A Compilation of Written Reports On Human Behavior in Management

Capitol University
Graduate School
Cagayan de Oro CIty
HUMAN
BEHAVIOR IN
MANAGEMENT
MGT 212
A Compilation of Written Reports
FOREWORD
IN BEHALF OF THIS MGT 212 CLASS, THIS INITIATIVE
WAS MADE DUE TO THE CHALLENGES BROUGHT BY
THIS COVID 19 PANDEMIC. A VIRTUAL LEARNING
MODULE MADE EASY AND CONVENIENT FOR
ELECTRONIC EDUCATION AS AN ADAPTATION TO THIS
NEW NORMAL SITUATION. INDEED, ONLINE CLASSES
ARE ONE OF THE SUCCESS STORIES OF EDUCATION
WINNING THE BATTLE AGAINST THIS GLOBAL HEALTH
CRISIS.
THIS CLASS FULLY UNDERSTANDS THE LONG

TERM EFFECT OF THIS PANDEMIC AND WISHES TO
SEEK SOLUTIONS AND ALTERNATIVE WAY TO
CONTINUE THE PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE. AS OF
NOW, THE EDUCATION AS WELL AS ECONOMIC AND
SOCIAL POLICIES MUST BE GEARED TO ADOPT THESE
NEW CHALLENGES DIRECTED TOWARDS
EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIONS. IN THIS WAY, THE
CLASS CAN HELP OTHER STUDENTS HAVE BETTER
UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR AT WORK IN
MORE CONVENIENT MANNER, MOREOVER, DEVELOP
FUTURE LEADERS WITH MORAL VALUE, AND PROPER
ETHICS.
INTRODUCTION
All organizations involve dynamics between human beings, whether it be a
regular mom and pop store, non-profit entity or a multinational conglomerate.
For any individual whose vision include stepping up in the organizational ladder,
the skill of leading entails not only the ability to implement wise decisions
affecting operations on a day-to-day or long-term basis but also the intangibles
such as team dynamics, conflict resolution, and soft skills. While the how to’s on
those can be acquired in many platforms, applying them rests in even the most
minute opportunity. True that it may be a big struggle at the onset, but doing so
is just like art, one becomes a master as time progresses. The hardest part to
master, however, is one’s behavior, i.e., toward the self and toward others.
The contents of the book Managing Human Behavior in Public and Nonprofit
Organizations by Robert B. Denhardt, et. al. present a cornucopia of learning,
e.g., established theories, published multiple industry studies, and actual
industry practices. In this compilation, each chapter is summarized to highlight
salient points, with case studies analyzed and answered in between. This is a
collection of knowledge that the student-contributors managed to take with
them in a semester of journey in Human Behavior in Management (MGT212).
The world at its current state has openly adapted Artificial Intelligence (AI) in
many forms. Yet, despite of such advancements, the truth remains that human
involvement will never be outdated. We are by nature social beings. We thrive
healthily with the presence of fellow humans. Hence, since we will never be out
of the picture in any organization, the wisest thing to do is study human
behavior and adapt appropriate practices that would enhance our interactions
with each other whether in an academic, or professional setting.
It is the desire and ardent wish of section GS110 that each person who manages
to scan through the pages of this document will gain a big portion of the insights
and learnings that contributed to our personal growth.
May you have a productive and meaningful reading journey.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
AS A WAY OF THINKING AND
ACTING
3 KNOWING AND MANAGING

YOURSELF
8 FOSTERING CREATIVITY AND

INNOVATION
12 MANAGING STRESS
19 DECISION MAKING
26 MOTIVATION AND
ENGAGEMENT
28
LEADERSHIP IN PUBLIC
ORGANIZATIONS
38 POWER AND
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
43 COMMUNICATING
EFFECTIVELY WITH OTHERS
62 WORKING IN GROUPS AND

TEAMS
69 MANAGING CONFLICTS
76
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
AND CHANGE
84
REPRESENTING THE
ORGANIZATION “ON THE
OUTSIDE”
89 MANAGING BEHAVIOR IN THE

PUBLIC INTEREST
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AS A WAY
OF THINKING AND ACTING
Overview
This course is about understanding human Behavior in public and nonprofit organizations.
This includes our individual behavior, the behavior of others, the group, the community, and
society. Organizational Behavior is the study of human behavior in organizational settings,
the interface between human behavior and the organization, and the organization itself. It
concerns how public servants and non-profit managers interact with others on their
organization and with the public, how they view their work and its importance to their
communities and how they choose to serve their cities, states, and nations.
Organizational behavior is synonymous with teamwork. It helps us function more

productively within our group and cross groups as this is a way to create balance and
harmony in discussing ideas on how to make your group more functional within the
organization. It helps us focus on a healthy competition to develop sense of leadership and
achieve goals in a daily basis. This is a support system within team members to navigate us
more with improving job or school performance and create a very strong sense of
responsibilities like a true leader does.
Who are involved in this?
• Public administrators • Policy analyst • Public Health Officers

• Non-profit managers • Service workers
• Police chiefs • School superintendent
What are the goals of this course?
To examine what is known about the factors that affect human behavior...
To develop an appreciation of the value of analyzing management problems...
To explore some of the most contemporary approaches to management and leadership.
To increase understanding.
To foster competency in critical management and leadership skills...
To provide cases, exercises, simulations, and evaluative instruments that will enable students to
learn both cognitively and experientially.
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MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 1

Organizational Behavior is the study of individual and group behavior in
organization. It also involves the following:
• Motivation of employees
• Being an effective team member
• Leading and inspiring others
• Communicating effectively within and outside of the organization
• Making effective decisions
• Using power and politics constructively and ethically
• Creating and securing commitment to shared values
• Managing conflict productively
• Using diversity to enhance organizational performance
• Helping people to become more innovative and creative
Organizational behavior emphasizes human behavior and individual values. Organizational

behavior deals with all aspects of organizations and management, but it does so from the
perspective of people.
Though the origin to the study of organizational behavior can trace its roots back to Max Weber
and earlier organizational studies, it is generally considered to have begun as an academic
discipline with the advent of scientific management in the 1890's, with Taylorism representing
the peak of the movement. Thus, it was Fredrick Winslow Taylor who introduced the systematic
use of goal setting and rewards to motivate employees that could be considered as the starting
of the academic discipline of organizational behavior. The goal is to provide perspectives and
insights that will allow men and women in public and nonprofit service to do their jobs better, to
feel more competent and confident in their interactions with people, to lead others in their work
to achieve a better world.
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KNOWING AND MANAGING YOURSELF
Overview
“Know Thyself”
In Ancient Greece, the philosopher Socrates famously declared that the unexamined life was not
worth living. It is like seeing someone’s self as a stranger in a mirror asking the question “who am
I?”
Where do we begin?
It is important to make self-examination, knowing how an individual can coexist in an
organization. Understanding our strengths and weaknesses and evaluating the four
endowments: self-awareness, conscience, independent will and creative imagination. This
behavioral baseline can determine impact to others on creating a positive relationship inside the
organization. Recognize and reward employee’s achievements, basic motivations for the welfare
of the organization instead of self-interest.
Life Experiences Exercise

Q: What world or national events have taken place during your lifetime?
A: SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-2019) Pandemic and Rodrigo Duterte as President of the Republic of the
Philippines.
Q: Which of these influenced your life most dramatically?
A: The COVID-19 have more impact on my life, as it dramatically forced me to adopt the new
normal.
Q: How was your life influenced by those events?
A: The Pandemic bend my focus more towards living a healthy life.
Your Lifeline Exercise:

Designed to help you reflect on the experiences, values, and perspectives that shape who you are.
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Knowing Yourself Exercise:
Let’s practice reflection:
• List two of your greatest strengths:

A: Creativity and Versatility.
• List two of your greatest weakness:
A: Too Sensitive and Lack of Impulse Control.
• Share to someone you know and ask if how close is your reflections to their
perception.
A: My wife as my evaluator, she affirmed my list.
• Revisit after completion of “Increasing Self-Knowledge” exercise
Ways of Thinking:
Practice what you preach” as a good management drive.

Emotional Challenge - refers to any real or perceived threat to our security, self-image, or sense
of self-worth that stimulates our instinctive self-protective tendencies to either withdraw or
become aggressive. One becomes defensive if faced with facts that tend to question integrity
and self-image. It is important to understand and develop emotional and interpersonal capacity
to manage team and organization.
Managers who lack experience, maturity and self-confidence are prone to failures and
inefficiencies in leading an organization. Some might label them in street lingua as “MBA” or
“Managers-By-Accident”. Skill development must be put to priority, know your insufficiencies,
and improve it.
Cognitive Knowledge - The in-depth understanding of the basic skills required in a certain area
of control.
Behavioral Skills – The Interpersonal, self-regulatory, and task-related behaviors that connects
to successful performance in any organization.
Technical Skills – One may possess the ability and knowledge to perform any task, but one
must be open to collective ideas. Consult other members in the organization, make others be
involved.
Emotional Intelligence - Skill and intelligence may be crucial in task performance in an
organization but, it should be supplemented with emotional intelligence. In managing
interpersonal relationship in an organization, a manager must win the sympathy of others, get
their loyalty, and never impose policies that leads to negative feedback but instead make them
understand the positive effect.
A.E.T. (Affective Event Theory) – Emotion and moods influence job performance and job
satisfaction. Positive events leads to positive affect that may results in job satisfaction for quality
service output. Happy workers are productive workers.
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Improving Your Sense of Self
Components of Emotional Intelligence:
Self-Management - The ability to manage our behaviors, thoughts, and emotions in a

conscious and productive way.
Self-Awareness – Self-reflection, recognize strengths and challenges and they
understand how others perceive them.
Social-Awareness – Ability to consider the perspectives of other individuals, groups,
or communities, and apply that understanding to interactions with them.
Social Skills – Skills we use to communicate and interact with other, both verbally
and non-verbally through gestures body language and our personal appearance.
Barriers to Leadership Positions:
Barrier 1 – To focus so much on selfish agenda rather than the benefit of the
organization.
Barrier 2 – So concern of self-image that it tends to hide the insufficiencies. Asking
question as a clarification is not a sign of inferiority.
Barrier 3 – Turning competitions to enemies, tendency to be regionalistic and
boundary driven.
Barrier 4 – Being a lone player, General in the army is no good without the platoon.
Barrier 5 – Assuming tasks from other positions and going beyond what is assigned.
Barrier 6 – Self-doubt, “Impostor Phenomenon”, deceptive act as if one has it takes
but clearly lacks skills and ability.
Ethical Concern/Issues in Workplace

Discrimination – Any action that causes an employee to receive unequal treatment.
Harassment – This often relates to racism and sexism and it comes in the form of
verbal abuse, sexual abuse, teasing, racial slurs, or bullying
Unethical Accounting – Any fraudulent acts for the profit gain.
Health and Safety – Failing to take account for worker’s safety.
Abuse of Leadership Authority – Workers put to risk by the use of authority to
pressure employees to bend procedure for time gains.
Nepotism and Favoritism – Occurs when manager treats employee better than other
workers for personal reason.
Privacy – Employers may monitor all worker activity by the use of devices that
belong to the company.
Corporate Espionage – Workers may misuse company data. Employee may steal
intellectual property or provide competitor with information about a client.
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Biases
Implicit Bias (unconscious bias) – The tendency to Stereotype or label individual
base on personal background. Also can be a quick judgment of a certain individual.
Explicit Bias – It is an intentional or deliberate prejudice of an individual.
Ways of Acting
Focus on learning from your administrative experience.

