, respectively. The results
waste (C&D waste) recycled products are becoming increasingly popular
indicate that the inclusion of the considered waste reduces the strength
around the world. According to the latest research on the use of recycled
properties of concrete, such as compressive strength, modulus of
materials in construction applications, a particular amount of these
rupture, and split tensile strength.
recycled materials can be employed for environmentally friendly side­
Krishna et al. [42] evaluated rigid concrete behavior when OPC was
walks, roadways, and sidewalk base and subbase applications
partially replaced with silica sand and GGBS. Silica sand is used to
[36,45–48].
replace fine aggregate, while GGBS is used to replace cement for rigid
Waste materials can be defined as unnecessary or useless materials
pavements. The silica sand percentages of 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% are
that have no lasting value and are directly related to human activities,
replaced by the volume of sand, while 35% of GGBS is partially replaced
construction or industrial sectors [5,9,11,14]. In order to improve the
by cement in the concrete of the rigid pavement by volume. By replacing
efficiency of resource consumption, reduce the environmental impact of
the silica sand in the concrete, its compressive strength was reduced by
garbage disposal, as well as to improve hazardous waste management
75%. Compared with ordinary concrete, when 50% is replaced, the
and avoid generation and clean-up issues, in accordance with the 1992
compressive strength increased by 0.23%. On the contrary, the increase
agreement, all jurisdictions have formulated comprehensive legislation
in compressive strength of concrete replacing silica sand is not very
and policies to protect the environment, along with protection tools for
significant. Furthermore, the addition of silica sand in excess of 50% has
natural resources [49].

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M.F. Mohd Tahir et al. Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190

Table 2
Standard recommended mixes for general use per cubic metre of concrete for roadwork [44].
Grade of Concrete 28-day Characteristic Strength of Concrete (N/sq.mm) Nominal Max. 40 20
Sizes of
Aggregate
(mm)
Workability Medium High Medium High
Slump Limits (mm) 50–100 100–150 25–75 75–125

M15 15 Cement (kg)Total aggregate 250 270 280 310

(kg)Fine aggregate 1850 1800 1800 1750
(%) 30–45 30–45 35–50 35 – 50
M20 20 Cement (kg)Total aggregate 300 320 320 350
(kg)Fine aggregate 1850 1750 1800 1750
(%) 25–35 25 – 40 25 – 40 20–45
M25 25 Cement (kg)Total aggregate 340 360 360 390
(kg)Fine aggregate 1800 1750 1750 1700
(%) 25–35 25–40 25–40 30–45

According to the provisions of the Environmental Protection Law of characteristics.

1970, all wastes should be managed in accordance with the “waste class”
shown in Fig. 4. The use of recycled materials should be investigated.
Using recycled materials in appropriate applications can help to
extend the life of non-renewable rock resources, reduce construction
trash disposed of in landfills, and lower highway pavement building
costs [1,4,35,50,51]. Geopolymer is one of the innovations responsible
for encouraging the use of recycled materials for sustainable infra­
structure. Geopolymer is capable of competing with cement, which is
one of the most commonly used binders in rigid pavement construction.
5. Geopolymer as rigid pavement materials
Geopolymers are basically synthesized from alkali-activated alumi­
nosilicate raw materials, which are natural or by-products with high
content of silica and alumina, and use alkaline activator solutions at
mild temperatures [52–55]. It is produced through heterogeneous
chemical reactions, including dissolution, diffusion, polycondensation,
and hardening [56–58]. The alkaline activator mentioned is not Alkali
activated material (AAM) which is a calcium hydrate alternative mate­
rial that is less durable than geopolymer [55–57]. Geopolymer is not a
hydrate, because water does not participate in the structure of the ma­
terial. Alkaline activator refers to alkaline solution which causes the
breaking of the aluminosilicate bond and releases silica and alumina
which can be mainly found in the source materials. Since Davidovits
introduced a new technology called geopolymer technology with geo­
polymerization process in early 1978, a large number of researchers
from all over the world has been attracted to study various aspects of its
synthesis process as well as various physical machinery and durability
The geopolymer technology developed in recent decades may
contribute to a cleaner and more environmentally friendly alternative
cement compared to standard ordinary Portland cement [59,60]. In
recent years, pioneering technologies have become more advanced, and
the breadth of geopolymer chemistry, synthesis, and production has
expanded to the extent that geopolymers can now be commercialized as
green technologies. It is expected that these will be the best choice for
recycling industrial wastes into building materials with high mechanical
strength and good durability property for the future. Many early studies
and newly published articles show that a unique binder (fly ash-based
geopolymer) has excellent mechanical and physical properties, which
are usually greater than those of traditional stabilization methods such
as ordinary Portland cement [61–67]. In addition, fly ash utilization, as
a raw material for large-scale production of geopolymers can have a
significant economic and environmental benefits [68,69].
The newly developed inorganic binder geopolymer has greater ad­
vantages and better quality than typical Portland cement concrete. Ac­
cording to a research, 1 tonne of Portland cement produces
approximately 1 tonne of carbon dioxide that will be released into the
global atmosphere, which is one of the main causes of global warming
[52–54,57,70]. Contrastingly, the geopolymer cement manufacturing
process is different from Portland cement. When comparing the pro­
duction of geopolymer cement with the production of Portland cement,
Davidovits found that the energy used was reduced by 60% and the
carbon dioxide produced was reduced by 80–90% [71]. Fig. 5 depicts
the fundamental differences between OPC and geopolymer concrete,
demonstrating that geopolymer concrete outperforms OPC concrete in
terms of durability and sustainability [58].

Fig. 4. Waste hierarchy [49].

