by virtue of a complicated chain of formal conclusions and computations, which we

traverse blindly, link by link, feeling

traverse our way
blindly, link by
by touch. We want
link, feeling ourfirst
wayanbyoverview
touch. Weofwant
the first an overview of the
aim and of the road; we aim
— Hermann Weyl, 1885–1955
wantand
• Definition
to understand
of the road;the
weidea
wantoftothe proof, thethe
understand deeper
idea context.
of the proof, the deeper context.
— Hermann Weyl, 1885–1955
If a friend asks what you
If aare studying and you answer “trees,” your friend is likely toyour
A graph
you are taking a course
friend
is
youinare
said askstowhat
botany. But
taking
be circuit-free
you
trees are
a course
are studying
in also
and
a subject
botany.
you
if, andanswer
for are
But trees
only“trees,”
mathematical
itinfer
hasfriend
if,investi-
also a subject
no iscircuits.
likely to infer
A graph is called
for mathematical investi-
a tree gation.
gation. In mathematics, if,a and only if, it agraph
treeInismathematics,
a connected istreecircuit-free
that
is and
graphconnected.
does not contain
a connected any does
that circuits. A trivial
not contain tree is a graph that
any circuits.
Mathematical trees areMathematical
consistssimilar
of a insingle
certain ways
treesvertex. to theirinbotanical
are similar namesakes.
certain ways
A graph is a forestnamesakes.
to their botanical
called if, and only if, it is circuit-free
and
• Definition not connected.
• Definition
A graph is said to be circuit-free
A graph is said if, and only
to be if, it has no
circuit-free if, circuits.
and onlyAif,graphit hasisno
called
circuits. A graph is called

Trees Example of Trees Example 10.5.1 Trees and Non-Trees

a tree if, and only if, ait tree
consists of a single vertex.
is circuit-free
consists
if, and only
A graph
andif,connected.
is called
of a single
and not connected. and not connected.
a forest
vertex.
A trivial
it is circuit-free
if, and
A graph
and tree is a graph
connected.
only if,a itforest
is called
that tree is a graph that
A trivial
is circuit-free
if, and only if, it is circuit-free

All the graphs shown in Figure 10.5.1 are trees, whereas those in Figure 10.5.2 are not.
Example 10.5.1 Trees and Non-Trees
Example 10.5.1 Trees and Non-Trees
All the graphs shown in
AllFigure 10.5.1shown
the graphs are trees, whereas
in Figure those
10.5.1 areintrees,
Figure 10.5.2those
whereas are not.
in Figure 10.5.2 are not.
In mathematics, a tree is a connected graph that does not
contain any circuits.

(a) (a) (b) (b)(c) (c) (d) (d)

Figure 10.5.1 Trees. AllFigure
the graphs
10.5.1inTrees.
(a)–(d)All
are connected
the graphs inand circuit-free.
(a)–(d) are connected and circuit-free.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

684 Chapter 10 Graphs and Trees Figure 10.5.1 Trees. All the graphs in (a)–(d) are connected and circuit-free.
The following are not trees (the last is a forest):
Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Copyright
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684 Chapter 10 Graphs and Trees

684 Chapter 10 Graphs and Trees
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (a) (b) (b) (c) (c) (d)
(d)
Figure 10.5.2 Non-Trees. The graphs in (a), (b), and (c) all have circuits, and the graph in (d) is not connected. ■
Figure 10.5.2 Non-Trees. TheFigure 10.5.2 Non-Trees. The graphs in (a), (b), and (c) all have circuits, and the graph in (d) is not connected.
graphs in (a), (b), and (c) all have circuits, and the graph in (d) is not connected. ■
■
3 Examples of Trees
5
Examples of Trees
The following examples illustrate just a few of the many and varied situations in which

Examples of Trees The following mathematical trees arise.

examples illustrate
mathematical trees arise.
just a few of the many and varied situations in which