Conduct annual survey in the workplace as reference for improvement of
performance.
Do some self-reflection and be a critique of yourself.
Keep a journal.
Record events and activity that can be utilized for self-reflection.
Talk regularly with people you trust.
Gather insights from trusted colleagues for boost of self-esteem and confidence.
Watch and read how others handle change.
Learn from respected previous managers.
Absorb lessons from past experienced managers.
Strive for balance and insight.
Work-Life balance.
Set as an example.
Improve as a whole being an organization.
Carefully Examine the Explanation that You give.
Be truthful and never give excuses.
Look for several causes.
Go deeper on reasoning and not be quick to judge.
Account for individual differences.
Be considerate to the emotions and preference of others.
Use past behavior as an indicator but not necessarily a predictor of future behavior.
Give a chance for change.
Recognize personality differences.
To evaluate whether an individual is a social type or an autonomous.
Celebrate diversity and what diversity brings to the organization.
Use diversity as a tool for organizational benefit and success.
Thinking in Action
In this section, we make use of what we have learned through exercises and case studies. This
is an exercise that may be used as a class assignment or project paper. The focus of the
exercise is to increase self-knowledge using self-reported instruments and feedback from
others. Students will increase their self-knowledge by answering the following questions with
the support of methods and instruments in this chapter.
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Where have I been? The timeline described earlier in the chapter will help in
answering this question. Develop a 5- to 10- page autobiographical sketch that
will assist you in improving your sense of self by reflecting on the past and how it
will influence the future.
Where am I going? Develop interview guides and interview several individuals in positions to
which you might aspire.
Following are some examples of questions to include:
How would you describe your typical day at work?
What are the most critical skills you draw on during a typical workday?
What qualities do you see as necessary for your line of work?
If you had to find someone to replace you, on what key abilities would you focus?
Do I have what it takes in terms of ability, motivation, and personal traits to get there? This
question may be answered through inventories or evaluations or through questioning others
who are familiar with your abilities.
Do not be afraid to engage in self-disclosure. “Several studies have shown that low self-
disclosers are less healthy and more self- alienated than high self-disclosers. College students
give the highest ratings for interpersonal competence to high self-disclosers”
A Vision Statement
Write out an action plan for implementation to help you accomplish your vision. Work with close
friends and colleagues to determine what your personal lifetime vision might look like.
Try to focus on what you believe an ideal future would look like, or consider looking back on
your life and career at an advanced age.
What are the things that you would like to have done?
Write your vision statement and include the following information:
Write down a set of values that are important to you.
Ask family members and friends to encourage you to live according to your values.
Describe key areas of your life that are important to you, and write down one or two goals in
each major area.
Select one or two goals and imagine the goal(s) being achieved to your full satisfaction.
How does this goal, or how do these goals, relate to your vision?
Experience the achievement of your vision in every way possible.
Develop a detailed action plan to achieve this vision, and make commitments for particular
actions necessary to bring your vision to fruition.
Valuing Diversity
In managing a diverse workforce, it is important that we understand our own feelings and the
messages that we convey about our value of diversity. Reflect on how you and the organization
that you work for react in terms of accepting differences and otherness as you answer the
following questions (adapted from Deep & Sussman, 2000).
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FOSTERING CREATIVITY AND
INNOVATION
Overview
Meeting these challenges requires the full use of all human and mental resources available.
Among the most important of those resources is creativity—the capacity to think of old
problems in new ways, to change our perspectives, or to create novel and useful
approaches to making our organizations work better and serve the needs of citizens. Unlike
many artistic fields, however, where creativity and the introduction of something novel and
new might be enough, for public and non-profit organizations to truly be effective, they
must identify and implement creative responses to increasingly complex societal problems.
For this reason, the connection between creativity and innovation is critical. So, creativity
and innovation is not just something for “creative types” or a matter of a “flight of fancy” if
people happen to have some extra time. It is a critical component of managing
organizational behavior and achieving public service goals. The following are the ways of
thinking to fostering creativity and innovations:
Understanding Creativity
Characteristics of Creative Individuals
Conceptual Skills and Abilities
Creativity as Behaviour
Creativity as Process
Social and Structural Connections
An Integrated Perspective on Creativity
The Creative Process
Roles in Creative Process
Characteristics of Creative Individuals
One way to look at creativity is in terms of the traits, attributes, or characteristics that
predispose a person to be considered “creative.” In this view, if a person possesses these
traits, then this person is deemed to be creative. More recently, Oyvind Martinsen (2011)
developed a Creative Person Profile that identifies seven personality traits commonly
associated with creative individuals:
Associative orientation
Ambition
Emotional instability
Motivation
Originality
Low agreeableness
Flexibility
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The Creative Process
Creativity is more than a flash of insight. Instead, creativity can be thought of as a

process with five identifiable steps or stages: (Boone & Hollingsworth, 1990).
Preparation
Concentration
Incubation
Illumination
Verification
Implementation and evaluation
Roles in the Creative Process
Because there are different stages in the creative process, and because we differ from one
another in terms of personality and preferences, it can be useful to think of the different
creative roles that people can play and where those might best fit throughout the various
stages of creativity. As Robert Filipczak (1997) pointed out, “Once you understand that all
employees are creative, the next step is finding out which part of the creativity spectrum
each employee occupies” (p. 34). One way of thinking about roles in the creative process is
to consider the different types of creativity. A. Hollingsworth (1989) defined four types:
Innovation
Synthesis
Extension
Duplication
Impediments to Creativity and Innovation

There are a few common hindrances or obstructions to inventiveness and advancement.
Eliminating these obstructions can be the primary step in cultivating creativeness in
ourselves and others and moving us closer toward developments that progress goals and
nonprofit missions. The following are the common obstructions in creativity and innovations:
Defining the Problem Incorrectly
Judging Too Quickly
Stopping at the First Acceptable Idea
Lack of Support
Hostility to Sharing Knowledge
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Fostering Creativity and Innovation in Organizations
It has been said that imagination is the antecedent to development, and research
appears that there are personal, organizational, and natural forerunners to both. The
inspiration to be inventive dwells in the portion inside people, but people’s
organizational and social environment moreover impacts inventiveness and decides
whether the development will be upheld and effective. A positive climate can make an
atmosphere in which creativity and innovation thrive, though a negative one can quash
such endeavors. The three leadership components that appear especially vital that
bolsters and energizes creativity and innovation are the following:
The nature of the work and job design
Supportive leadership
An organizational structure, climate, and culture
Enhancing Your Personal Creativity

In our endeavors to form a positive climate for others to be imaginative, it’s too vital to
think almost how to bolster our possess inventiveness. William Miller made various
recommendations for people to progress their possess inventive handle. Numerous are
closely resembling to the sorts of things that offer assistance to cultivate inventiveness
in others, but it is moreover beneficial to think about them as things that will do for
ourselves. The following are the recommendations for people to progress their possess
inventive handle.
Be Aware.
Be Persistent in Your Vision and Values.
Consider All of Your Alternatives.
Entertain Your Intuition.
Assess Your Alternatives.
Be Realistic in Your Actions.
Evaluate Your Results
Techniques and Tools for Improving Organizational Creativity

The abilities essential for inventiveness and development can be upgraded by learning
and practicing. Fortunately, tools and methods are broadly accessible to back, cultivate,
and improve imaginative considering and organizational advancement. The following
are some of the common tools and methods used in organizations to enhance creativity.
The Idea Box or Matrix Analysis
Synectics
Mind Mapping
Design Thinking
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Ways of Acting
Everybody has inventive potential. Imagination is more than essentially oddity; it includes
the advancement of the unused, valuable, inventive, and fitting approaches to assembly
challenges and tackling issues. Since imagination is one of the most imperative individual
and organizational assets, it ought to be supported, upheld, and energized. A few
commonsense steps can be taken to support your possess imagination as well as to
empower development in organizations. These strategies are highlighted in what takes
after:
Debunk the myths of creativity and innovation

Change your vocabulary
Use participatory management approaches
Make time and information available for creativity and innovation
Analyze your organizational climate
Relax and let your mind work
Use techniques and tools to foster creativity and innovation
Identify problems that need innovative solutions
Make work interesting and do not over supervise
Challenge yourself and others to be creative
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MANAGING STRESS
Overview
What is Stress?
Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes physical, emotional, or psychological
strain. Stress is your body's response to anything that requires attention or action. Everyone
experiences stress to some degree. The way you respond to stress, however, makes a big
difference to your overall well-being.
Ways of Thinking
The relationship between stress and disease is now well established, but was not always
recognized. The word ‘stress’ is used in physics to refer to the interaction between a force and
the resistance to counter that force, and it was Hans Selye who first incorporated this term into
the medical lexicon to describe the “nonspecific response of the body to any demand “. Selye,
who is known as the ‘father of stress research’, disavowed the study of specific disease signs
and symptoms, unlike others before him, and instead focused on universal patient reactions to
illness. His concept of stress impacted scientific and lay communities alike, in fields as diverse
as endocrinology, complementary medicine, animal breeding and social psychology.
Signs / Symptoms of Stress

Psychological Sign - a feeling of emotional strain and pressure. It is the mind wherein you
feel worried, the inability to make a decision quickly, negative, lack of focus, making hasty
decisions and weak
Emotional Sign – affects the overall well-being and mental health. Wherein you can feel loss
of confidence, apprehension, indifference, depression, irritability and insomnia.
Physical Sign - stress hormones that effect on your body. It affects our body that gives us
headache, taut muscles, skin irritations, constricted breathing and fatigue.
Behavioral Sign - persistent or repetitive behaviors that are unusual, disruptive,
inappropriate, or cause problems. It includes loss of appetite, substance abuse, accident
prone, restlessness, loneliness and insomnia.
Stress Inventory
In 1967, psychiatrists Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe decided to study whether or not stress
contributes to illness. They surveyed more than 5,000 medical patients and asked them to say
whether they had experience any of a series of 43 life events in the previous two years.
Each event, called a Life Change Unit (LCU), had a different "weight" for stress. The more events
the patient added up, the higher the score. The higher the score, and the larger the weight of
each event, the more likely the patient was to become ill.
The aim of this study was to investigate whether scores on the Holmes and Rahe Social
Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) were correlated with the subsequent onset of illness.
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What Does the Score Mean?
150 points or less, a relatively low amount of life change and a low susceptibility
to stress-induced health breakdown
150 to 300 points, 50% chance of health breakdown in the next 2 years
300 points or more, 80% chance of health breakdown in the next 2 years,
according to the Holmes-Rahe statistical prediction model
The Holmes & Rahe Stress Scale is a well-known tool for measuring the amount of stress you’ve
experienced within the past year. Taking the test can help you see clearly if you’re at risk of
illness due to stress.
You can also do this test at www.mindtools.com in which you can answer it by yes or no.
Source of Stress
Cataclysmic Events - events that occur suddenly and usually affect a lot of people
simultaneously. Ex. Earthquakes and terrorist attacks
Conflict - can increase stress, it occurs whenever we interact and a disagreement between
two or more individuals, groups, or organizations.
Frustration - often accompanied by aggression, hostility, impulsivity, and defensiveness—
and these emotions can generate their own stress if you don't deal with them in a healthy
manner.
Hassles - the minor irritations and annoyances that are part of our everyday lives (e.g., rush
hour traffic, lost keys, obnoxious coworkers, inclement weather, arguments with friends or
family.
Life Changes - situations that require us to make changes in our ongoing lives and require
time as we adjust to those changes.
Chronic Stressor - disrupts nearly every system in your body. It can suppress your immune
system, upset your digestive and reproductive systems, increase the risk of heart attack and
stroke, and speed up the aging process.
Job Stressor - the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur. when the
requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker.
Consequences and Cost of Stress

Mental health problems, such as depression, anxiety, and personality disorders
Cardiovascular disease, including heart disease, high blood pressure, abnormal heart
rhythms, heart attacks, and stroke
Obesity and eating disorder
Skin and hair problems, such as acne, psoriasis, and eczema and permanent hair loss
Gastrointestinal problems, such as gerd, gastritis, ulcerative colitis, and irritable colon
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Individual Factors
Personality Traits - strong commitment to our job, competitive, achievement-
oriented, anger and hostility
Background - childhood relationships, family values, cultural values, past
experience and trauma, physical and mental health
Attitudes - a habitual way of relating to a set of events in your life. Like any habit
the older it is and the more frequently it is enforced the more it dominates your
experience.
Self-Image - contribute to one’s ability to deal with stress.
Locus of control - relates to the degree of control that an individual perceives
that they have over their environment
Social networks -people with good supportive social networks are happier,
healthier and more able to cope with stress
Is stress Good, Bad or Ugly?

Good Stress
Stress can be a great motivating force. Where you strive to do better, reach further and work
harder. This type of stress is referred to as Eustress. There are many triggers for this type
stress, which can keep us feeling alive and excited about life.
Bad Stress
The bad form of stress manifests itself in physical and emotional effects such as headaches,
fatigue, alcoholism, smoking, irritability and chronic muscle pain.
When stress becomes bad it creates tension and you may not be able to handle the situations
at hand and at times, in the absence of the stressor, you are unable to return to a relaxed state.
Ugly Stress
The most dangerous thing about stress is how easily it can creep up on you. Stress that lasts
for very prolonged periods can begin to take a serious toll on your body. Long-term stress can
lead to various health problems, and research shows that a high percentage of doctor visits
are for stress related illnesses.
Coping with Stress