6
M.F. Mohd Tahir et al.
Fig. 5. Performance comparison between OPC concrete and Geopolymer Concrete [58].
Limestone does not need to be processed at extremely high temper­
atures to make geopolymer products. Natural aluminosilicates heat-
treated at high temperatures (600 to 800 ⁰C) or natural processed
(man-made) aluminosilicates heat-treated at low temperatures, such as
fly ash, provide acceptable raw materials for geopolymers. As a result,
energy consumption and CO2 emissions are lowered substantially.
Geopolymer preparation is a straightforward procedure that is
comparable to that seen in OPC preparation. It is easily made by mixing
aluminosilicate reactive ingredients with a strong alkaline solution and
curing at room temperature. In a short period of time, the strength has
increased significantly. Due to these properties, geopolymers are suit­
able for a wide range of industries, including civil engineering. In con­
struction, transportation and infrastructure applications, some
geopolymer binders have been investigated and proven to work
[57,72–75]. Geopolymers can have a wide range of features and char­
acteristics depending on the raw materials used and the manufacturing
conditions utilised, including fire resistance, high early compressive
strength, low thermal conductivity, acid resistance, low shrinkage, and
low CO2 emissions [76,77]. Geopolymer materials can replace some
current construction materials such as cement binder, tiles, bricks and
other pavement applications. Current research works of geopolymer
concrete pavement with various geopolymer precursors are stipulated in
Table 3.
Girish et al. [75] studied self-consolidating geopolymer concrete that
can be used in fixed-form paving applications. The mixture has a target
compressive strength of 40 MPa and designed to be cured under ambient
conditions, using ground blast furnace slag (GGBS), class F fly ash,
alkaline activator: NaOH particles and solution form (molar concen­
tration: 10 and 12), Na2SiO3 (A-53 grade), fine aggregate: quarry dust
and river sand, coarse aggregate below − 20 mm, retarder: Conplast
SP500, sugar solution and water. It is found that the average compres­
sive strength after 28 days of environmental curing is 56.47 MPa, which
is 40% higher than the target strength value. The compressive strength
gradually increased to 71.78 MPa on the 56th day. Nevertheless, due to
the low viscosity and low yield stress, the proposed mixture fails to
exhibit sufficient green strength, which is critical for slipform paving
7
Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190
applications. The current study can be expanded by including nanoclays
and/or fibres into the SGC to increase its green strength and suitability
for sliding mould applications.
Girish et al. [78] also explored the potential of using geopolymer
concrete containing quarry dust and sand as fine aggregate in rigid
paving-grade concrete. The mixture is composed of 60% fly ash and 40%
GGBS, with a solid–liquid ratio of 3. In the experiment, a 12 M NaOH
solution was used, and quarry dust and sand were placed as fine ag­
gregates. The highest strength reached at 28 days was 62.15 MPa. The
compressive strength result shows that all mixtures have improved in
strength. The 28-day compressive strength achieved exceeds the mini­
mum compressive strength requirement of 40 MPa for rigid pavement
cement concrete. However, substituting quarry dust for sand will reduce
the compressive strength of geopolymer concrete.
Mahapara and Gyanendra [79] studied the fatigue and mechanical
properties of rice husk ash (a by-product of rice, used as a raw material
for rigid pavement geopolymer concrete) with alkaline activator, which
is obtained by combining sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) and sodium hy­
droxide (NaOH). It is prepared by mixing it with basalt fiber, which is
basalt or volcanic eruption, and is used as a fiber reinforcement material
in geopolymer rigid pavement. The different percentages of basalt fiber
used were 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%, and the results of mixing
rice husk ash with basalt fiber were compared with the control mixture.
Studies have shown that rice husks containing 10% basalt fiber reached
higher bending strengths of 43.0, 60.1, and 60.4 MPa after 7 days, 28
days, and 90 days, respectively. The flexural strength of rice husk con­
taining 5% and 15% was higher than the control mixture, but the flex­
ural strength of 20% and 25% rice husk at 7, 28 and 90 days was lower
than that of the control mixture. Nevertheless, basalt fibre does not
significantly contribute to the strength development.
Eisa et al. [80] determined the thermal expansion behaviors and
drying shrinkage that affect the length of rigid pavement concrete.
Aluminosilicate source (metakaolin) and activator solution are used
instead of cement to produce a geopolymer concrete mixture with 30
MPa designed compressive strength. The geopolymer concrete reached
about 80% of the required compressive strength when cured in the
M.F. Mohd Tahir et al. Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190

Table 3 Table 3 (continued )