Example 10.5.2 A Decision Tree

The following examples illustrate just a few of the many and varied situations in which
Example 10.5.2
mathematical Decision TreeDuring orientation week, a college administers an exam to all entering students to deter-
trees Aarise. mine placement in the mathematics curriculum. The exam consists of two parts, and
During orientation week,recommendations
placement a college administers
are made anasexam to allbyentering
indicated students
the tree shown to deter-
in Figure 10.5.3.
mine placement Read
in the
thetree from left to right
mathematics to decide The
curriculum. what exam
course consists
should beofrecommended
two parts, for
anda stu-
dent who scored 9areon made
part I and 7 on part II.by the tree shown in Figure 10.5.3.
Example 10.5.2 A Decision Tree placement recommendations as indicated
Read the tree from left to right to decide what course should be recommended for a stu-

Example 3 – A Parse Tree Example 3 – A Parse Tree

During orientation
mine placement in the mathematics curriculum. The exam
Score on
part II
dent who
week,
consists ≤ 10
scored 9 on
a college
of two
part I and 7 on an
administers
parts, and
Math 110
partexam
II. to all entering >10
students
Math 120
to deter-
cont䇻d
>10
placement recommendations are made as indicated >10 byonthe tree shownMath
Score in 120
Figure 10.5.3.
Read the tree from left to right to decide what course should be
part II
recommended for a stu-
In the last 30 years, Noam Chomsky and others have The
dent rules of9aongrammar
who scored are
part I and 7 on part
>10
II.called productions.
≤ 10
>6
Math 110
It is
Math 110

developed grammars to describe the syntax of natural customary to express them using the shorthand notation
Score on = 8, 9, 10 Score on
part I part II
≤6 Math 100

languages such as English. illustrated below. Score on

>10 Math 120
Score on = 8, 9, 10
<8
Score on Math 100
>6 Math 110

part I part II
part II Figure 10.5.3
≤6 Math 100
≤ 10 Math 110
Solution <8the student scored 9 on part I, the score on part II is checked. Since it is
Since
This work has proved useful in constructing compilers for >10 Math
greater than 6, the student should be100
advised to take Math 110. ■

Figure 10.5.3
high level computer languages. Example 10.5.3 A Parse Tree
Solution In the
Since the last 30 scored
student years, Noam
9 onChomsky andscore
part I, the othersonhave developed
part new waysSince
II is checked. to describe
it is the
greater than 6, syntax (or grammatical
the student should bestructure)
advised of take>6
to natural languages
Math 110. suchMath
as English.
110 As is discussed
■
briefly in Chapter 12, this work has proved useful in constructing compilers for high-
Score on = 8, 9, level
10 computer Score on In the study of grammars, trees are often used to show the
languages.
In the study of grammars, trees are often used to show the Examplepart I
10.5.3 part II
A Parse Tree derivation of grammatically correct sentences from certain basic rules. Such trees are
≤ trees.
called syntactic derivation trees or parse 6 Math 100
In the last 30 years, Noam Chomsky and others have developed new ways to describe the
derivation of grammatically correct sentences from certain syntax (or grammatical structure) of natural languages such as English. As is discussed
<8in Chapter 12, this work has proved useful in constructing compilers for high-
briefly
basic rules. Such trees are called derivation trees or level computer languages. In Math
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning100
the study of grammars, trees are often used to show the
Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
derivation of grammatically correct sentences from certain basic rules. Such trees are
parse trees. called syntactic derivation Figure trees10.5.3 or parse trees.

Solution Since the student scored 9 on part I, the score on part II is checked. Since it is
Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
greater than 6, the student should be advised to take Math 110. ■
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

6 7

Example 10.5.3 A Parse Tree

In the last 30 years, Noam Chomsky and others have developed new ways to describe the
syntax (or grammatical structure) of natural languages such as English. As is discussed
briefly in Chapter 12, this work has proved useful in constructing compilers for high-
level computer languages. In the study of grammars, trees are often used to show the
derivation of grammatically correct sentences from certain basic rules. Such trees are

Example 3 – A Parse Tree cont䇻d

Characterizing Trees
called syntactic derivation trees or parse trees.