Many of us are facing challenges that can be stressful, overwhelming, and cause strong
emotions in adults and children. After a traumatic event, people may have strong and
lingering reactions. Learning healthy ways to cope and getting the right care and support can
help reduce stressful feelings and symptoms.
"It’s key to recognize stressful situations as they occur because it allows you to focus on
managing how you react,”. "We all need to know when to close our eyes and take a deep
breath when we feel tension rising."
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Coping With and Managing Stress
In today’s increasingly fast paced world, the ability to successfully cope with and
manage stress where individuals can achieve work life balance is becoming more
complex and challenging. As employers expect more performance and excellent output
from their staff, this increasing expectation is placing additional pressure to achieve
greater results. While occasional stress is normal for every job, not being able to manage
it well often results to burnout (Dar et. al., 2011).
Stress can have a considerable impact on individual’s work performance as well as to the work
performance of others. It is important to identify and analyze theses stressors and use this
constructively in order to avoid its adverse effects to oneself and to others.
It is necessary that an individual should be aware of how stress may influence others, especially
in the workplace. One can be stressed when there is a substantial amount of stress experienced
as well as when there is too little stress experienced. Too much stress leads to various physical
illness including feeling anxious, easily irritated, sleeping problems, can hardly focus, and
overreacting to everyday situations while too little stress can lead to feeling bored and
unmotivated, lack of focus and initiative. Though, in an organization, too much stress is more
likely experienced.
Organizations are doing its best to address this kind of problem, creating practices to harmonize
operations. Some good management practice are as follows:
• Establishment of clear goals
• Development of resources and support,
• Effective communication, and
• Self-awareness.
As Kenneth Blanchard highlighted, that all good performance starts with clear goals. Once goals
are clearly established, individuals have a clear path, a clear destination where the organization
is sailing. Interruptions will be avoided and reaching the desired goals will be directly sailed.
Development of resources and support, effective communication, as well as self-awareness are

considered key points in an establishment with good management practices. There are two
identified major purposes in managing stress. The first one is preventing unwanted and harmful
heights of stress and strain so that individuals are enthusiastically driven as well as prepared to
meet the challenges and obstacles they meet. The second one is to respond and effectively and
efficiently cope with stress as it arises. Positive stress can lead to increased levels of productivity
and performance which can help employees to maintain enthusiasm, attentiveness, stimulation
and focus up to a certain point. (K. Leung et al., 2011).
All activities in life carries a corresponding response, nonetheless there were varied means
through which how people responds to them. To successfully deal with stress, it might require
using varied types of techniques (Anspaugh, et al. 2003).
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Lifestyle Adjustments
To be physically fit is one of the important and effective means to manage stress. If an
individual, perhaps a public servant is physically fit, coping up the demands and
challenges the organization or the public is demanding will be dealt, even in the
presence of the physical manifestations of stress. One must value the importance of
having enough sleep, eating a balanced diet, and exercising regularly.
Our body needs to recover after a long day of work, meeting all the demands which
includes absorbing all the stress. Therefore, having a good sleep is essential to recover
and to be able to jump up for another challenging day.
With a very busy schedule, preparing a well-balanced meal might sometimes be

disregarded. Oftentimes, especially in a hurry, one is already good to go just by taking a
bite of bread and a sip of coffee which does not meet the daily body nourishment
requirement. In order to have a sound and resilient mind, one must have a sound body.
In a very tight schedule, exercise is often ignored. No more time for physical activities or
engagement. Already too tired to stretch that limbs out not realizing how important
exercise is. Exercise counters the adverse effects of the chemical changes in the body
associated with stress. It is not completely necessary to enroll in the gym; banging the
plates and lifting heavy weights, even a quick brisk walk during lunch time can be a good
exercise at the same time an instant remedy once beginning to feel stressed.
Work is an integral part of our daily lives. We work to make a living; our bread and butter
perhaps. We spend most of our time working, however this does not mean that we no
longer have a life after work. Balancing our time between work and outside interests is
crucial. One must be able to learn how to strategically evaluate and make appropriate
adjustments to balance these two. By achieving this, we will be able to keep our personal
interests as well as meeting the demands of the organization or the public.
Emotional Regulation
It has been observed that an individual oftentimes unintentionally executes emotional

regulation to address or to manage tough situations all through the day. In order to meet
the demands of the environment, these individuals utilize a diversified emotion regulation
techniques and use them to different situations (Rolston and Lloyd-Richardson, 2018).
Sometimes, in the diversified emotion regulation, an inauthentic display of emotion or

more known as “false face” or “surface acting” takes place wherein it evokes adverse
responses from the receivers. However, conducting training programs emphasizing the
importance and quality of social interaction could significantly reduce workers’ stress.
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Attitude Adjustment
It was previously mentioned that individuals may respond to the same demands in
very different ways. Part of this difference lies in the fact that some people might
interpret a particular situation as threatening, whereas others might see the same
situation as an opportunity. Remember that depending on how we handle it, stress
can be good for us and make us better able to handle future challenges. In fact,
developing psychological resilience only occurs through having problems,
challenges, and failures. Attitude and stress have a lot more to do with each other than
you might think (Wardleigh, 2019).
Social Support
Social support is essential in most settings in organizational life. Particularly, support
from leaders and coworkers incorporates a positive influence on well-being; workers
who feel supported feel less stressed and believe themselves fairly rewarded for his or
her efforts.
The supply of social support may be one among the foremost necessary ways that of
promoting psychological well-being and buffering the negative impact of work stress.
Social support represents the strong social networks obtainable to workers through
colleagues, managers, friends, and worker support programs to assist workers contact
with work stressors (Walinga & Rowe, 2013).
Workers with strong social support at work are highly able to deal with nerve-racking
workplaces and are more practical at managing stress. Coworkers who have a positive
disposition and are showing emotion adjunct have a positive impact on performance
and act as an efficient buffer for stress. Associate worker incorporates a larger
likelihood of managing terribly nerve-racking things if family and coworkers are
favorable to supporting the individual. In fact, social support from coworkers can be an
efficient mechanism for guarding workers from the negative impacts of work stressors
(Schreurs et al., 2012).
Job Redesign
To increase control and autonomy, participation in decision- making, and feedback on
outcomes can help to reduce the stress associated with these jobs. When individuals
are invited to take part in redesigning the job, they feel they are given importance most
especially when they are the ones who will be performing the redesigned job. It is
important to note that allowing people to participate in the decisions affecting their
work gives them a greater sense of control.
In the long term, providing opportunities for employees to develop innovative

responses to work stressors by changing work methods and modifying working
relationships was more effective than traditional stress management interventions.
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Taking Control of Your Time
Effective time management involves establishing and reaffirming priorities, taking
stock of how you spend your time, and then organizing your time to better reflect
your goals, plans, and commitments.
In planning your time, it also is very important to allocate some part of the day for
reflection, rest, creativity, and social contact. By doing so, it increases one’s feelings
of accomplishment and control and, as a result, reduces stress while increasing your
effectiveness.
Ways of Acting
1. Take charge. - Identify the major stresses in your life and evaluate which you can control or
influence and which you cannot.
2. Take care of yourself. - Keeping yourself healthy makes you more resilient in the face of stress
and stress- related health problems.
3. Reach out to others. - Time with friends at work or outside of work will help you to cope with
stress and keep you mentally healthy.
4. Find a balance. - Do anything that gives you an opportunity to express yourself, relax, enjoy
your time, access your creativity, or learn new things.
5. Be prepared. - Planning ahead and setting priorities, thinking ahead, and gathering needed
information will help to give you a sense of control and avoid being caught unprepared.
6. Build your competence. - Build your competence and confidence by enhancing your skills,
abilities, and knowledge.
7. Get creative. - Find ways of innovating on the job. What can you change to make your work
more manageable, more satisfying, and more interesting? How can you better use time?
8. Adjust your attitude - Remind yourself that being normal and happy is better than being
perfect.
Having Fun at Work

The following steps can be used as a guide to design one’s own personal stress management
program:
1. Identify the primary stressors in your life. It may be helpful to keep a “stress journal” to write
down those times and situations that make you feel the most stressed.
2. Identify the thoughts and behaviors you engage in as a response to these stressors. Are these
thoughts and behaviors constructive or destructive?
3. What constructive coping skills do you want to develop or enhance? Do you want to, for
example, start exercising more, learn meditation, manage your time better, develop a new
hobby or activity, or spend more time with family or friends?
4. What are the barriers to effective stress management in your life and how can you overcome
them? What specific action steps can you take in this regard?
Coping with stress is an individualized task and some means over another may not be greater,
so discover what suits for one and enhance it. An individual that is stressed compromises health
and performance levels. To make the most of one’s life, limit stress and of course for that stress
that cannot be diminished, learn to manage it (Addison, 2015).
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DECISION MAKING
Overview
In the foundation of the administrative model of decision-making lies the belief that decision
makers often settle for a less than ideal solution because of time, energy, motivation and
motivation shortages. Instead of seeking the best solution that maximizes the value of the
decision, the decision maker accepts the first available 'good enough' alternative producing a
value above the minimally acceptable. The concept of settling for a less than perfect solution is
called satisficing; and because of the limited rationality of the decision maker, the model is also
known as the bounded rationality model. The limited rationality entails that the decision maker
has a limited number of criteria and considers a limited number of alternatives. The degree to
which the choice will be limited will depend upon the values and skills of the decision maker.
This model is based on ideas first expressed by Herbert Simon. He called the decision maker
with limited rationality an Administrative Man and opposed him to a perfect Economic Man,
who is takes into consideration all possible criteria and evaluates all possible alternatives.
The main drawback of this approach is, of course, a lowered quality of the final decision.
However, this model also has a number of benefits. Under certain circumstances, these can
well compensate for the loss in quality. First, this approach requires less time to reach a
decision. In a situation where time is costly or unavailable, settling for a 'good enough' option
can be an efficient strategy. Secondly, reaching for an ideal solution often means more
resources have to be dedicated for information gathering. So a solution reached with the
administrative model in mind is likely to be cheaper.
I.A FACTORS AFFECTING DECISION MAKING
Political Forces in Decision Making

- A coalition is an informal alliance of individuals or groups formed to achieve a common goal.
This common goal is often a preferred decision alternative.
Risk propensity
- The extent to which a decision maker is willing to gamble when making a decision.
Intuition
- An innate belief about something without conscious consideration. Managers sometimes
decide to do something because it “feels right” or they have a“hunch.” This feeling usually is
not arbitrary, however. Rather, it is based on years of experience and practice in making
decisions in similar situations.
Escalation of commitment
- A decision staying even with a decision even it appears to be wrong.
Bias
- prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in
a way considered to be unfair.
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Types of Bias
Overconfidence Bias.
Pertains to how people well people understand their own abilities and the limits of their
knowledge.
Bias enters when……
-- Is placing tooo much faith in your knowledge.
--Believing that your contribution to a decision is more valuable than it is actually is.
Hindsight Bias.
It is the inclination to see events that have already occurred more predictable than they
were before took place.
Anchor Bias.
It is a cognitive bias that describes the common human tendency to rely too heavily on
the 1ST piece information offered (the anchor) when making decisions.
(During decision making, anchoring occurs when individuals use an initial piece of
information/data to make subsequent judgements.)
Conformation Bias.
It is the tendency of people to favor information that confirms or strengthens their
beliefs or values, and is difficult to dislodge once affirmed. Confirmation bias is an
example of a cognitive bias.
STRATEGIC DECISION MAKING

Strategic decision making is about choosing the best path to success. For instance, if we
are starting a new business, we need to consider factors like cost, time and the target
market. How do we classify decisions to reach the ideal solution? Strategic decision
making will help us formulate a plan of action and align your small-term goals with the
big picture.
Strategic Management, from a management perspective, strategic decision-making is
different from the routine choices you make every day. As a manager, for instance, you
have to delegate roles, communicate goals to your teammates or external stakeholders
and account for uncertainties. The decisions you make not only affect you but the
organization as a whole. It’s a good practice to cultivate objective decision-making
abilities, free from bias and prejudice.
DECISION-MAKING STRATEGIES IN MANAGEMENT

For business owners and managers, strategic decision making takes into account
several key factors that take into consideration both long-term goals and short-term
goals. Let’s look at each of these goals to understand what is strategic management
with examples of strategic decision making.
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LONG-TERM GOALS FOR STRATEGIC DECISION MANAGEMENT
Let’s say that you want to open a zero-waste store in your city. From eco-friendly and
repurposed products to a section dedicated to refillable jars, your store is dedicated to
the conservation and protection of the environment. In this case, your long-term
objective is to operate an eco-conscious business. Your strategic decision-making
process will include working with local vendors to avoid mass-produced items,
minimizing waste by making strategies and spreading awareness about environmental
conservation.
SHORT-TERM GOALS FOR STRATEGIC DECISION MANAGEMENT

As part of your zero-waste business strategy, you have to consider the smaller steps
you’ll take before achieving your long-term goal. These are short-term goals that you
would want to achieve. These include defining clear parameters like the location of
your store, size of the store, number of employees, marketing strategies and how to
appeal to environmentally-conscious customers. These goals require immediate
attention as they form the foundation to support the big picture.
An ideal decision-making process is one where everything goes according to plan. But
that’s not always the case. Your circumstances may derail your plan or affect your
ability to make a sound and unbiased judgment. Situations aren’t always optimal and
many things could go wrong. You have to try and realign your goals whenever you face
a setback. For this, your strategy needs to be flexible and objective.
Thus, Strategic decision making is a critical skill for effective leadership. The outcome
of a leader’s choices significantly impacts employees, customers, the market, and
ultimately the success of the company. Developing such a skill requires a combination
of knowledge, experience and intuition. It also requires a process to help define the
problem and select the right course of action. Here is a method to help you successfully
navigate the decision making process.
MAKING STRATEGIC DECISION- 5 Steps for Success