Research works on geopolymer concrete pavement with various geopolymer Researcher Geopolymer Mix Design Findings
precursors. Precursor
Researcher Geopolymer Mix Design Findings concrete mixtures days.
Precursor with a compressive Approximately
Girish et al. • Fly Ash • The design target • The average strength of 30 MPa. 100% of the
[75] GGBS compressive strength compressive required
of the mixture is 40 strength after 28 compressive
MPa, and it is days cured at strength reached
formulated with class ambient the maximum
F fly ash and ground temperature is strength at 7 days
blast furnace slag 56.47 MPa, which is and 32.3 MPa at 28
(GGBS) Alkaline 40% higher than the days.
activator: NaOH in target compressive Itthikorn et al. • Fly ash • The laterite soil, • The highest 7-day
pellet and solution strength. The [81] GGBS class C fly ash and UCS occurs at 20%
form (molar compressive GGBS were firstly GBFS (optimum)
concentration: 10 and strength gradually mixed together with with strength of
12), Na2SiO3 (grade increased to 71.78 ratios of 60:30:10, 10.46 MPa.
A-53). Coarse MPa upon 56 days. 50:30:20, and
aggregate below 20 40:30:30.
mm size. Fine Theerapruet • Fly Ash • The content of the • The highest
aggregate: river sand et al. [82] Rice RHA-FA mixture is compressive
and quarry dust, Husk Ash fixed at 30% by strength is achieved
retarder: Conplast weight of the RCA. when the ratio of
SP500 and sugar RHA/FA is 0/100
solution, and water with the value of
Girish et al. • Fly Ash • 60% of fly ash and • The highest strength 7.5 MPa at 7 days
[78] GGBS 40% of GGBS with achieved was 62.15 and 11 MPa at 28
solid to liquid ratio of MPa at 28 days. days.
3 NaOH solution of Compressive
12 M concentration strength values
Quarry dust had been indicate an increase environment for 3 days, reached about 100% of the required compres­
placed with sand as in the strength of all sive strength at 7 days, and reached a maximum strength of 32.3 MPa at
fine aggregate mixes. At 28 days, 28 days. Nevertheless, the achieved strength was still unable to meet the
the compressive
strength of the
requirements of rigid pavement applications.
cement concrete Itthikorn et al. [81] tried using GGBS as an alternative and partially
exceeded the rigid reactive material in fly ash geopolymer pavement applications. First, the
pavement’s laterite, class C fly ash and GGBS are mixed together in a ratio of
minimum
60:30:10, 50:30:20 and 40:30:30. The highest 7-day UCS occurs at 20%
compressive
strength GBFS (best), which is equal to 10.46 MPa, and meets the strength re­
requirement (40 quirements of low-volume and high-volume road codes. Nonetheless, a
MPa). very high 30% GGBS content must be avoided because it will hinder the
Researcher Geopolymer Mix Design Findings development of UCS, especially the ratio of sodium silicate to sodium
Precursor hydroxide, without considering the development of UCS after cured for
Mahapara • Rice Husk • The different • The results showed 28 days.
and Basalt Fibre percentages of that rice husks Theerapruet et al. [82] studied the potential of fly ash-rice husk ash
Gyanendra basalt fiber used are containing 10% geopolymer stabilized recycled concrete aggregate as an alternative to
[79] 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, basalt fiber reached
stabilize road base materials. A mixture of NaOH with a concentration of
20% and 25% The higher 7, 28, and
results of the rice 90-day flexural
10 M and Na2SiO3 composed of SiO2 (31.50–34.00%) and Na2O
husk ash and basalt strengths of 43.0, (14.50–16.50%) is used as an alkaline activator solution. The RHA/FA
fiber mixture were 60.1, and 60.4 ratios used are 100/0, 80/20, 60/40, 50/50, 40/60, 20/80, and 0/100.
compared with the MPa, respectively. The content of the RHA-FA mixture is fixed at 30% of the weight of
control mixture. The flexural
recycled concrete aggregates. The highest compressive strength ob­
strength of rice
husk containing 5% tained was 7.5 MPa when the ratio of RHA/FA is 0/100 at 7 days and 11
and 15% was MPa at 28 days, which meets UCS requirements for stable substrates on
higher than that of low-traffic roads. The UCS of FA-RHA-geopolymer increases as the ratio
the control
of RHA/FA decreases. The maximum UCS for different curing times was
mixture, but the
flexural strength of
found when the ratio of RHA/FA was 0/100. This result indicates that
the 20% and 25% the addition of rice husk ash will have a negative impact on the per­
mixture was lower formance of concrete pavement.
than that of the As a conclusion, most researchers had utilised different types of
control mixture at
geopolymer precursors. However, some of the precursors cause a
7, 28, and 90 days.
Eisa et al. • Metakaolin • The material used is • The geopolymer negative effect on the mechanical strength of the final materials. On the
[80] to replace cement concrete reached other hand, few researchers found that the utilised geopolymer pre­
with approximately 80% cursor including fly ash [75,78,81,82], rice husk ash [79,82] and GGBS
aluminosilicate of the required
[75,78,81], still enhance the mechanical properties of the pavement. As
source (metakaolin) compressive
Activator solution strength when it is
documented in the literature, geopolymers have become a promising
for the production cured at ambient technical answer to effectively stabilize and fix harmful compounds. In
of geopolymer temperature for 3 the early 1990 s, Davidovits [83] began investigating the potential of
immobilising heavy metals using commercial geopolymer products.

8
M.F. Mohd Tahir et al.
According to the leachate data from different tailings geological poly­
merization, 90 percent of the heavy metal ions may be securely
consolidated in the 3D geopolymer framework. The molecular structure
of geopolymers is similar to zeolite, which has high adsorption and so­
lidification properties for heavy metal ions and nuclear waste and other
hazardous chemical wastes [74,84]. The comparative study of
geopolymer-based rigid pavement revealed the different properties of
geopolymer and different industrial wastes. However, geopolymers with
fly ash as the precursor showed promising properties for use as rigid
pavements, which are directly related to the mineral composition of the
material. Among them, fly ash contains a large amount of SiO2, CaO and
Al2O3. Geopolymers are composed of three main mechanism stages:
dissolution, gelation and polymerization.
6. Mechanism of geopolymer
Formation of geopolymer differs from OPC in which OPC is basically
hardened through the hydration process and geopolymer is hardened
and gains strength through the geopolymerization process. For example,
the hydration process of OPC requires water as an initiator and water
curing is important for the optimum strength development. Neverthe­
less, alkali solutions are needed to activate the aluminosilicate source
materials and geopolymerization can occur at room temperature which
depends on several aspects.
The three main stages of geological polymerization mechanism are:
(1) dissolving oxide minerals from source materials (alumina and silica)
under strong alkaline states; (2) orientation of dissolved oxide minerals,
then coagulation/gelation; (3) polycondensation to form a 3D network
of aluminosilicate structure [53]. In detail, the geological aggregation
process involves several steps, which are proposed in the conceptual
model, as shown in Fig. 6.
This model assumes that geopolymerization starts with the dissolu­
tion of the source materials by the alkaline solution which causes the
breaking of the aluminosilicate bond and releases silica and alumina
which can be mainly found in the source materials. These dissolved
substances react to produce sialic acid chains (depending on the Si/Al
ratio mentioned above). The negative charge generated in the alumi­
nosilicate chain is balanced by alkali metal cations such as potassium,
sodium or calcium. Therefore, the silica and alumina content in the
source material has a significant effect on controlling the properties of
Fig. 6. Conceptual model for the geopolymerization processes.
9
Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190
the geopolymer.
Furthermore, as the alkalinity of the solution rises, so does the rate of
dissolution. This rate determines how long it takes to reach saturation
[54], at which point the aluminosilicate solution becomes supersatu­
rated. Then, the main condensation process begins and the aluminosil­
icate gel in the form of oligomers precipitates to produce large and more
stable networks. The first polymer (Gel 1) is formed when the solution
contains higher Si and Al concentration.
As the reaction continues, more and more Si come into the solution
and the produced gel contains higher amounts of Si (Gel 2). The initial
setting starts when the condensation rate of the aluminosilicate species
exceeds the dissolution rate. Finally, polycondensation and rearrange­
ment processes continue to produce more and more connected 3D net­
works forming the final geopolymer matrix [52,84,85].
Fernandez et al. [52] described the geological polymerization of fly
ash geopolymers through schematic diagrams in more detail. They
stated that the geopolymerization reaction is initiated by a dissolution
process in which the activator attacks the surface of the fly ash particles.
The surface of these particles which may be hollow or contain other
smaller ash particles becomes perforated, hence, the activator solution
enters the particle and the attacks continue from inside and outside
particles, until it becomes partially or fully consumed.
Reaction product starts to precipitate inside and outside of the par­
ticles, which produces a denser structure. These products consolidate
and form a crust that prevents the reaching of more activating solution
and hinders further reactions [84–87]. The reaction rate is reduced and
controlled by diffusion. These processes cannot occur in a uniform
manner; rather, they vary from point to point throughout the geo­
polymer mixture which depends on the particle size distribution and the
local chemistry. A descriptive model of these processes is illustrated in
Fig. 7.
Recent research in the field of geopolymers has revealed a new type
of adhesive with high potential, which can be used in the field of con­
crete rigid pavement [88,89]. The geopolymer source material reacts as
the aluminosilicate source and is dissolved or activated by the alkaline
solution through the geopolymerization process.
These types of inorganic materials present many advantages
compared to other inorganic based rigid pavements which promote high
compressive strength, low density, cheaper cost, and is easily produced
due to the abundant of raw materials [90,91]. The ability of
M.F. Mohd Tahir et al. Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190

