CVL100:Environmental Science(2-0-0)

(Tuesday and Wednesday; Friday slot reserved for extra class)

Chemical Treatment Methods

Lec7: Jan 25,2022

Prof. Arun Kumar

(arunku@civil.iitd.ac.in)
Objective: To introduce steps for estimating chemical demands during use
of different chemicals methods

1
 Chemical demands

• Coagulation-flocculation process for removing solids

• Softening process for divalent and multivalent cations
removal
• Disinfectant for killing or inactivating pathogens
• Oxidizing agent for oxidizing reduced substances

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 Suspended Solids Removal

Process: Coagulation-flocculation and

sedimentation
 Solids Removal
Method 2.Coagulation-flocculation-Sedimentation

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 4 types of Coagulation mechanisms
• Coagulation methods: (i) ionic layer compressions, (2)
charge neutralization and surface complexation, (3)
sweep coagulation(iv) polymeric bridging

• Chemicals (ex: alum; ferric chloride) are added in

solution to (1) increase size of particles, (2) capture them
in hydroxide flocs and then precipitate them.

• Example
– ferric chloride gives ferric ions (acidic pH) and ferric hydroxide
(basic pH). These species work in 2 different ways to improve
particle settling.

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 Steps during coagulation
Some coagulants: Some coagulant aids:
aluminum sulfate, activated silica
ferric sulfate clay
ferric chloride polymers
 Coagulation - Flocculation
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
++ + + ++
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + ++ +
++
+
+ +
Colloidal particles +
(0.001 - 10 µm) floc
(1 - 100 µm)
ALUM CHEMISTRY

9
 Relationship of ionic change and
precipitating power

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Adsorption and Charge Neutralization:
counter-ions have a specific affinity for the surface of the
colloid (not merely electrostatic attraction) then
adsorption of the counter-ion will reduce the primary
charge of the colloid.
This will reduce the net potential, at any particular and
thus making the attraction forces more effective.
• 3. Adsorption and Interparticle bridging: In this case
polymers, metal salt or synthetic organic types,
specifically adsorb to surface, often charge neutralization
occurs
 Interparticle bridging with polymers
(source: Peavey and Rowe Book)

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• 4. Enmeshment in a precipitate (sweep floc): If metal
salts, e.g., Al2(SO4)3 , FeCl3 are added in sufficient
quantities to exceed the solubility products of the metal
hydroxide, oxide or, sometimes carbonates a “sweep floc”
will form.

• Colloids will become enmeshed in the settling sweep floc

and be removed from the suspension.

• Because colloids can serve as a nucleation site for

precipitating Al or Fe oxides the relationship between
optimum coagulant dose (Al or Fe) and colloid
concentration is often inverse.
ALUM CHEMISTRY

18
 Alum interaction with alkalinity

Alum reacts with bicarbonate alkalinity (<pH 8.3); it fixes

limit for optimum pH 6.5-8.3.
This condition is required for formation of good sweep floc.

Typical range of alum dose for alum floc=

About 5mg/L for clear water and 85mg/L or so for turbid
water

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Example : TiO2 nanoparticles(2mg/L) removal using
alum dose (DOUBLE DISTILLED WATER ;
alkalinity=absent; pH 6.5)
pH 6.5

200 100 50 25 10 CONT.

21
Cation Removal

Process: Softening
 Hardness
• Total Hardness
– Technically - the sum of all polyvalent cations
– Practically - the amount of calcium and magnesium
ions (the predominant minerals in natural waters)
– It is divided into carbonate and noncarbonate
hardness.
Description Hardness range
(mg/L as CaCO3)
Soft 0 - 75
Moderately hard 75 - 100
Hard 100 - 300
Very hard > 300
 Total hardness and calcium hardness

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 Non-carbonate hardness

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 Calculation method(when conc. of
cations are known)

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 Example: hardness due to 15mg/L
calcium ions

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 Process: Softening
• This process is used to remove bivalent and multivalent
cations from water (hardness; for ex: Ca2+)

• Cations with carbonate and bicarbonate ions give non-

permanent hardness (also known as carbonate
hardness). It is a unstable hardness and can easily be
removed using boiling (a simplest method).

• Cations with sulfate, chloride, and nitrate give non-

carbonate hardness and permanent hardness. This
cannot be easily removing using boiling.

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 Conventional
drinking water
treatment

Water
softening
 Process: Softening

• Cations are removed from using following

method:
– (i)Boiling
– (ii) reaction with calcium carbonate,
– (iii) reaction with lime and soda ash

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 Precipitative Softening

• Add quick lime (CaO) or hydrated lime [Ca(OH)2] in

hard water, raise pH higher than 10, convert soluble
bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) to insoluble carbonate
(CO3=).
• Form calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium
hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] precipitates.
• Add soda ash (Na2CO3) if insufficient natural
bicarbonate alkalinity.
• Re-carbonated with CO2, covert carbonate particles
into soluble bicarbonates, prevent filter clogging from
fine particles that do not settle.