1. Define the Problem - Consider these questions:
What is the problem? Can it be solved? Is this the real problem or a symptom of a larger
one?
Does it need immediate attention or can it wait? Is it likely to go away by itself? Can I
risk ignoring it?
What is my objective? What’s to be accomplished by the decision?
2. Gather Information - Seek information on how and why the problem occurred:
Stakeholders: Talk to individuals or groups affected by the problem
Facts and data: research, benchmarking studies, interviews with credible sources,
observed events
Constraints: Lack of funding, resources, cultural barriers
Ask: What am I not seeing? What have I missed?
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3. Develop and Evaluate Options - Generate a wide range of options:
Choose options that show promise, need more information, can be combined or
eliminated, or will be challenged.
Weigh advantages/disadvantages of each. Consider cost to the business, potential
loss of morale/teamwork, time to implement the change, whether it meets standards,
and how practical the solution is.
Predict the consequences of each option. (“If/Then” or “What if?”)
Ask: What is the worst solution?
4. Choose the Best Action - Select the option that best meets the decision objective:
Consider factual data, your intuition, and your emotional intelligence when deciding a
course of action.
Accept that the solution may be less than perfect.
Consider the middle ground. Compromising on competing solutions may yield the
best decision.
5. Implement and Monitor the Decision - Develop a plan to implement and monitor
progress on the decision:
Step-by-step process or actions for solving the problem
Communications strategy for notifying stakeholders
Resource identification/allocation
Timeline for implementation
Measurements/benchmarks to gauge progress In business (and in life), decisions can
fail because the issue has not been clearly defined and alternatives have not been
carefully considered. Rather than delay the decision or make one based on faulty
information, this model ensures that the right problem gets solved at the right time and
in the right way.
Decision-making is a must for all managerial functions. In other words, decision-
making in planning is as important as in organization, co-ordination and control,
because in each of these functions the manager has to choose from among a number
of alternative courses of action. Thus, according to him the former set of acts are
decisions, while there are many subsidiary acts in decisions which are themselves
automatic and of which the processes are usually unknown to the manager himself.
Deciding is no doubt a form of planning. Planning is concerned with a future course of

action and involves choosing among alternatives. As a matter of fact, deciding and
planning have related meaning. Planning, as a whole with its component parts like
objectives, policies and procedures, is the outcome of decision-making.
In fact, the decision is the point at which plans, policies and objectives are translated
into concrete actions. Planning leads to sound-decision- making and implies decision-
making, i.e. the selection from among alternatives of a course of action.
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It is thus evident that decision-making is at the core of planning. For instance, the
function of choosing of objectives, policies, procedures, programmes, rules, strategies
and tactics etc., need the entire process of decision-making.
According to Barnard “The Making of decision …is burdensome task”.
Decision Making is the act of choosing one alternative from among a set of alternatives.
We have to first decide that a decision has to be made and then secondly identify a set
of feasible alternatives before we select one.
Why do we decide? Or Why do we need to decide?
The Nature of Decision Making
* Making effective decisions, as well as recognizing when a bad decision has been made and
quickly responding to mistakes, is a key ingredient in organizational effectiveness.
* Some experts believe that decision making is the most basic and fundamental of all
managerial activities.
* However, it is also part of Organizing, Leading and Controlling.
Decision-Making Process includes:
1. recognizing and defining the nature of a decision situation
2. identifying alternatives
3. choosing the ‘best’ [most effective] alternative and putting it into practice
What is Decision Making Situation?
• Is an organizational situation that demands for a managerial decision-making process to avoid
organizational damages, to improve organizational performance, or to keep the organizational
state
Decision-Making Process. . .
• Managers/individuals make decisions about both problems (Undesirable situations) and
opportunities (desirable situations).
Types of Decisions
Programmed decision is one that is fairly structured or recurs with some frequency (or
both).
Many decisions regarding basic operating systems and procedures and standard
organizational transactions fall into this category.
Non programmed decision is one that is unstructured and occurs much less often than a
programmed decision.
Most of the decisions made by top managers involving strategy and organization
design are non-programmed.
Decisions about mergers, acquisitions and takeovers, new facilities, new products, labor
contracts and legal issues are non-programmed decisions.
Managers facedwith non-programmeddecisions must treat eachone as unique,
investing greatamounts of time, energy and resourcesinto exploring the situationfrom
all views.
Intuition and experience are major factors in these decisions.
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Decision-Making Conditions
1. Decision Making Under Certainty
A state of certainty exists when a decision maker knows, with reasonable
certainty, what the alternatives are and what conditions are associated
with each alternative.
Very few organizational decisions, however, are made under these
conditions.
2. Decision Making Under Risk
A state of risk exists when a decision maker makes decisions under a
condition in which the availability of each alternative and its potential
payoffs and costs are all associated with probability estimate.
Decisions such as these are based on past experiences, relevant
information, the advice of others and one’s own judgment.
Decision is ‘calculated’ on the basis of which alternative has the highest
probability of working effectively. [union negotiations)
3. Decision Making Under Uncertainty
A state of uncertainty exists when a decision maker does not know all of
the alternatives, the risks associated with each, or the consequences each
alternative is likely to have.
Most of the major decision making in today’s organizations is done under
these conditions.
When can you say that your decision is Correct?
Rational Perspectives on Decision Making
• Consists of six (6) steps that keep the decision maker focused on facts
and logic and help guard against inappropriate assumptions and pitfalls.
• Designed to help the manager approach a decision rationally and logically.
What is Rational Decision Making?
• Rule based reasoning
• A method for systematically selecting among possible choices that is based
on reason and facts.
• A systematic process of defining problems, evaluating alternatives and
choosing optimal solutions.
1) Recognizing and Defining the Decision Situation
a) Need to ‘define’ precisely what the problem is.
b) Manager must develop a complete understanding of the problem.
c) Manager must carefully analyze and consider the situation.
2) Identifying alternatives
a) Managers must realize that their alternatives maybe limited by legal, moral
and ethical norms, authority constraints, available technology, economic
considerations and unofficial social norms.
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3) Evaluating alternatives
a) Each alternative must pass successfully through three stages before it may be worthy
of consideration as a solution.
1. Feasibility – Is it financially possible? Is it legally possible? Are there limited human,
material and/or informational resources available?
2. Satisfactory – Does the alternative satisfy the conditions of the decision situation?
[50% increase in sales]
3. Affordability – How will this alternative affect other parts of the organization?
What financial and non-financial costs are associated?
b) The manager must put ‘price tags’ on the consequences of each alternative.
c) Even an alternative that is both feasible and satisfactory must be rejected if the
consequences are too expensive for the total system
4) Selecting an Alternative
a) Choosing the best alternative is the real test of decision making.
b) Optimization is the goal because a decision is likely to affect several individuals or
departments.
c) Finding multiple acceptable alternatives may be possible; selecting one and
rejecting the others may not be necessary.
5) Implementing the chosen alternative
a) Managers must consider people’s resistance to change when implementing
decisions.
b) For some decisions, implementation is easy; for others, very difficult or time
consuming.
6) Following Up and Evaluating the Result
a) Managers must evaluate the effectiveness of their decisions – did the chosen
alternative serve its original purpose?
b) If the implemented alternative appears not to be working, the manager has several
choices:
The Importance of Decision Making
This is important in all aspect especially in Business Administration and in Public

Administration. Also in our individual Self and in Ethics, because it defines moral
conduct according to the ideology of a specific group and legal conduct. It provides
full responsibility and accountability between the public, private and the
administration. Adhering to a code of ethics, and code of conduct, it ensures that the
everyone receives what it needs in a fair manner.
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MOTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT
Overview
For many years, researchers have argued that an overall management philosophy that
emphasizes a participative approach is positively related to employee motivation and
performance, and they have advocated participative or high-involvement approaches to
management.
Management researchers and practitioners are finding that participation influences motivation
because it increases the amount of information that people have on the expected outcomes of
performance.
More recent studies have confirmed these early recommendations, although they increasingly use
the term employee engagement—acc. to (Wefald & Downey, 2009) it is the rational and emotional
attachment and commitment employees have to their work and their organizations, or the
involvement, satisfaction, and enthusiasm employees have for their work.
Acc. to Marcum (2009) two essential elements of engagement theory:

1. Learning
2. Involvement
The idea is that if people are allowed a degree of self-determination, they will become voluntarily
engaged in work that is interesting and enjoyable to them. The result, according to Marcum, is
self-determination and continues engagement with work activities rather than episodic
motivation.
According to this perspective, we should think about partnerships rather than about subordinates,
negotiate projects rather than give assignments, and scan for interests and competencies rather
than merely track past performance.
Trust
Trust in trust in all major institutions has decreased substantially over the last decades. That
decrease has been especially marked in the last several years with respect to business and
government. Of course, that’s understandable given the difficult economic conditions, the
uncertainty of employment, political volatility, and the requirement to do more with less. But it
presents a major problem for managers and leaders in all sectors.
Moreover, employee engagement clearly had an impact in terms of productivity, quality, and
customer service (Asplund & Blacksmith, 2011). A study by Margaret Greenberg and Dana
Arakawa (as outlined in Robison, 2007) examined what managers 252 did that led to these results.
Specifically, the researchers looked at whether managers used a strengths-based approach,
whether they maintained a positive attitude when difficulties arose, and whether they provided
frequent recognition and encouragement. The results indicated that there is great value in using a
strengths based approach.
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Many leaders and managers are focused on fixing the problems or weaknesses they
find in their organizations as opposed to building on the strengths that exist in the
organization. On the other hand, according to the study of Jennifer Robison (2007)
found the following to be true:
Managers who take a strengths-based approach help employees identify strengths and
align their talents with their work. These managers don’t ignore employee weaknesses,
but fixing them isn’t their primary focus. Instead, positive managers focus more on what
the employee is good at and how his or her strengths can be leveraged to the benefit of
the employee, team, and organization.
Another study conducted by the consulting firm Right Management involved more
than 28,800 employees in 15 countries.
According to Michael Haid and Jamie Sims (2009) that study concluded that
engagement levels affected an organization’s culture, its strategy execution, leadership
ability, and structure and processes. More specifically, the study confirmed that
engagement leads to higher financial performance, higher customer satisfaction, and
higher employee retention.
These findings demonstrate that supervisors play an important role in employee

engagement and, in turn, affect key outcomes such as productivity, retention, and
public service (Favero, Meier, & O’Toole, 2016).
Another way to increase trust and engagement is for you to exhibit a high degree of
caring and compassion. One finding in the Gallup studies (Asplund & Blacksmith, 2011)
was that engagement is connected to a high degree of emotional caring on the part of
the immediate boss. When caring or compassion was present, employees were more
likely to take risks and to stretch themselves to achieve more. Although the top-level
leaders can’t engage personally with every employee, they can certainly encourage a
culture of caring and compassion throughout the organization.
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LEADERSHIP IN PUBLIC
ORGANIZATIONS
Overview
Today’s leadership is changing in my ways and attend to changes:
1. First, we should understand that, in today’s world and certainly in tomorrow’s world, more
and more people are going to want to participate in the decisions that affect them. In the
traditional top-down model of organizational leadership, the leader was the one who
established the vision of the group, designed ways of achieving that vision, and inspired others
into helping to achieve that vision. But increasingly, those in organizations want to be involved;
they want a piece of the action. Moreover, clients or citizens also want to participate, as well
they should.
2. Second, leadership is increasingly being thought of not as a position in a hierarchy but rather
as a process that occurs throughout organizations (and beyond). In the past, a leader was
considered the person who held a formal position of power in an organization or a society. But
increasingly, we are coming to think of leadership as a process occurring throughout
organizations and societies. Indeed, there are many who argue that such a shift in the
distribution of leadership will be necessary for our survival.
3. Third, we should understand that leadership is not just about doing things right; it is about
doing the right things (Drucker, 2001). Through the process of leadership, people working
together make choices about the directions they want to take; they make fundamental
decisions about their futures. Such choices cannot be made simply on the basis of a rational
calculation of costs and benefits. They require a careful balancing of human values and ethical
considerations whether those reflected in the direction in which an organization chooses to
move or as citizens and governmental officials work together in the development of public
policies
Where Do We Begin?
What Makes a Good Leader?