Fig. 7. Fernandez-Jimenez’s model for the fly ash geopolymerization process [52].

geopolymers to solidify at room temperature is a good opportunity for
concrete rigid pavement applications [88,89,92]. Thus, it is a good op­
portunity to implement high calcium precursors for developing geo­
polymer concrete rigid pavement cured at ambient temperature without
any calcium additive which is more cost-effective to be used as concrete
rigid pavement. The main component in mechanism of geopolymer is
aluminosilicate source materials and alkaline activator which are geo­
polymer constituents.
7. Geopolymer constituent
Geopolymer is a combination of raw materials rich in silica and
alumina and alkaline solutions such as NaOH and Na2SiO3. Various
aluminosilicate raw materials such as fly ash, slag, kaolin, metakaolin,
rice husk ash, red mud, etc. are widely used to prepare geopolymers to
study the properties of geopolymers in different applications. All of these
materials require alkaline activator solutions for geopolymerization.
Therefore, aluminosilicate raw materials and alkali activator solutions
are the main components for preparing geopolymers.
7.1. Aluminosilicate source materials
the main source of OPC cement, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
The potential of geopolymer binders as new materials for rigid
pavement construction is also supported by the fact that a large number
of industrial by-products are produced in various industries, and these
by-products have been found to be suitable for use as geopolymer source
materials [70]. For example, in 2013, it was recorded that Malaysia
produced more than 54 million metric tons of fly ash, but only used 23
million metric tons (42.6% of total fly ash). The remaining 57.2% of the
total fly ash generated is disposed in landfills [73]. Table 4 shows fly ash
generation and utilization in different countries. Therefore, the best use
of waste will help solve this problem.
The worldwide availability of various aluminosilicate raw materials,
such as fly ash (produced by burning coal in thermal power plants), blast
furnace slag (waste produced in the process of extracting iron from raw
ore), metakaolin (produced by calcination), Kaolinite clay (lasts for
several hours at 750 ◦ C) and other abundant natural or industrial wastes
such as tungsten sludge, Lumpur Sidoarjo (LUSI) mud and Palm Oil Fuel
Table 4
Classification of aluminosilicate source materials [94].
No Country Annual ash production, MT Ash utilization %

1 India 112 38
Various aluminosilicate precursors, including industrial by-products 2 China 100 45
and natural raw materials, can be used as aluminosilicate raw materials, 3 USA 75 65
4 Germany 40 85
as shown in Fig. 8. Geopolymer technology provides an alternative good
5 UK 15 50
solution for the utilization of various industrial by-products such as fly 6 Australia 10 85
ash, without the need for them to end up in landfills, and having 7 Canada 6 75
negative impact on the environment. In addition, this technology helps 8 France 3 85
reduce the utilization of mineral reserves, such as limestone, which is

Fig. 8. Classification of aluminosilicate source materials [93].