In the notation, the symbol | represents the word or, and There is a somewhat surprising relation between the
Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

angle brackets are used to enclose terms to be defined
(such as a sentence or noun phrase).
The derivation of the sentence 䇾The young man caught the
ball䇿 from the mentioned rules is described by the tree
shown below.
number of vertices and the number of edges of a tree. It
turns out that if n is a positive integer, then any tree with
n vertices (no matter what its shape) has n – 1 edges.
Perhaps even more surprisingly, a partial converse to this
fact is also true—namely, any connected graph with
n vertices and n – 1 edges is a tree.

It follows from these facts that if even one new edge (but no
new vertex) is added to a tree, the resulting graph must
contain a circuit.
8 10
Characterizing Trees Characterizing Trees
Also, from the fact that removing an edge from a circuit An important fact necessary to derive the first main
does not disconnect a graph, it can be shown that every theorem about trees is that any nontrivial tree must have at
connected graph has a subgraph that is a tree. least one vertex of degree 1.

It follows that (if n is a positive integer) any graph with

n vertices and fewer than n – 1 edges is not connected.

A constructive way to understand this lemma is to imagine

being given a tree T with more than one vertex. You pick a
vertex v at random and then search outward along a path
from v looking for a vertex of degree 1.

11 12

Characterizing Trees Characterizing Trees

As you reach each new vertex, you check whether it has Using Lemma 10.5.1 it is not difficult to show that, in fact,
degree 1. If it does, you are finished. If it does not, you exit any tree that has more than one vertex has at least two
from the vertex along a different edge from the one you vertices of degree 1.
entered on.
Because T is circuit-free, the vertices included in the path
never repeat. And since the number of vertices of T is finite,
the process of building a path must eventually terminate.
When that happens, the final vertex v ! of the path must
have degree 1. This process is illustrated below.

13 14

Example 5 – Terminal and Internal Vertices Characterizing Trees

Find all terminal vertices and all internal vertices in the The following is the first of the two main theorems about
following tree: trees:

Proof by Induction.
Basis case: For n=1 the property holds since there are no
Solution: loops.
The terminal vertices are v0, v2, v4, v5, v7, and v8. Inductive Step: Let T be an arbitrarily chosen tree with k + 1
vertices, for k ! 1. Since k+1>1, by Lemma 10.5.1, T has a
vertex v of degree 1. Since T is connected, v is attached to
The internal vertices are v6, v1, and v3. the rest of T by a single edge e as sketched in the following
15 figure. 16
Theorem 10.5.2 Example 7 – Finding Trees Satisfying Given Conditions

Find all non-isomorphic trees with four vertices.

Now if e and v are removed from T, what remains is a tree T’
with (k + 1) " 1 = k vertices and, by inductive hypothesis, T’
has k " 1 edges. But the original tree T has one more vertex
and one more edge than T’. Hence T must have (k " 1) + 1 =
k edges, as was to be shown.
Solution:
•  By Theorem 10.5.2, any tree with 4 vertices has 3 edges;
•  Thus, by the Handshake Theorem (10.1.1), the total
degree of a tree with four vertices must be 6;
•  Also, every tree with more than one vertex has at least
two vertices of degree 1.

17 18

Example 7 – Solution cont䇻d

Characterizing Trees
Thus the following combinations of degrees for the vertices Before proving the second Theorem on Trees let’s consider
are the only ones possible: the following lemma.

1, 1, 1, 3 and 1, 1, 2, 2.

There are two non-isomorphic trees corresponding to both Essentially, the reason why Lemma 10.5.3 is true is that
of these possibilities, as shown below. any two vertices in a circuit are connected by two distinct
paths.

It is possible to draw the graph so that one of these goes

䇾clockwise䇿 and the other goes 䇾counterclockwise䇿 around
the circuit.
19 20

Characterizing Trees Characterizing Trees

For example, in the circuit shown below, the clockwise path The second major theorem about trees is a modified
from v2 to v3 is converse to Theorem 10.5.2.

and the counterclockwise path from v2 to v3 is

Proof by Contradiction. Since G is connected, it is enough

to show that G is circuit-free. If, by absurd, it is not, then
we can remove edges from each circuit obtaining a new
graph G’ which, by Lemma 10.5.3, is still connected. At the
end of this process, we obtain a new connected and circuit-
21 free graph, G”, with n vertices but no more that n-2 edges. 22
Example 8 – A Graph with n Vertices and n – 1 Edges That Is Not a Tree
Theorem 10.5.4 is not a full converse of Theorem 10.5.2.
Although it is true that every connected graph with
n vertices and n – 1 edges (n>0) is a tree, it is not true that
every graph with n vertices and n – 1 edges is a tree.
Rooted Trees
An outdoor tree is rooted and so is the kind of family tree
that shows all the descendants of one particular person.
The terminology and notation of rooted trees blends the
language of botanical trees and that of family trees.