Think of a person who you think is an excellent leader This could be someone you know
personally, someone you have watched from afar, or someone you have only read about or
otherwise studied. It could be someone living today or someone from another time and place.
Your Experience as a Leader. Now consider your own experiences as a leader. Consider
leadership as something that everyone engages in from time to time. Think of a situation in
which you led, even if only for a short period.
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Ways of Thinking
Leader’s role was to:
1. come up with good ideas about the direction that the group should take.
2. decide on a course of action or a goal to be accomplished
3. exert his or her influence or control in moving the group in that direction.
Difference between leadership and management? It is said that leaders and
managers ultimately are different types of people.
Managers:
1. impersonal or even passive attitudes toward goals.
2. excel in problem-solving skills and in work design.
3. prefer to work with people in carefully orchestrated and controlled ways
4. see themselves as conservators or regulators of existing institutions
5. are people who do things right, (Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus (1985))
Leaders:
1. more active or even visionary with respect to the future.
2. seek out opportunities and rewards even if doing so involves risk.
3. are much more passionate about what they do and are likely to create more
turbulence along the way
4. seek to profoundly reorder human, economic, and political relationships;
5. are concerned with vision and judgment, not just mastering routines.
6. are people who do the right thing, (Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus (1985))
In other words, it is very difficult to talk about one without the other.
Traditional Approaches to Leadership
A. The Trait Approach

these studies suggested that leaders are indeed different from others in a
group or organization in several ways.
Traits to be consider:
1. intelligence, alertness to the needs of others, [and] insight into situations,
further reinforced by such habits as responsibility, initiative, persistence, and
self-confidence
2. leaders stand in relation to a group, an organization, or “followers,” and the
nature of that relationship is more determining of the pattern of leadership
than is the possession of certain traits.
3. leaders that perform well in one situation might fail in another. Therefore,
leadership is determined not by possession of certain traits but rather
through a relationship between the leader and members of a group “in which
the leader acquires status through the active participation and demonstration
of his capacity for carrying tasks through to completion”
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B. Leadership Styles
Leadership is determined through the interaction of leaders and situations led
researchers to consider the behavior of leaders, not just their traits.
Consideration describes the extent to which the leader is concerned for the welfare of
those in the group. A considerate leader might compliment people on their work,
emphasize the importance of job satisfaction, help to put employees at ease, and so
on. The idea of consideration is primarily focused on relationships. Initiation of
structure, on the other hand, describes the extent to which the leader initiates activity
in the group, organizes the group, and defines the way in which the work is to be
done. A leader focusing on initiation of structure would be concerned with
maintaining standards, meeting deadlines, and securing compliance. The idea of
initiation is primarily focused on tasks.
C. The Managerial Grid (Leadership Grid)

- is a model of behavioral leadership developed in the 1960s by Robert Blake and
Jane Mouton. Managerial Grid, the Leadership Grid is based on two behavioral
dimensions: concern for production, which is plotted on the X-axis on a scale from one
to nine points; and concern for people, which is plotted on a similar scale along the Y-
axis.
The model identified five leadership styles by their relative positions on the grid. The
first number in the examples below reflects a leader's concern for production; the
second, a leader's concern for people.
1. Impoverished (1,1) - might be recognized in phrases such as “sorry, but it’s not my
problem” and “hands off.”
2. Produce or Perish (9, 1) - might be characterized by phrases such as “nice guys
finish last,” “produce or perish,” and “results driven.”
3. Middle of the Road (5, 5) - might be characterized by phrases such as “I can live with
that” and “that’s acceptable progress.”
4. Country Club (1, 9) - might be associated with phrases such as “don’t worry, be
happy,” “see no evil,” and “can’t say no.”
5. Team (9, 9) - might be associated with phrases such as “all for one, and one for all”
and “interdependence and shared values.”
The Leadership Grid demonstrates that placing an undue emphasis on one area,
while overlooking the other, stifles productivity. The model proposes that the Team
leadership style, which displays a high degree of concern for both production and
people, may boost employee productivity.
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D. Situational Leadership
- An approach developed by Hersey and Blanchard during the late 1960s and further
refined since that time. The basic idea of Situational Leadership is that different
situations require different styles of leadership and, that leaders need to be able to
understand key characteristics of the organizations they lead and then adapt their own
behavior to fit the situation. The emphasis in Situational Leadership is on the
relationship between the leader and his or her followers. According to the model, the
leadership style that should be used by the potential leader depends on the “readiness”
level of the people whom the leader is attempting to influence.
E. The Contingency Approach

- Leadership must be adapted to the tasks and relationships of the workers. contingency
model of leadership suggests that the effectiveness of a group is contingent on the
relationship between the style of leadership and the degree to which the situation
enables the leader to exert influence. That is, some situations are more favorable for
some leaders, and other situations are more favorable for others.
F. Path–Goal Theory
- Suggests that people are satisfied with their work if they believe it will lead to things
that are highly valued and that they will work hard if they believe their effort will lead to
things that are valued.
Contemporary Context and Approaches to Leadership
From there we can identify and utilize additional contemporary leadership theories that
are particularly salient for public and nonprofit leaders. studies further show how
leadership in public and nonprofit service is different.
A. Values-Based Leadership
This idea of approaching leadership “from the inside” (i.e., by beginning with the leader’s
own personal commitments and values) has been echoed in several other works.
Requires that leaders begin by changing themselves—that is, by revising their own
concept of leadership and the values that support bringing about change self-reflection,
balance and perspective, true self-confidence, and genuine humility.
B. The Transformational Approach

It has its roots in studies of political and governmental leadership. more often involves
using self-interest to achieve larger goals. Power is exercised to realize the purposes of
the power wielders, whether or not those purposes also are the purposes of the
respondents. The difference between power and leadership is that power serves the
interests of the power wielder, whereas leadership serves both the leader’s interests and
those of the followers. The values, motivations, wants, needs, interests, and expectations
of both leaders and followers must be represented for leadership to occur.
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2 types of Transformational Approach
a. Transactional leadership, which involves an exchange of valued things.

b. Transformational leadership, on the other hand, occurs when leaders and followers
engage with one another in such a way that they raise one another to higher levels of
morality and motivation.
C. Servant Leadership
The idea is that leadership begins with a commitment on the part of the potential
leader to serve others. The leader does not pursue his or her own self-interest but
rather is primarily concerned with serving others. leader is servant first. . .. It begins
with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice
brings one to aspire to lead.
D. Positive Leadership
- is primarily concerned with facilitating extraordinary performance, affirming human
potential, and facilitating the best of the human condition. It focuses on how leaders
can develop virtuousness and positive energy in their groups and organizations:
Positive leadership emphasizes what elevates individuals and organizations, what
goes right in organizations, what is lifegiving, what is experienced as good, what is
extraordinary and what is inspiring.
E. Leadership and Ethics

Ethical leadership theories take this attention toward the connection between a
leader’s integrity and his or her actions and brings it to the forefront of examination.
Leadership involves changing values, and changing values is hard, both for the leader
and for the follower. Yet change involves moving away from the past and the present,
both of which are at least comfortable in their familiarity. Consequently, when people
consider possible changes in their work or their organizations, they bring with them
certain deep-seated, almost primal fears.
F. Shared, Connective, and Collaborative Leadership

Shared leadership is often associated with leadership that is dispersed within and
throughout an organization while collaborative leadership looks at leadership
dispersed across networks, organizations, and communities (Van Wart, 2013; Wang,
Waldman, & Zhang, 2014).
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Shared leadership moves beyond the traditional model in which leadership is
conceived around a single individual wielding power and influence in a unilateral and
largely downward fashion. Shared leadership instead connotes “a dynamic interactive
influence process among individuals in groups in which the objective is to lead one
another to their achievement of group or organizational goals” As such, shared
leadership involves peer or lateral influence and at other times involves upward or
downward influence. In this model, the actions and functions of leadership in an
organization.
In connective leadership, takes into account the need for greater collaboration in a
diverse society and argues that the role of a leader is to “transform interdependence and
diversity from opposing into symbiotic forces”
Leadership and Diversity
Diversity influences our understanding and perceptions of leadership, and

understanding diversity affects our ability to lead successfully in an every-changing
society. In what follows, we explore some of the recent trends related to diversity and
leadership.
Example: A leader who is effective in Japan might not fit well in an American
organization. Indeed, according to some of the most highly respected students of
cultural difference, “Asking people to describe the qualities of a good leader is a way of
asking them to describe their culture”
They have to possess attributes acceptable to people who come from myriad
backgrounds and cultures, but they also have to know how to understand the behavior
of these people. Understanding cultural differences and managing conflicts that arise
from cultural diversity are very important for contemporary leaders in today’s globalized
world. Leaders in different cultures are not immune to the predominant values and
practices of their cultures, so their characteristics and behavior will be dependent on
these values and practices.
Intercultural communication;
1. power distance
2. individualism/collectivism
3. masculinity/femininity
4. uncertainty avoidance,
5. time orientation (long- and short-term orientation)
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Leadership, Emotion, and Art
Emotional intelligence to refer to “the sense in which there is intelligence in the

emotions and the sense in which intelligence can be brought to emotions” The
idea is that personal or emotional intelligence, understanding oneself and others,
and acting wisely in social situations based on clarity with respect to one’s own
emotions has a great deal to do with the ability to lead a successful life.
Five dimensions of emotional intelligence:
1. Knowing one’s emotions—The ability to recognize one’s own feelings or
emotions is a keystone to self-understanding and gives us a better sense of how
we really feel.
2. Managing emotions—Handling feelings appropriately (that is, recognizing and
then doing something positive with one’s emotions) is essential to effective
interactions with others.
3. Motivating oneself—Emotional self-control, the capacity to use one’s emotions
in a productive fashion, is related to one’s effectiveness and productivity.
4. Recognizing emotions in others—People who are empathetic (that is, people
who understand the deep-seated, although rarely verbalized, needs and
concerns of others) have exceptional emotional intelligence.
5. Handling relationships— “The art of relationships is, in large part, skill in
managing emotions in others. These are the abilities that undergird popularity,
leadership, and interpersonal effectiveness”
That is, a leader needs to be fully attuned to the emotional as well as intellectual
impact of what he or she is saying and doing. People will react to the emotional
“signals” the leader gives off, and where those signals “connect,” individuals
resonate with the leader. The leader and the followers are on the same
“wavelength,” they are “in sync,” and there is less “noise” in the system. People
get along better and work together more effectively. Most of all, the leader’s skill
in understanding his or her own values and emotions as well as those of others
leaves people feeling encouraged, excited, and uplifted, even in difficult times (p.
20; see also Pescosolido, 2002).
There are many definitions of leadership. But leadership in public organization
does not need only the skill of mere leadership but the skill of shared leadership.
It focuses on group of individuals working and growing together in the entire
organization but not on the leaders themselves. “Leadership occurs where the
action of one member of a group or an organization stimulates others to
recognize more clearly their previously latent needs, desires, and potentialities
and to work together toward their fulfillment (Denhardt et al., 2020).” As
leadership stimulates, meaning it energizes the entire organization.
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For the energizing effect of leadership to be observed firmly, a good leader must
identify the interest of the members of the organization. One remaining question is
how leadership skills can be developed. Although there is general agreement that
leadership skills can be built or at least improved on, there are differences in how
one might seek improvements. The following are the suggestions:
1. Examine the traits, skills, and commitments associated with leadership, and
try to assess your own strengths and weaknesses.
⮚ This will give some extra feedback and might point to some areas in need of work.
⮚ With this, you can then begin a program to develop those areas that seem most
important.
2. Learn about leadership by observation; study examples of leadership
excellence. Identify people who you think are excellent leaders.
⮚ How would you describe their leadership styles?
⮚ What is it about their backgrounds or experiences that might help to explain their
approaches?
3. Experiment with your own behavior.
⮚ Try out alternative ways of approaching leadership situations.
4. Model important values.
⮚ Values play an important role in leadership in any organization and are especially
important in public and nonprofit service.
5. Assume leadership.
⮚ You can gain leadership experience by becoming involved in clubs and other
organizations, by engaging in service projects in your community, by accepting
internships or other related experiences, or simply by doing your job.
Thinking in Action
The following cases and exercises will help you to develop your leadership skills.
1. Developing a Leadership Autobiography
⮚ Trace the history of your personal development as a leader.
2. A Debate Topic
⮚ In your view, would it be proper to call Hitler a transformational leader? Would it
even be proper to call Hitler a leader?
⮚ Denhardt et al., (2020), mentioned a debate topic about Hitler’s leadership style.
Whereas Burns (1978) would say that Hitler’s leadership was not transformational
because it did not further good in the society, Bass (1985) contended that Germany
still was transformed by Hitler’s leadership and, indeed, that Hitler’s influence still is
felt today. Because Germany was transformed, according to Bass, Hitler was a
transformational leader.
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3. Transactional Versus Transformational Leadership
⮚ Burns (1978) argued that the transactional leadership, which involves an
exchange of valued things (e.g., economic, political, psychological) between
initiators and respondents.
⮚ Transformational leadership, on the other hand, occurs when leaders and
followers engage with one another in such a way that they raise one another to
higher levels of morality and motivation
4. Assessing Your Leadership Style

⮚ David Campbell (1974) produced an interesting assessment device in Center
for Creative Leadership (CCL) that develops models of effective managerial
practice and applies them as guide for assessment and development.
Assessing your Leadership Style:
The following are the categories that Campbell uses for assessing leadership
capacities, categories that you can use in your own informal examination of your
leadership capacities. Rate yourself, and have others rate you on a scale of 1 to 5
for each category. Try to think of specific examples of how you have displayed
each characteristic.
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A. Leadership
Ambitious: Determined to make progress, likes to compete
Daring: Willing to try new experiences, is risk oriented
Dynamic: Takes charge, inspires others, is seen as a leader
Enterprising: Works well with the complexities of change
Experienced: Has a good background
Farsighted: Looks ahead, plans, is a visionary
Original: Sees the world differently, has many new ideas
Persuasive: Articulate and persuasive in influencing others
B. Energy/Affability
Affectionate: Acts close, warm, and nurturing
Considerate: Thoughtful, is willing to work with others
Empowering: Motivates others and helps them to achieve
Entertaining: Clever and amusing, enjoys people
Friendly: Pleasant to be around, smiles easily
C. Dependability
Credible: Open and honest, inspires trust
Organized: Plans ahead and follows through
Productive: Uses time and resources well
Thrifty: Uses and manages money wisely
D. Resilience
Calm: Has an unhurried and unruffled manner
Flexible: Easily adjusts to changes
Optimistic: Positive, handles personal challenges well
Trusting: Trusts and believes in others
5. Leadership When No One Is in Charge

Leadership is not always only about being in charge. Simon Sinek said, “A good
leader doesn’t only inspire us to have confidence in what they can do, a great
leader inspires us to have confidence in what we can do.”
6. Practicing the Ethics of Leadership