10
M.F. Mohd Tahir et al.
Ash (POFA) have increased research and Development. The purpose of
using these precursors is to increase the content of alumina and silica
while reducing costs, as some of them come from industrial waste, which
is one of the reasons why people are increasingly interested in geo­
polymers [83–87].
Previous researchers reported that materials with high calcium
content are suitable raw material for making high-quality geopolymers
[95–97]. Due to the calcium reaction, the high calcium-based geo­
polymer mixture can be cured at room temperature, and C-A-S-H gel and
3D aluminosilicate structure are generated in the geopolymer system in
the early stage, and the curing of the geopolymer is accelerated.
Therefore, high-calcium aluminosilicate raw materials such as high-
calcium fly ash or slag are suitable and should be explored for geo­
polymer rigid pavement applications.
Instead of high calcium content, fly ash is typically comprised of
silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) which exist in the form of amorphous
and crystalline [98,99]. There are several factors affecting the selection
of the source materials for geopolymer such as availability, cost, appli­
cation, hardened properties and etc. Fly ash has been found to be an
important source of cement production and is one of the industrial by
products used for the development of geopolymer materials. It is well
known as an aluminosilicate source with its production remains
significant.
From the perspective of carbon dioxide emissions, the production
process of fly ash-based geopolymers has lower CO2 emissions than OPC,
in which a large amount of limestone (CaCO3) is calcined and decom­
posed at high temperatures [76,86,87,100]. When 1 ton of OPC is pro­
duced, approximately 0.8 ton of CO2 is released [101,102]. Therefore,
fly ash is a kind of green material with natural resource utilization ef­
ficiency [103].
Burning coal in power plants produces fly ash. It is a solid residue
composed of fine particles discharged from the boiler with flue gas in a
coal-fired power plant. Before the flue gas reaches the chimney, an
electrostatic precipitator or other particulate filtering devices capture it
from the flue gas [70,104]. With the cost and availability of oil and
natural gas, coal-fired power plants will continue to operate for a long
time, especially in countries with abundant coal resources [105]. Two
types of ash are obtained from the combustion of coal, namely fly ash
and bottom ash. According to ASTM C 618–12 [106], fly ash can be
divided into two types, as shown in Table 5. Due to its commerce and
performance, fly ash is often used as a raw material for geopolymers. In
general, fly ash used to make geopolymers should meet a number of
criteria, making it a suitable raw material for geopolymers primarily
made of silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) [87,100].
However, there are only a few studies involving the application of
high-calcium fly ash-based geopolymers in rigid pavement applications.
High calcium fly ash has both pozzolanic and cementing properties
[95–97]. The calcium content in fly ash has a significant impact on the
performance of fresh geopolymers and the performance of the produced
concrete. In addition, it may also lead to the formation of hydrated
calcium silicate compounds. The geopolymer gel product increases the
mechanical strength of the hardened matrix [107]. When comparing
geopolymers made with high-calcium fly ash to low-calcium fly ash
geopolymers, curing at ambient and elevated temperatures can produce
better strength [108]. In addition to raw materials, alkali activator also
plays an important role, as it is responsible for the dissolution of fly ash.
Table 5
Fly ash classification.
Chemical ASTM C618 [106]
Class F Fly Ash Class C Fly Ash
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 70.00 50.00
CaO less than 20% greater than 20%
11
Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190
7.2. Alkaline activator
Besides having suitable aluminosilicate source materials, the alkaline
activator solution also plays an important role in the dissolution of silica
and alumina to form sialic acid and poly (sialic acid) (Si-O-Al-O); the
three-dimensional polymer chain [83,92,102]. Sodium-based alkaline
activator solutions are often used in the production of geopolymers. The
concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution is very important for
dissolving the Si4+ and Al3+ ions in the raw materials and the subsequent
geological polymerization process. The addition of Na2SiO3 to NaOH is
beneficial to improve the geological polymerization process because of
its soluble silicate content [85,92,102].
The research conducted by Somna et al. [85] showed that the molar
concentration of NaOH ranges from 4.5 M to 16.5 M for the combination
of NaOH and Na2SiO3 solutions, indicating that the strength increases
with the increase of the molar concentration. According to Palomo et al.
[86], it has also been found that different low-calcium fly ash activated
with 8 M to 12 M NaOH will have different mechanical properties when
cured at 85 ◦ C for 24 h. The molar concentration of sodium hydroxide is
responsible for the dissolution process of high-calcium and low-calcium
fly ash-based geopolymers. The molar concentration of NaOH is directly
proportional to the compressive strength of fly ash-based geopolymers.
However, an excessively high molar concentration will produce
weathering and affect the strength and durability of geopolymers [109].
Weathering is the formation of white salt deposits on or near the surface
of concrete. The main disadvantage encountered during the hardening
of geopolymers is the formation of weathering, which can lead to poor
performance of the final product. Therefore, the optimization of the
molar concentration of sodium hydroxide is vital for better adhesion of
rigid pavement applications.
The combination of sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) or potassium silicate
(K2SiO3) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH)
is commonly used as an alkali activator to produce geopolymers
[110–113]. The use of Na2SiO3 leads to the production of additional
silicate in the system, which aids geological polymerization, thereby
increasing the compressive strength. Tanakorn et al. [114] demon­
strated that a combination of Na2SiO3 and NaOH geopolymer exhibited
higher strength than NaOH alone and Na2SiO3 alone at all curing ages.
Moreover, the reaction between NaOH and Na2SiO3 is exothermic,
and the heat generated by the reaction can help the geopolymerization
process and enhance the strength development of geopolymers [114]. In
Mustafa et al. [115] and Hardjito et al. [112], geopolymer was prepared
by activating fly ash and an alkali activator solution with a NaOH/
Na2SiO3 ratio of 2.5, and the best strength of the geopolymer was yiel­
ded. This ratio does not only yield high strength, but also high tem­
perature resistance [116] and high acid corrosion resistance [117].
Therefore, a combination of NaOH and Na2SiO3 is commonly used as an
alkaline activator solution [115,118]. The choice of precursor and
alkaline activator is crucial because it affects the physical and me­
chanical properties of the geopolymer produced.
8. Physical and mechanical properties of geopolymer
Geopolymer has shown an increasing potential to be used as rigid
pavement in the construction field. These binders can be produced in the
form of paste, mortar, and concrete with a wide range of physical and
mechanical properties. Thus, this section displays a comprehensive re­
view of the engineering properties such as density, setting time, work­
ability, and compressive strength which become the performance
indicator for the potential usage of geopolymer in the field of rigid
pavement construction.
8.1. Density properties
Density is determined according to ASTM C138 [119]. Fly ash-based
geopolymer pastes generally have a density of less than 2 g/cm3. The
M.F. Mohd Tahir et al. Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190