The following is an example of a graph with five vertices In mathematics, a rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex
and four edges that is not a tree. By Theorem 10.5.4, such has been distinguished from the others and is designated
a graph cannot be connected. the root.

Given any other vertex v in the tree, there is a unique path

from the root to v. (After all, if there were two distinct paths,
a circuit could be constructed.)
23 25

Rooted Trees Rooted Trees

The number of edges in such a path is called the level of v, These terms are illustrated in Figure 10.6.1.
and the height of the tree is the length of the longest such
path. It is traditional in drawing rooted trees to place the
root at the top and show the branches descending from it.

A Rooted Tree
26 Figure 10.6.1 27

Example 1 – Rooted Trees Example 1 – Solution

Consider the tree with root v0 shown on the right. a. 2

b. 0
a. What is the level of v5?
b. What is the level of v0? c. 3
c. What is the height of this rooted tree? d. v5 and v6
d. What are the children of v3?
e. v0
e. What is the parent of v2?
f. What are the siblings of v8? f. v7 and v9

g. What are the descendants of v3? g. v5, v6, v10

28 29
Rooted Trees Binary Trees
Note that in the tree with root v0 shown below, v1 has level When every vertex in a rooted tree has at most two children
1 and is the child of v0, and both v0 and v1 are terminal and each child is designated either the (unique) left child or
vertices. the (unique) right child, the result is a binary tree.

30 32

Binary Trees Example 2 – Representation of Algebraic Expressions

These terms are illustrated in Figure 10.6.2.
Binary trees are used in many ways in computer science.
One use is to represent algebraic expressions with arbitrary
nesting of balanced parentheses. For instance, the
following (labeled) binary tree represents the expression a/
b: The operator is at the root and acts on the left and right
children of the root in left-right order.

A Binary Tree
Figure 10.6.2
33 34

Example 2 – Representation of Algebraic Expressions

cont䇻d
Example 2 – Solution
More generally, the binary tree shown below represents the The binary tree to represent the expression
expression a/(c + d). In such a representation, the internal ((a – b) ! c) + (d/e), is as follows:
vertices are arithmetic operators, the terminal vertices are
variables, and the operator at each vertex acts on its left
and right subtrees in left-right order.

Draw a binary tree to represent the expression

((a – b) ! c) + (d/e).
35 36
Characterizing Binary Trees
An interesting theorem about full binary trees says that if
you know the number of internal vertices of a full binary
tree, then you can calculate both the total number of
vertices and the number of terminal vertices, and
conversely. More specifically, a full binary tree with k
internal vertices has a total of 2k + 1 vertices of which k + 1
are terminal vertices.
Proof. See the book, pg.697.
37
Characterizing Binary Trees
Another interesting theorem about binary trees specifies
the maximum number of terminal vertices of a binary tree of
a given height.
The maximum number of terminal vertices of a binary tree
of height h is 2h. Another way to say this is that a binary
tree with t terminal vertices has height of at least log2t.
Proof by Induction (see the book, pg.698)
39
Example 3 – Determining Whether a Certain Full Binary Tree Exists
Is there a full binary tree that has 10 internal vertices and
13 terminal vertices?
Solution:
No. By Theorem 10.6.1, a full binary tree with 10 internal
vertices has 10 + 1 = 11 terminal vertices, not 13.
38
Example 4 – Determining Whether a Certain Binary Tree Exists
Is there a binary tree that has height 5 and 38 terminal
vertices?
Solution:
No. By Theorem 10.6.2, any binary tree T with height 5 has
at most 25 = 32 terminal vertices, so such a tree cannot
have 38 terminal vertices.
40
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