⮚ Consider instances in which you have seen leaders act in a way you consider
unethical.
⮚ As a leader, how can you break out of your standard ways of thinking to be sure
to consider the ethical implications of your actions?
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POWER AND ORGANIZATIONAL
POLITICS
Overview
When we hear the words “Power” and “Politics”, it springs situation or phenomena in our
respective workplace. Working in a government sector as under field implementers and where
security of tenure is determined by the annual budget funded to the program. In a worst case
scenario, you feel powerless.
In this chapter, the term Power and Organizational Politics are examined and delved in as how
organizations view this two (2) fields overtime.
I. Basics
Power has been defined as the latent ability to influence others’ actions, thoughts, or emotions
(Ott, 1989a, p. 420). Meanwhile Politics is the use of power and authority to influence
organizational outcomes. Simply, power is the potential to influence and politics is the exercise
of or use of that power.
II. Early Definitions
Several studies and research have established definitions and foundation of power and politics
in an organizational set-up, as such: Niccolo Machiavelli aligned the term power for his
philosophical term “the ends justifies the means” from his The Prince book. This catch phrase
definition of power means that acquiring power is the end goal of a leader, and in order for him
to achieve this, whatever means must be done, no matter how unethical it may be.
For Bertrand Russell, his approach to power contradicts as to Machiavelli. For him, when
gaining power becomes the end or the goal in itself, it is wrong; when power is used as a
means to accomplish something desirable, it can be a positive force. Through an
organizational lens, an organization has power over the individuals but it is in individual’s
interest to be part of an organization. Moreover, Russell brands power in an ethical manner,
though certain situations may call for power to be used in an evil manner. Max Weber,
classified power in three (3) approach: 1) Charismatic - how persuasively the leaders prove
their charismatic qualities; Traditional - power is granted through family lineage from one
generation to the next; and Legal-Rational - laws and constitutional processes create legitimate
authority. Lastly, Robert Bierstedt defined power in a sociological aspect. It cores from societal
relationship , thus driven by force, influence and authority.
III. Power versus Authority
Power and authority have a distinct term in an organizational approach. Mason Haire argued
that authority is traditionally based on ownership. Thus, employees conform themselves to the
owners of the organization, on the other side, the owners have a control on their employees, in
attaining the organization’s goals. In addition, Haire emphasized that studies should embrace
an optimistic view of citizens since much of the previous studies have assumed that citizens are
lazy, ignorant, and selfish.
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Through this, authority in an organization can be viewed as two-way approach, where it will
be more participative. In a societal culture, power and authority can be differentiated
through Power Distance - the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and
organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally
(Hofstede et al. 2005). The lower power distance an employee has, the lesser they accept
on inequality, prefers consultation when matters need to be discussed. Employees in the
countries with high power distance are much willing to accept inequalities and just go-
with-the-flow whatever may be decided from their executives. Relationship of power and
authority can be described as: One can have the authority to do something but may lack
the power to do it. Vice versa, one may have the power to do something but may lack an
authority to do so.
IV. Sources of Power

John French and Bertram Raven identified five (5) sources of power, in a psychological
viewpoint:
1) Legitimate Power is derived or comes from people’s positions or job titles, an example
from my present work, where I am compelled to work the reports that my supervisor
notified on me.
2) Reward Power is to influence others by providing positive outcomes. As for my work, our
cluster will receive an affirmation from our Regional Program Coordinator when financial
and physical target for the year are achieved.
3) Coercive Power is when sanctions or punishments are applied for noncompliance or
failure to meet the expectation, this is an opposite of Reward Power. Examples are yelling at
employees and pay cut or hold of salary.
4) Referent Power stems from how we are influence by people we admire or respect. An
example of this is when a certain employee has an utmost respect to his supervisor
because of his dedication to work, thus the employee is influenced to be like his supervisor
through doing something that the latter wants the him to do.
5) Lastly, an Expert Power is based on knowledge and expertise on the field. An example of
this basing from my work is a Project Development Officer (PDO) who is knowledgeable in
making project proposals and identifying feasible market on a specific area, thus, PDOs can
influence their target participants on their identified project and proposal making.
V. How do we Recognize Power and Organizational Politics?
According to Jeffrey Pffefer, power is emergent in an organization when there are high
levels of decentralization, scarcity of resources, disagreements, and uncertainties. As for
Steven Lukes, power can be observed in three (3) faces: first, if there is a direct exchange
between actors in which one exerts more control than does the other actor. Power’s
second face arises when those with established positions prevents the other to have
control or influence over the situation through establishing agenda behind those the doors.
Lastly, power’s third face is when the powerful influences the powerless on what they want
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- basically the former’s interest.
Power in an organization may be directly observed and some may not. The positive
side for a power politics to be open is employees can better understand and respond
on their organizational situations. For power politics that are hidden behind-the-
scenes, its devastating effect or harm to the organization may be easily hidden.
VI. Balancing Power
Over power may be destructible to the organization; on the other side, less power
exercised by employees may also not be healthy on the organizational goals and
missions. Richard Emerson identified ways in which people with less power can
balance power in a relationship aspect: 1) individuals can decrease their needs or
demands, or they can opt to be less dependent on their supervisors in complying
what they want, instead they listen to their own intuitions for a greater performance;
2) individuals can increase their alternative sources of getting what they want, or an
individual can source for affirmation from their accomplishments; 3) individuals can
increase other’s needs or demands, an individual can focus the completion the
accomplishment for the success of the cluster; and 4) individuals can decrease other
people’s alternative sources, he may opt to pursue expertise that leads him than the
others, thus making his supervisor less dependent, and on the other way around, the
supervisor is much depending on him. As for Dennis Wrong, power need not be
hierarchical or one-sided, as an individual might have power in relation to another
person regarding certain situations, whereas the other might have power over the
individual in other situations.
VII. Structural Aspects of Power and Privilege
Power is the possession of control, authority, or influence over others and privilege is
a right or immunity granted as a peculiar benefit, advantage, or favor: prerogative
especially: such a right or immunity attached specifically to a position or an office.
When you have privilege you have access to power. When privilege equals power
and power equals control.
VIII. Power: A Positive Force or a Destructive Force?
According to Salanci and Pfeffer although political power in organization often is
considered an unfair, unjust and generally undesirable phenomenon, political
processes tend towards to realistic resolution of conflicts among interest. And they
suggested Contingency theory of power a positive and desirable picture of power in
organization. Destructive force is abuses of power and workplace harassment and
bullying rigidly bureaucratic structures, power imbalances and overly authoritative
cultures. Create additional levels of stress and anxiety of the organization. If we
manage our dependencies and sensitive to political issues and organization can go a
long way toward avoiding negative aspects and destructive force.
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IX. Managing Power and Organizational Politics
Gilbert Fairholm listed several tactics commonly used in organization:
·Controlling the agenda—determining in advance what issues will and will not be
discussed or decided on
· Controlling information and using ambiguity—keeping communications and
meanings unclear so that others will be less able to act; not divulging all information,
particularly information that can be used against you
·Forming coalitions—securing alliances with people who are willing to support or
agree with you
· Co-optation—involving those who potentially oppose you in the decision-making,
thereby attempting to secure their commitment to the outcome
·Using outside experts—using an outsider’s expertise or reputation to legitimize a
position or to avoid having to take a potentially controversial position yourself
·Developing others—increasing the capacity of those around you, thereby increasing
overall power
· Deal making—securing quid-pro-quo agreements or trade offs with others
·Incurring obligations—doing things for people, knowing that such favors will create
an obligation for them to repay the favors
·Selecting decision criteria—controlling the criteria by which decisions are made,
allowing you to influence the outcome without personally deciding.
Positive Organizational climate by focusing on the following:
•A shared view of power based on partnership, collaboration, and empowerment
•Inclusiveness based on respect and dignity
•Connectedness based on valuing differences and communication
•Excellence based on ideals, goals, and values
•An encompassing value system grounded in kindness, humility, and trust
• Participation, accountability, and fairness
X. Gaining Positive Political Skills
Most of us are not born with the skills necessary to manage and use politics in a
positive manner in organizations, but those skills can be developed through training,
mentoring, and practice (Ferris et al., 2007). Political skill can be defined as “the
ability to effectively understand others at work and to use such knowledge to
influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s personal and/or organizational
goals” (Perrewe, Ferris, Stoner, & Brouer, 2007). Having political skills, particularly
networking skills, is very important to professional success. Political skills have been
shown to be associated with getting more promotions, higher perceived career
success, and perceived organizational mobility (Todd, Harris, Harris, & Wheeler,
2009). And Pamela Perrewe and her core searcher identified four dimension of
political skill (1) social astuteness, (2) interpersonal influence, (3) networking ability,
and (4) apparent or perceived sincerity. These four dimensions of political skills helps
people to understand, manage their emotion and positively influence others.
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XI. Empowerment
Empowerment in organizations are driven by teamwork. Employees proven to be
capable are made responsible for making decisions that impact the organization, and
are held accountable for the results of their decisions. Empowered organization,
employees form teams to control various aspect of the organization. There are four
variables that determine the level of employees empowerment (1) meaning—a match
between an employee’s values and beliefs and the nature of the job; (2) competence
—the employee’s belief that he or she has the capacity to do the work; (3) self-
determination—the employee’s sense of control over how to go about doing the
work; and (4) impact—the belief that his or her work influences the organization and
the ultimate desired outcomes. Empowerment is thought to be the highest when high
levels of these four factors are present. Conger and Kanungo (1988) suggested that
although the concept of empowerment has been popular in management literature,
there is some confusion and lack of clarity regarding what empowerment is and how
to best facilitate it within organizations and individuals. They described the process of
moving from powerlessness to empowerment as consisting of five stages: (1)
conditions leading to feelings of powerlessness, (2) the use of managerial strategies
to increase personal efficacy and motivation (e.g., participative management,
modeling, job enrichment), (3) feedback and the removal of conditions found in Stage
1, (4) reinforcement of the empowerment experience, and (5) persistence of new
behavior.
XII. Power and Public Service
Power in public and nonprofit organizations should be based on the achievement of
shared goals and legitimate purposes. Clearly, public and nonprofit employees at all
levels exercise power in and outside of their organizations. When power is used to
public service, the latter becomes intended to serve all the member of the community,
including services provided by the government.
XIII. Ways Forward
Ways forward is an action plan that is devised to lead a successful life. This ways may
help individuals, especially within an organizational venue. The following are actions
applicable to each one of us, especially in our workplace, that we may opt to employ:
1) Enhance Personal Power
2) Make yourself visible and indispensable
3) Take charge of your empowerment
4) Support and foster the empowerment of others
5) Use power constructively and effectively
6) Devote time and energy to clarifying goals
7) Think, plan, and maintain your awareness of political issues in management and in
implementation process
8) Be nice!
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COMMUNICATING EFFECTIVELY WITH
OTHERS
Overview
Communication is the transmission of information and meaning from one party to another
through verbal or non-verbal communication. Verbal communication uses words and language
to interact. It can be either oral or written like speaking, listening, reading, or writing. This type
of communication elicits immediate feedback. Non-verbal communication or body language
can occur without using of words and the response is depending on the way we interpret a
particular cue. Examples of body language are gestures, facial expressions, glancing, staring, or
even smiling that carries some meaning. The communication process begins when the sender
(source) sends message to the receiver. The sender is the one who initiates the communication
and will encode the message and then send it to the receiver. The message is transmitted
through various channels or media. The channels are the means by which the message is
transmitted. The person to whom the message is directed is called the receiver or the
interpreter. The receiver must first be able to receive the sender's information and then decode
or interpret it. The receiver may or may not provide feedback. Feedback may be direct (such as
a written or verbal response) or indirect (in a form of an act or deed in response. There are also
two additional elements of communication; the context ( includes the psychological and
physical environment in which the communication takes place) and the noise ( any kind of
interference that gets in the way of the message being understood in the way it was
intended).Communication is successful when the receiver understands what the sender
intended. What are critical in any communication is what the sender meant and what the
receiver understood. Communication occurs either in one-way or two-way process. One-way
communication happens when the information flows only in one direction. The sender
transmits the message to the receiver but the receiver provides no feedback while two-way
communication happens when the receiver responds and provides feedback to the sender.
Communication is one of the most important factors in our lives. It dictates the relationships
formed with the individuals in personal and professional lives. Effective communication
provides a foundation for trust and respect to grow. It also helps better understand a person
and the context of the conversation. Individuals often believe that their communication skills
are much better than what they actually are. Communication appears effortless; however, much
of what two people discuss gets misunderstood, thus leading to conflicts and distress. To
communicate effectively, one must understand the emotion behind the information being said.
Knowing how to communicate effectively can improve relationships one has at home, work and
in social affairs. Understanding communication skills such as; listening, non-verbal
communication and managing stress can help better the relationships one has with others.
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FLOWS OF COMMUNICATION
There are different types of communication flows. First, downward communication
happens when the flow of information is from higher to lower levels or ranks within the
organization. Second, upward communication refers to the flow of information from lower to
higher levels or ranks in the organization. There are several reasons why upward
communication is important. These include, a. the management will learn what is going on and
gain more accurate picture of the subordinates’ accomplishments, work, problems, plans,
attitudes, and ideas, b. employees will have the opportunity to communicate upward and
relieve frustrations and achieve a stronger sense of participation, and c. facilitates downward
communication as good listening becomes mutual. Third, horizontal communication, the
information is shared among the people on the level that take place among people in the same
work team. Important functions of horizontal communication in an organization include
allowing of sharing of information, coordination, and problem solving among units, helps in
solving conflicts, and providing social and emotional support to people through interaction
among peers. Fourth, formal communication, it is formal and the flow of information can move
upward, downward, or horizontal and are often prearranged and necessary for performing
some tasks. Fifth, informal communication, communication is unofficial and casual
communications between coworkers take place.
SEVERAL IMPORTANT ISSUES IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication is fundamental to the existence of an organization but problems occur
when there is a poor communication. There are several important issues to consider in the
communication process.
·Role of ambiguity- some of the messages are unintentionally ambiguous which means that the
sender believes that the appropriate meaning has been expressed and the receiver believes
that he or she understands. Both of the sender and the receiver are wrong.
·Role of emotion- emotional awareness or the ability to understand the feelings will help in the
succession of the communication process. Feelings play a big role in the transmission of the
message because being emotionally aware; you will be able to communicate better because
feeling influences the way we communicate.
·Frame of reference- communication depends on the individual’s frame of reference. There is a
perception that we are trying to communicate something that is completely different from what
we intend.
·Purpose, Function, and intent- it is clear that the intent of communication is to inform an
audience. Its function includes informing and generating awareness, educating, motivating,
persuading and many more.
·Role of power- we tend to shape our conversation depending on the relationship of power in
the organization of the person with whom we are talking.
·Role of meaning- communication does not merely take place in organizations; rather, it creates
and sustains organizations. Through communication, they are able to achieve organizational
goals, learning, growth and development.
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GUIDELINES THAT CAN BE EMPLOYED IN THE TRANSMISSION NOT ONLY OF
IMPORTANT INFORMATION BUT ALSO OF MEANING
Since communication plays an important role in an organization, it is important to

understand the ways in which the communication can be improved. There are some
specific guidelines to consider in transmitting not only the important information but
also its meaning.
A.IMPROVE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