density of geopolymer samples ranges from 2,200 to 2,600 kg/m3 [120]. Table 6
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume. According to the research Workability of geopolymer.
previously reported by Temujin and others [92,96–98,102,121], in­ Authors Agent Results
crease in the mortar density is due to quartz; the main component of
Malkawi et al., Various NaOH molarity • Increasing the molarity of NaOH
sand aggregate, whose density is 2.65 g/cm3. It improves the overall [130] decreased the workability and
density of the mortar. The density formula is shown in Equation (1) setting time.
[119]. The density of geopolymer mortar increases as the percentage of Kuenzel et al., Silica sand • Adding sand will reduce the
sand in the mixture increases. Density that is too low or too high will [131] volume fraction porosity, so the
strength should be increased.
affect the physical and mechanical properties of geopolymers. Adding sand particles also
Mass, M means adding strong particles to
Density = (1) the geopolymer matrix as a
Volume, V reinforcing material with the
According to reports, the increase in mortar density is due to the required processability.
Bricklayer’s sand • 10–30 wt% of aggregate exhibits
decrease in open porosity and the density of quartz, the main component Temuujin acceptable fluidity, while
of sand aggregate of 2.65 g/cm3, which increases the overall density of et al., [121] aggregates containing 40 and 50
the mortar [121]. It is reported that when the density of the mortar is wt% of mortar are hard and
increased, the compressive strength will increase. difficult to fit into plastic molds
Ernesto [133] Dry river sand • An increase in the sand-solid
ratio will cause the mixture to
8.2. Setting time properties become non-sticky, resulting in a
decrease in the flow value
Geopolymer can be made with a wide range of setting times, from Kassim et al., Natural river sand, • Compared with other aggregates,
[132] crushed limestone and geopolymer mortar including
extremely slow to extremely fast in accordance with ASTM C191 [122].
mixed sand-limestone natural sand shows better
According to a report by Diaz-Loya, the initial setting time of fly ash fluidity. In addition, the coarse
geopolymers from various sources ranges from 1.5 min to 600 min gradation of sand results in
[123]. One of the main parameters affecting the setting time of geo­ higher fluidity
polymers is calcium content. This content plays an important role in
determining the solidification of the geopolymer.
slump value whilst combination of NaOH and Na2SiO3 increases the
It is noted that the addition of calcium hydroxide to the geopolymer
slump and also increases the viscosity of the alkaline activator.
accelerates the time required for the initial setting from 30 min to 250
Furthermore, the production of mortar and concrete requires the
min [124]. The presence of a small amount of calcium may be necessary
addition of natural or industrially manufactured aggregates and as fillers
to reduce the setting time, especially for fly ash based geopolymer when
because it is cheaper than paste. Adding naturally occurring materials
curing under ambient temperature. However, a high calcium fly ash
such as quartz, basalt, granite, sandstone and limestone as fine aggre­
source material is easily available. Thus, it will be advantageous to use it
gates to the geopolymer paste is not only economically advantageous,
in rigid pavement construction that requires a high setting and early
but also yields the workability required for geopolymer rigid concrete
strength and can be cured at room temperature [124–126].
pavement [124,126,131,132]. Choosing a suitable binder-sand ratio
Other researchers suggest that the setting is highly affected by the
helps to ensure that the geopolymer mortar used as a rigid concrete
NaOH concentration. Increasing the NaOH molarity increases the solu­
pavement has good strength and required workability. Generally, the
tion alkalinity and hence, a higher dissolution rate and faster setting
ratio of each binder to sand will result in different workability.
time [85,97,98,102,113,127]. However, in the case of high calcium fly
Temuujin et al. [121] prepared fly ash geopolymer mortar blended
ash based geopolymer, it is shown that using higher molarity of NaOH
with river sand and reported that geopolymer mortar with 10 wt% to 30
will affect the production of efflorescence (salt deposited on the surface)
wt% aggregate exhibits acceptable fluidity. Similarly, 40 wt% and 50 wt
which can reduce the strength and durability. Thus, limiting the NaOH
% aggregate geopolymer mortars showed acceptable fluidity. Hard
molarity will give a high early setting together with high strength of the
materials containing mortar are difficult to fit into plastic molds. As the
geopolymer.
aggregate content increases, the open porosity also decreases. From
paste to mortar, the opening rate is reduced.
8.3. Workability properties
Adding aggregate to the geopolymer paste does not only control the
workability, but also reduces the pore’s density and improves the
Workability can be defined as the ability of concrete to replace and
durability. However, Kuenzel et al. [131] has observed that mortars with
fill the crack areas or other damaged concrete structures. The work­
40% to 50% aggregates exhibited acceptable fluidity, while the amount
ability of fresh mixture is an important parameter that influences its
of aggregates added over 50% makes the geopolymer become hard and
practical applications. Workability is normally expressed as a diameter
difficult to fit into the mold. It is reported that increasing the sand
of the flow and can be measured by the slump test for concrete and flow
content will reduce the workability of the mortar. This is because as the
table test for paste or mortar. A standard workability test is used ac­
content of sand relative to cement increases, the mixture becomes less
cording to ASTM C1437 to determine the flow of cement mortar [128].
viscous, resulting in a decrease in workability.
The minimum flow diameter of 150 ± 10 mm could be considered as
Therefore, the development of geopolymers that incorporate fine
the required flow for geopolymer to be easily placed in the mould [129].
aggregates or called mortars promotes excellent performance. However,
In addition, workability of geopolymer based rigid pavement at fresh
optimizing the ratio of binder to sand is important to obtain the work­
state depends on several factors for example types of aggregate, per­
ability required to be used as rigid concrete pavement. Ernesto [133]
centages of aggregate, water content, a concentration of activator so­
also studied the influence of sand to fly ash ratio. As the ratio of sand to
lution, particle size distribution of aggregates, and the addition of
powder increases (that is, the content of sand under a given fly ash in­
chemical admixtures such as superplasticizers as reviewed in Table 6.
creases), the amount of gel formed during geological polymerization
A detailed study was conducted by Malkawi et al. [130] to investi­
may not be enough to bind all sand particles. The non-combination of
gate the effect of NaOH molarity on the workability of fly ash based
other loose particles leads to initial failure during the loading process,
geopolymer. The results showed that higher molarities (more than 14 M)
resulting in a decrease in its strength. Therefore, as summarized in
would reduce the slump due to the high viscosity of the alkali activator
Table 7, the optimal percentage of aggregate to improve the
solution. In addition, using the sodium hydroxide alone reduces the

12
M.F. Mohd Tahir et al. Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190

Table 7 mortars [121] and concrete [138]. The combination of aluminosilicate

Compressive strength of geopolymer. source material, alkaline activator and fine aggregate produces a geo­
Authors NaOH Compressive Findings polymer mortar. Adding fine aggregate means adding strong particles to
molarity strength the system, which is a low-cost inert filler.
Topark et al. 10 M, 15 30 MPa − 50 • Compressive strength It is believed that the inclusion of fine aggregates such as quartz,
[126] M, 20 M MPa increased with the increase in basalt, granite, sandstone, and limestone in fly ash-based geopolymers
molarity. can improve the mechanical properties of the geopolymers. However,
Malkawi et al., 8 M – 12 M 60 MPa – 80 • Achieved more than 75% of Ernesto [133] studied the compressive strength of fly ash geopolymer
[130] MPa their 28-day strength during
the first three days.
concrete and observed that the strength decreases with the increase of
Pangdaeng 10 MPa − 60 • Increase in calcium increased the sand to powder ratio. This is inconsistent with the results reported by
et al., [96] 10 M MPa the compressive strength of other researchers [132,139]. The optimal ratio will provide sufficient
geopolymer mortars binder content to bond the aggregate, which is important for the
Phoo et al., 12 M 10 MPa – 30 • Strength of geopolymer
strength development of the geopolymer rigid pavement. Therefore,
[98] MPa increased with increasing
calcium content further work is needed to evaluate the influence of various binder-to-
aggregate ratios on the physical and mechanical properties of rigid
pavement construction purposes.
performance of geopolymer mortar is crucial, and further study of this Mechanical properties such as compressive strength, bending
ratio is beneficial. strength, and tensile strength can be measured in the same way that
standard concrete mix designs. This shows the great potential of fly ash-
8.4. Compressive strength properties based geopolymers as rigid pavement concrete. However, in order to
obtain higher compressive strength, it is necessary to study the factors
The development of rigid concrete pavement with high early that affect compressive strength (such as binder ratio, molar concen­
strength and ability to be cured at ambient temperature is the subject of tration, curing temperature, slump, bending and splitting tensile
interest. Compressive testing of geopolymer is typically referred to as strength, elastic modulus and chemical ash activity). Table 8 summa­
ASTM C109/C109M [134]. The compressive strength is calculated using rizes standard testing method with the standard requirement of geo­
the formula shown in Equation (2) [134]. Geopolymers can provide polymer concrete’s physical and mechanical properties.
strength levels ranging from normal to ultrahigh, comparable to or
better than existing binders. This part will highlight the performance of 9. Cost advantages of geopolymer
geopolymer in terms of compressive strength and its dependency as
shown in Table 7. The use of fly ash in geopolymer concrete saves resources and energy
while also reducing the release of greenhouse gas; CO2 during the
P(Load)
Compressive strength = (2) cement manufacturing process [52–54]. According to McLellan [142],
A(Area)
there is an estimated 44 to 64% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions
In the past few years, many researchers have emphasized the influ­ when compared to OPC. This is advantageous for environmental pres­
ence of different molar concentrations of alkali solutions on the ervation and resource conservation [143]. When compared to OPC,
compressive strength of fly ash-based geopolymers [110–113]. Basi­ Lloyd and Rangan [144] found that Class F fly ash based geopolymer
cally, the dissolution of silica and alumina during the synthesis of geo­ concrete had a lot of economic benefits during heat curing.
polymers depends to a large extent on the concentration of NaOH, and The cost of one tonne of fly ash is a fraction of the cost of one tonne of
the leaching amount of silica and alumina is mainly controlled by the OPC (1 tonne). Even after accounting for the cost of alkaline solutions
concentration of NaOH. However, there seems to be an optimal value, (NaOH and Na2SiO3), it was stated that the cost of fly ash-based geo­
after which the strength will be slightly affected or reduced. polymer concrete per cubic metre was 10 to 30% less than that of OPC
Topark et al. [126] revealed that the compressive strength of fly ash [57,70]. Furthermore, it was observed that using 1 tonne of fly ash re­
based geopolymer was increased by 15 % when the NaOH molarity sults in roughly one carbon-credit with a significant redemption value
increased from 10 M to 15 M, however, further increase to 20 M reduced [52–54]. In addition, fly ash-based geopolymer concrete benefits
the compressive strength by 17 %. This behaviour can be attributed to financially from the carbon-credit trade, as one tonne of fly ash may
the dissolution rate. Higher NaOH molarities will increase the amount of produce three cubic metres of excellent quality geopolymer concrete
the hydroxide ions. Hence, the dissolution rate will be increased. [61–67]. Furthermore, when used in building applications, it may pro­
However, the presence of excess hydroxide ions will push the precipi­ vide further economic benefits particularly in improving long-term and
tation of the aluminosilicate gel on the outer surface of the particles at durability performance, such as extremely low shrinkage and creep,
very early ages which will hinder further dissolution [130]. excellent resistance to acid and sulphate attack, and low permeability
On the other hand, the liquid viscosity will be increased as the [57,72–75].
molarity increases and may interrupt the leaching of silicon and The typical cost analysis of materials for the manufacture of 1 m3
aluminium ions through the solution. This limits the ion mobility and geopolymer concrete with fly ash, concrete with Portland cement,
produces a nonhomogeneous geopolymer. According to the results ob­ concrete with cement and fly ash (more than 18%), and concrete with fly
tained by Topark et al., [126] and Malkawi et al., [130], this proved that ash and superplasticizer was carried out by Vilamova and Piecha [145].
fly ash based geopolymer exhibits higher strength values in terms of
compressive properties. This indicates that, optimizing the concentra­
tion of NaOH solution is crucial. Table 8
In addition, calcium-added fly ash-based geopolymers can be made Summary of physical and mechanical properties of geopolymer concrete.
into a compressive strength of 65 MPa by adding Portland cement cured Standard Testing Concrete Requirement
at an ambient temperature of 25 ◦ C [96]. Phoo-ngernkhan et al. [98] Method Properties
also proved the importance of calcium in geopolymer systems. Calcium ASTM C138 [119] Density 2,200 to 2,600 Kg/m3 [120]
reacts and forms additional C-S-H and C-A-S-H, which coexist with ASTM C191 [122] Setting Time 3 to 5 h [140]
geopolymer products and contribute to the strength development of ASTM C1437 [128] Workability greater than 150 ± 10 mm Ø [129]
geopolymers [135–137]. ASTM C109/C109M Compressive 28 MPa at 28 days compressive
[134] Strength strength [141]
Geopolymers have been prepared into geopolymer pastes [115],