The process of transmitting information and common understanding from one person
to another is called the interpersonal communication in which it is very important for
the success of an organization. It is essential because it is necessary in problem
solving. It allows the employees to discuss problems, find alternative solutions, and
then come up with the final solution of the problem. It improves the trust between
employers and employees. Effective employee communication also helps employees
to better understand the changes in the management; align with it and collaboratively
work in the successful implementation of the changes. Exercising effective
interpersonal communication in the workplace makes the operations more efficient
and teamwork is possible and easier.
B.IDENTIFY BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

We communicate frequently with other people every day through conversations,
expressions and body language, different social media barriers, and many more.
Regardless of the type of communication, if we do not communicate effectively, we
are putting ourselves and others at risk. It is important to know some of the barriers to
effective communication that the organization should strive to eradicate.
1.Language- the sender must use the common language or the words that can be
understood by the receiver. Whether in any form of communication, you should
consider the receiver’s background like cultural as well as technical and then adjust
the language accordingly. In addition, all organizations, uses and seem to depend on
jargons. Jargons are special words or expressions that are used by a particular group
and are difficult for others understand.
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2.Chanel/Medium- in the transmission of the message, the sender must choose the
correct channel in sending the message. In oral communication, it allows the
possibility for feedback and interaction but messages transmitted orally might be
misinterpreted. As words pass by quickly, some words may be forgotten as people
move on to other things. It can also be susceptible to actual noise (possible
interference is obvious) or social noise (individuals involved in complex
communication may alter their messages as they transmit them to others. Written
communication, on the other hand, also has the advantage. The documents of
written communication serve as a permanent record where you can come back to it
for clarification.
3.Selective perception- people’s differences in their perceptions make an important

difference in the ways in which they interpret messages that they receive. The
receiver filters and understands the message according to what he or she wanted
to see and hear to suit on his or her own needs, biases, and perceptions. People
with different experiences, preferences, backgrounds, interests and motivations are
likely to hear messages differently.
4.Emotion- it is clear that the emotional state of the receiver may affect the
communication process. It is important that the sender must understand the person
who will receive the information, show emotional intelligence and empathize with
their needs to overcome this barrier.
5.Physical Barriers- the environment in which the communication process is taking

place must be considered. You should ensure that the work environment is
comfortable to everyone.
6.Personal characteristics- having physical disability can also affect the

successfulness of the communication process. Examples of these physical
disabilities are hearing problems; poor listening habits; the receiver has a short
attention span; unable to absorb lengthy or more complex messages; and speech
difficulty.
7.Filtering- it is the process of communication of which the information is withheld,

ignored, or distorted. We filter what we say based on what we think for others to
hear. We also use the wrong channels of communication and then we misinterpret
the intent of others.
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C.PRACTICE SUPPORTIVE COMMUNICATION
Effective communication aims at transmitting information accurately, honestly and
in such a way that the receiver will accept, understand, and use that information. It
must also help in developing and maintaining interpersonal relationships by
enabling people to express and accept differences in how they feel. Supportive
communication refers to an approach to communicating with others that recognizes
both of these two purposes in which to convey needed information and to enhance
interpersonal relationships in an organization. Having supportive communication
within an organization will result to a happier and more pleasant work environment.
Organizations that foster positive interpersonal relationships among members are
more productive more effective at problem solving, have fewer conflicts and will
probably lead to greater productivity.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUPPORTIVE COMMUNICATION

1.Supportive communication is problem oriented, not person oriented-
communication focuses on problems and their solutions rather than on the
individual.
2.Supportive communication encourages being descriptive, not evaluative-
providing information that is descriptive rather than evaluative avoids making
judgment on the other person, therefore, it is likely to be met with a defensive
reaction. Engaging in descriptive communication does not mean that you are
ignoring the issue; rather it means that you do the approach in a more positive,
action-oriented way.
3.Supportive communication is specific, not general- transmitting the message into
more specific, the more helpful it will be. General statements are often extreme in the
sense that it might make the person feel incompetent or insignificant. It is also
important to avoid either/or statements because both of these statements are
extreme and it will reduce the range of possible actions that might be taken to
correct the problem, therefore, reduce the likelihood that anything positive will be
done.
4.Supportive communication is conjunctive, not disjunctive- the difference between
the two is that conjunctive statements clearly relate to what was said previously and
move the conversation forward while disjunctive conversation are not connected
and often create barrier interfering with effective communication and tend to be final.
5.Supportive communication is validating, not demeaning- exercising supportive
communication helps people to feel recognized, accepted, and valued. Demeaning
comments make people feel inadequate, incompetent, and insecure and can cause
serious damage to effective interpersonal relationships like creating a barrier
between people and might remain in place for a long period of time. Validating
communication recognizes the importance of others, including their feelings and
values, and is characterized by respect and flexibility.
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6.Supportive communication is owned, not disowned- the speaker or the sender takes
the responsibility for what is being said.
7.Supportive communication is two-way, not one-way- supportive communication also
involves listening carefully to the sender and receiving feedback from the other person
or the receiver. Effective listening is essential to receiving accurate feedback.
D. ENHANCE ORAL COMMUNICATION

Despite the increase in electronic communication like email, instant messaging,
voicemail and video messaging, much of the organization’s communication time is
spent in face-to-face oral communication. It’s either one-on-one, in small groups, or in
presentations to larger audiences. Conversational speaking is particularly useful in
situations where immediate feedback is important like brainstorming or building on the
ideas of others. If the content of the communication is too lengthy or complex, using
written communication or at least following up a conversation by putting matters in
writing is more helpful. In oral communication, just remember that when you speak, you
transmit both rational and emotional messages. No matter what the substance of your
message, your tone of voice will send an emotional message to the receiver. It is
important to pick the right tone of voice to communicate what you wish to
communicate in a particular situation. The key to effective speaking is the ability to put
yourself in the position of the person who will receive the information or instructions.
E.UTILIZE PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION
We think persuasive communications in terms of the sender, the character of the
message and the receiver. Some tips in effective persuasive communication include
knowing your audiences, getting their attention, connect to them emotionally, and
establish credibility. Research has shown that the key to effective persuasion is the
credibility of the source/sender. A sender or source of the message with strong
credibility is more effective in changing the beliefs and attitudes of others. Someone
who is considered an expert in a specific subject will be taken more seriously than
someone who has little knowledge about the subject. Credibility is supported by two
characteristics: expertise and trustworthiness. The character of the message can also
affect how persuasive the communication is. David Kipnis and Stuart Schmidt (1985)
argued that although we think persuasive messages as involving rationality and
objectivity, there are also emotional elements that enter into the process of persuasion.
These elements can be addressed through either a “soft-sell” approach (flattery, praise,
acting humble, and so on when they want something (e.g. time off) from other person
especially from supervisor or “hard sell “approach (more rational, hard tactics). Tactics
being used depend on the relative power positions of those involved. People use
different approaches based on their expectations for the success about whether they
will be successful.
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When they believe that their requests will be granted, they use softer tactics but when
they anticipate resistance (and when they have power), hard tactics is being used. The
use of hard tactics might indicate a lack of confidence or low self-esteem on the part of
the persons involved such that believing that others will not listen unless they are
treated harshly, an assumption that often self-defeating. Finally, the effectiveness of an
effort at persuasion is also affected by characteristics of the receiver. People have a
range of acceptance within which they are willing to entertain beliefs or attitudes
different from their own.
F. PRACTICE ACTIVE LISTENING
Listening is the most important communication skill because it consumes more time
than the other aspect of communication. Despite the obvious benefits of listening
effectively, it has been called the “neglected skill” of management because it is least
practiced and least understood. Active listening requires the listener to fully
concentrate, understand, respond and then remember the message what is being said
by the sender rather than just passively hearing the message. It involves in paying
attention not only to the words being said by the sender but also to the emotional tone
accompanying non-verbal cues being transmitted. It is advantageous to have trainings
in practicing active listening. Through trainings, you will learn new techniques and by
consciously practicing these techniques from day to day can certainly improve your
listening capacity by being conscious of the barriers to effective communication.
TEN KEY PRINCIPLES TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING
1.Find an area of interest. – To listen effectively, you must find a reason or purpose for
listening. It will help you to focus and increase your motivation to listen well.
2.Judge content, not delivery. – try to listen with empathetic understanding which
means understanding the person rather than about the person. Do not judge or jump
into conclusion about the person immediately. Listen to first to the message to be
transmitted. Do not get caught up immediately in the sender’s personality,
mannerisms, clothing, or speaking voice, but instead, try to learn what the speaker
knows.
3.Hold your fire. – wait for your turn before responding. The “response” principle
suggests that instead of interrupting the person who is talking, you relax and wait for
the natural opportunity to speak or respond instead of jumping into the conversation
immediately. When you are overly eager to respond directly, it will stop you from
concentrating on what the other person is saying. Try to go with the flow with the
conversation as an event rather than disrupting it by speaking prematurely.
4.Listen to ideas. – Don’t get bogged down in all the facts and details but instead focus
on the central ideas. This principle suggests that listening for the main ideas of the
message is more important than listening to specific facts. By understanding the major
themes of the message, it will give you a framework for organizing the facts and it is
also easier to remember.
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5.Rephrase or restate what you listen to in your own words. – This is a key
principle of active listening in which you restate or paraphrase what you
understand the other person have said before making your own contribution. By
restating the other person’s message without evaluation, you are entering into
the person’s frame of reference. If your understanding of the message is
inconsistent with the other person’s intended meaning, then he or she will have a
chance to try to clarify the meaning of the message.
6.Resist distraction- Distractions are part of the environment, but these
distractions can be resisted by increasing your concentration during the
communication process. This principle is especially important as people from
different cultures or different countries are brought together in work situations.
7.Exercise your mind. - some people tune out when the material gets difficult that
is why there is a need to develop appetite for a good mental challenge.
8.Keep your mind open. – People get overly emotional when hearing words
referring to their most deeply held convictions. Keep your mind open and try not
to let your emotions interfere with your comprehension.
9.Capitalized on thought speed. – taking the advantage of the fact that people
talk at a rate of about 125 words per minute and most of us think at about four
times that rate. Use those extra 400 words per minute to think about what the
sender is saying rather than turning your thoughts to something else.
10.Work at listening. – do not pretend that you are paying attention to the one
who is talking. Show interest. Although listening is hard work but the benefits
outweigh the costs.
G.PAY ATTENTION TO NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication also known as body language sends messages that
are every bit is as important as those messages being transmitted orally or in
writing. Any movement of your body can communicate something and may do so
more honestly than your spoken words. For someone who is good at reading
body language receives a more complete message than someone who is not that
is why it is important to be aware of your own nonverbal messages either
intentional or unintentional. It is also important to develop your ability to read and
understand others’ nonverbal cues.
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EXAMPLES OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
1.Oculesics – facial expressions and eye contact. The human face is extremely
expressive and can convey countless emotions without even saying a word.
2.Kinesics – this refers to body language that includes your posture, bearing, stance,
and the subtle movements that you make.
3.Paralinguistic- it is the variations in the way we speak. The tone of voice or pitch,
expression, or rate of speed have an effect on our credibility. We respond more
positively when someone speaks in a clear and confident tone and at moderate speed.
4.Proxemics – the use of space and distance between people. The type of relationship
we have with others determines to what extent we let them invade on our personal
space. According to Edward Hall (1966), the intimate zone extends out almost 2 feet
(reserved for close family and friends), personal zone goes out 4 feet (accessible to
other friends and more distant family members), social distance extends 7 to 12 feet
(more social interaction takes place), and lastly the public distance is somewhere 12
and 30 feet (the distance we tend to maintain in the presence of public figures). If you
stand too close, you might be considered rude or intrusive and if you stand too far
away, you might be considered distant or shy.
5.Tactiles – touching behaviors are also important part of communication process but
the social and cultural rules governing when touching is considered appropriate are
extremely complex. The basic meaning of ouch is that an interpersonal bond or
relationship is being offered or established. However, touch also carries the implication
of invasion of privacy, warmth, and can also express dominance. Generally, touching
clearly permitted and even encourage in any events like hand shaking and greetings. If
touch implies sexual intimacy, it is entirely inappropriate in the workplace and may lead
to charges of sexual harassment.
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Specialized Forms of Communication
There are several specialized forms of communication especially important for those
working in the public or nonprofit sectors. In this section, we review several of these:
information and communication technology, personal coaching and counseling, helping
relationships, dialogue, conducting effective meetings, and writing memos, reports, and
proposals.
A. Information and Communication Technology