13
M.F. Mohd Tahir et al.
The cost of fly ash was ignored in the analysis because it was a waste
product, and alkaline solutions such as NaOH and Na2SiO3 were
employed. It was discovered that the cost of materials for producing 1
m3 of fly ash geopolymer concrete was many times higher than that of
Portland cement concrete. It was also discovered that the cost of geo­
polymer concrete with 50% cement and fly ash mixture was lower than
that of geopolymer concrete with 100% fly ash. Fig. 9 compares the cost
of fly ash-based geopolymer against OPC concrete over one year and 20
years, respectively. The cost of fly ash-based geopolymer is higher than
that of OPC because of material price, which is the most significant
element contributing to the high manufacturing cost of fly ash-based
geopolymers. The need to minimize costs by utilizing less costly waste
raw materials and optimizing the amount of transportation necessary to
collect those raw materials at the place of application will be key issues
for geopolymer development. Figs. 10 and 11 show the cost contribu­
tions of fly ash based geopolymer and OPC concrete production. None­
theless, it was discovered that by partially replacing fly ash with
plasticizer, the cost of geopolymer concrete may be reduced.
The cost of OPC concrete and geopolymer concrete with fly ash and
GGBS was compared by Mathew et al. [146]. The transportation costs of
fly ash and GGBS were assumed to be the same as cement in the analysis.
In addition, the price of alkaline solution and aggregates is determined
by the local market. The cost of geopolymer concrete was stated to be
7% more than the cost of OPC concrete. It was also claimed that if the
transportation costs of fly ash and GGBS were not normalised, the cost of
geopolymer concrete would be more than twice that of OPC concrete.
According to past research [142,143,145–147], it is impossible to
provide an appropriate price comparison between the use of OPC and
geopolymers. This is due to the significant impact of materials trans­
portation, as well as the wide range of energy sources and
manufacturing technologies used to manufacture the materials. While
OPC is a well-established product where transportation cost has been
minimized; however, geopolymers have yet to go through this scale-up
cycle. Due to high demands for these materials, wide-scale geopolymer
utilization is projected to result in cheaper costs. Even yet, geopolymers
appear to have a lot of potential for being both cost-effective and
ecologically friendly.
10. Summary and conclusions
The current environmental and socio-economic issues are charac­
teristics of modern life. For instance, in the transportation sector,
particularly the road surface, which is a critical component of the
transportation infrastructure. The current environmental and socio-
economic consequences are closely related to the manufacture and
function of the road surface. Roads account for a significant portion of
Fig. 9. Comparison cost between fly ash based geopolymer cement and
OPC [147].
14
Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190
global carbon dioxide emissions. Pavement, in addition to its environ­
mental impact, is linked to economic growth as well as important
community roles and benefits. It benefits people in terms of environ­
mental harmony, economic stability, and social well-being.
It is important to note that the term “sustainable” refers to the overall
improvement of the environment, economy and society. Obviously,
sustainable solutions must be adopted and implemented, especially in
sectors that are partially responsible for the current deteriorating envi­
ronmental and socio-economic conditions, such as transportation.
Therefore, road sustainability aims to reduce associated environmental
consequences while adapting to economic and budget constraints, as
well as meeting social needs and aspirations.
When considering the various options of sustainable pavement ma­
terials, it is clear that there are multiple solutions for all relevant cate­
gories. Recycling and the use of by-products and waste provide a variety
of resources, mainly because of their minimal impact on the environ­
ment, besides their total social value. Some of these projects may be
successfully applied immediately, while others are promising but
require additional research. The first step in achieving the sustainable
development goals is to use sustainable materials without sacrificing the
quality of the road surface.
The review results have recognized the potential of geopolymers
made from waste by-products as rigid pavement concrete materials.
According to previous research, geopolymer materials meet the neces­
sary standards and may be used as rigid pavement concrete. In line with
the standard, geopolymers have been shown to have good strength,
durability, and workability. These characteristics are equivalent to those
of OPC when used as rigid pavement concrete, suggesting that geo­
polymers may be a viable alternative to OPC.
However, its effectiveness as a rigid pavement material is limited,
and there is no conclusive evidence that it could replace standard OPC
concrete rigid pavements. In comparison to standard materials, there is
still a substantial gap in determining its long-term performance.
Furthermore, there is no guideline for using geopolymer concrete in
rigid pavements. Several future works are recommended in this study
based on the discovered gaps, as stated below:
i. The geopolymer mix design has a significant impact on the
characteristics of the material. Thus, depending on strict pave­
ment criteria such as slump, strength, and durability, the optimal
values of solid to liquid ratio, alkali activator ratio, and sodium
hydroxide molarity must be further studied.
ii. A test technique for evaluating the fatigue life of geopolymer
concrete is required. The fatigue life of geopolymer concrete,
which is an essential characteristic in pavement applications, has
never been studied.
iii. Field research comparing geopolymer concrete rigid pavement to
traditional material pavement should be conducted. External el­
ements including moisture, precipitation, temperature, and
traffic should all be considered.
iv. The impact of the rigid geopolymer concrete pavement on the
other layers’ performance should also be examined. Heat trans­
fer, for example, may differ from traditional pavement because
geopolymer concrete has high insulating qualities. Since geo­
polymer is a stronger material than typical pavement, the
stress–strain distribution may be altered.
v. The service life of the geopolymer concrete rigid pavement
should be evaluated especially in terms of the durability of geo­
polymers. The performance model of the geopolymer should also
be tested.
vi. Finally, incorporating sustainability requirements into new road
construction specifications by employing geopolymer as a rigid
pavement material is a significant step toward achieving sus­
tainability goals.
M.F. Mohd Tahir et al. Construction and Building Materials 344 (2022) 128190

Fig. 10. Cost contribution of fly ash based geopolymer production [147].

Fig. 11. Cost contribution of OPC concrete production [147].

Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this manuscript.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to extend their gratitude to the Center of
Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGTech) and
Faculty of Technology Chemical Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis
(UniMAP).
[10] B. Ayobami, N. Julius, S. Emmanuel, J. Snyman, K. Williams, A. Olugbenga,
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