Obviously, emerging technology and electronic communications have dramatically
affected communication in public and nonprofit organizations (as elsewhere). Technology
has had an enormous role in changing how we communicate and interact in
organizations. Electronic mail (e-mail), instant messaging, voice mail, facsimile (fax),
computer conferencing, audio- and videoconferencing, management information
systems, group decisions support systems, local and wide-area networks, social media,
and the Internet revolutionized organizational communication.
While the positive aspects of these changes include increased transparency,
responsiveness, and agility, there are, however, several questions that have been raised
about how these technologies can negatively affect human communication in
organizations. These questions arose over 30 years ago. For example, in 1988, Sandra O ’C
onnell (pp. 480–481) developed the following six hypotheses about the influence of
electronic technology on communication in organizations (we return to these in an
exercise at the end of this chapter):
1.Opportunities for face-to-face contact will be diminished, and information from
nonverbal cues will be reduced. Consequently, opportunities for random spontaneous
information sharing will be reduced.
2.More informal messages and “short-circuiting of the hierarchy” will occur. Organization
structure and formal information flow will be redefined.
3. Messages of affect and value will decrease. Ambiguity in interpreting information will
increase.
Managers will have to seek new ways of communicating the affective component of
messages.
4. Trust develops with shared experience, values, give-and-take, and the result of human
communication. Satellites, electronic mail, and networks could reduce the dimensions of
trust to which we are accustomed.
5. The computer imposes a discipline of linear thinking. Organizations will need to find
ways to encourage and protect nonlinear thinking and communicating.
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6. Expectations of work performance may be machine driven. Employees in some
organizations will perceive this as dehumanizing and coercive.
B. Coaching and Personal Counseling

Occasionally, you might find it necessary to discuss work problems with individual
employees. You might notice a decrease in an employee’s performance or productivity.
The employee might be in violation of a rule or policy. There might be conflict with other
employees. Or you might just suspect that personal problems are negatively affecting the
employee’s work. The primary purpose of coaching and counseling is to address work-
related issues at an early stage so as to prevent their growing and further affecting the
work of the organization. While coaching typically is focused on work-related behaviors
and can occur over a longer period of time, counseling may involve assisting an
employee in addressing outside problems that might be affecting his or her work. In any
case, the hope is that through counseling the employee’s behavior will be changed so
that he or she once again becomes a productive member of the organization. There can
be several objectives of coaching or counseling:
(a) to correct performance problems before they escalate,
(b) to motivate employees toward more effective performance,
(c) to provide guidance in areas such as career counseling and retirement planning, and
(d) to provide assistance or, better yet, referrals to employees who reveal personal
concerns affecting their work.
Importantly, coaching or counseling should address problems as early as possible.

“Employee counseling should be considered primarily preventive in nature. Its primary
purpose is to identify and correct problems before they reach crisis proportions and
require possible drastic action” (McConnell, 1997, p. 82).
C. Helping Relationships
The dynamics of helping relationships have been explored in great detail by Edgar
Schein in his book Helping (2009). A helping relationship can be informal (as when we
seek help from a friend, a spouse, or a coworker), semiformal (as when we go to a
computer consultant), or formal (as when we hire a management consultant), but all of
these involvements bear certain features in common. Most important, helping involves a
relationship between people, and that relationship must be understood for effective
helping to occur.
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Initially, the helping relationship must be based on conditions of mutual trust. Schein
(2009) explains:
Trusting another person means, in this context, that no matter what we choose to reveal
about our thoughts, feelings, or intentions, the other person will not belittle us, make us
look bad, or take advantage of what we have said in confidence. (p. 18)
There are three roles that the helper can choose: “1) A n expert resource who provides
information or services, 2) a doctor who diagnoses and prescribes, and 3) a process
consultant who focuses on building an equitable relationship and clarifies what kind of
help in needed” (Schein, 2009, p. 54). (A process consultant is someone who places
emphasis not just on what is happening but how it is happening, an emphasis on
communications and social dynamics.) Schein argued that we have somewhat
“overlearned” the first two roles and may be drawn to them too quickly. But the third,
process consultation, opens greater possibilities for building trust and, in turn, effective
relationships that will be valuable and indeed satisfying to both parties (p. 54).
D. The Power of Dialogue

A great deal of attention has been given to the idea of dialogue as a special case of
group and intergroup communications. Dialogic processes have been tried in a variety
of settings, from schools to businesses to public and nonprofit organizations. Dialogue
has examined natural resources issues, development assistance, border concerns,
multiethnic conflicts, and community development plans, among other topics.
While there are many ways in which dialogues can be structured, ranging from small to
very large groups, from situations that are strictly conversational to those mediated by
technology, there are some typical patterns to dialogues (Schoem, Sevis, C hester, &
Sumida, 2001, pp. 6–14):
1.Dialogue is a process, not an event.
2.Dialogue is about relationship building and thoughtful engagement about difficult
issues.
3.Dialogue requires an extensive commitment.
4.Dialogue takes place face-to-face.
5.Dialogue takes place best in an atmosphere of confidentiality, and issues of
sponsorship and context are important to its success.
6.Dialogues often focus on race, but they also address multiple issues of social identity
that extend beyond race.
7.Dialogue focuses on both intergroup conflict and community building.
8.Dialogue is led by a skilled facilitator.
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9.Dialogue is about inquiry and understanding and the integration of content and
process.
10.Dialogue involves talking, but taking actions often leads to good talking, and
dialogue often leads to action.
E. Conducting Effective Meetings

Meetings have developed an awful reputation. People see most meetings as dragging
on endlessly and accomplishing little (if anything). By some recent estimates,
managers spend nearly 23 hours in meetings each week and the average employee
spends six hours in meetings per week (Rogelberg, Scott, & K ello, 2007). Fortunately,
meetings can be productive, or even inspiring, although it takes a person with great
skills to move a group successfully through the many pitfalls of “meeting behavior.” It
helps, at the outset, to have a good idea of what meetings are all about.
There are some specific steps that you can take to make a meeting both more
productive and more meaningful. First, you should decide whether the meeting is
even necessary. If a memo or an e-mail would accomplish the same or better results,
then you should choose one of those avenues. Second, if you decide to hold the
meeting, then develop a clear purpose for the meeting and communicate that purpose
to those who will attend. Keep the purpose of the meeting clear and do not try to
accomplish more than should be expected in the time allocated for the meeting. Keep
the meeting focused on a few key objectives and be clear in advance about how long
the meeting will take or, better yet, exactly when it will end. Third, develop an agenda,
seeking suggestions from others about what should be on the agenda. (Sometimes it
is helpful to rank items in terms of importance so that you are sure you will have time
for the most important items.) Distribute the agenda in advance so that participants
can think about the topics, form their own ideas, and prepare for any material they will
be expected to present or comment on. Be clear with individuals about what they will
be expected to bring to the meeting or to do in the meeting.
F. Writing Memos, Reports, and Proposals

Public administrators and nonprofit executives often are called on to produce memos,
reports, and other forms of written communication ranging from proposals to
personnel evaluations. You might be called on to develop a written analysis of a policy
proposal. You might be asked to write a grant proposal. Or you might be asked to
develop a lengthy memo laying out the circumstances under which an employee
received disciplinary action.
In any of these cases, your ability to write clearly and communicate effectively will be
tested.
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Effective writing takes years of study and practice, but there are numerous guidelines
that you can follow to improve your writing. For example, L yle Sussman and Samuel D
eep (1984) offered six rules for effective managerial writing, what they called the “six C
s.” T he six C s provide a useful way of organizing our discussion of guidelines for good
writing.
1.Clarity. To be clear, you must put yourself in the reader’s position. Write in the active
voice (e.g., “D ave painted the house”) rather than the passive voice (e.g., “T he house
was painted by D ave”), and use the positive form rather than the negative form (e.g.,
“Lucy is happy” rather than, “L ucy isn’t sad”). A void jargon, and use simple words
wherever possible.
2.Courtesy. Courtesy involves knowing your readers, adapting to their mood, and
writing at their level, providing neither too much nor too little information.
3.Conciseness. This is the rule of brevity; be short and to the point.
4.Confidence. lways write with confidence. Confidence really is a matter of judgment
on the writer’s part, based on the writer’s knowledge of his or her readers.
5.Correctness. You must be correct in grammar and composition—the technical rules
of writing that include spelling and punctuation. Inaccurate spelling is especially
conspicuous. Proofread carefully for proper spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
6.Conversational tone. To achieve a conversational tone, try to write in the same way
as you talk, and try to imagine one specific person to whom you are writing.
You also should be attentive to creating a neat and orderly final product. No matter
how well your report or proposal is written, if it is presented in a sloppy manner, then it
will not communicate effectively.
Exploring Diversity and Intercultural Communication

One of the clear trends in today’s public and nonprofit organizations is the increasing
diversity of the workplace. The emergence of a global society augments that trend,
and the capacity for cross-cultural communication is greater than ever. In this section,
we explore both of these trends and then suggest some ways in which individuals can
become more culturally aware and organizations can more effectively serve people
from different cultural backgrounds (see stlund, 2003; Konrad, Prasad, & Pringle, 2006;
Mor Barak, 2005).
Learning Cultural Awareness
As public administrators and nonprofit leaders, we will need to interact effectively with
people from many different backgrounds, places, and orientations and do so in a
manner that respects their cultures as well as our own. This will require learning and
unlearning. We are experiencing the effects of globalization as we have greater and
more significant interactions with people from all around the world. The global
economy, as well as the increasing interdependencies among nations with respect to
issues such as environmental quality, means that public and nonprofit administrators
increasingly engage with those from other cultures. In so doing, they need to be
sensitive to the important cultural differences among nations.
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Increasing Cultural Competence
Public and nonprofit managers are engaging with people from many different cultures
and backgrounds, both inside and outside of their organizations. In so doing, these
managers are recognizing that they need to make important adjustments in their
normal way of doing things so as to operate effectively in a cross-cultural context. The
capacity for doing so sometimes is called cultural competence, a “set of congruent
behaviors, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system, [in an] agency, or
among professionals and enable that system, [that] agency, or those professionals to
work effectively in cross-cultural situations” (C ross, Bazron, Dennis, & Isaacs, 1989, p.
13). Moving to cultural competence is hard, emotional work that involves shifts in
awareness and attitudes as well as the development of new skills. Cross and
colleagues identified the following five basic skill areas necessary for effective cross-
cultural service delivery.
Characteristics of Ethnocentrism Versus Ethnorelativism
1. Awareness and Acceptance of Differences.

Cultural differences exist in values, styles of communication, the perception of time,
the meaning of health, community, and so on, and managers must become aware of
those differences. But equally critical is to be accepting of those differences (Diller,
1999). It is no surprise that cultural values that are at odds with our own will be the
most difficult to accept.
2. Self-Awareness and Implicit Bias.

It is necessary to be in touch with one’s own culture to appreciate the impact of culture
on the lives of others. Culture is the glue that gives shape to life experience, promoting
certain values and experiences as optimal and defining what is possible (Diller, 1999,
p. 14).
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Yet according to Cross (1988), many people never acknowledge how their day-to-day
behaviors have been shaped by cultural norms and values and reinforced by families,
peers, and social institutions. How one defines family, identifies desirable life goals,
views problems, and even says hello are all influenced by the culture in which one
functions (p. 2).
3. Dynamics of Differences.
This notion requires knowing what can go wrong in cross-cultural communication and
how to get it right. Cultural miscommunication has two general sources. The first is
related to past experiences that we have had with members of a group or the nature of
current political relations between the two groups. The second involves differences in
cultural style. The latter may be illustrated by the example of the professor who
interprets direct eye contact as a sign of respect when, in fact, the student might be
from a culture that teaches its members to avert eye contact as a sign of deference.
4. Knowledge of the Client’s Culture.
Interpreting the behavior of someone who is culturally different without considering
cultural context is fraught with danger, as is demonstrated by the following incident:
Several years ago, during a period of particularly heavy immigration from Southeast A
sia, C hildren’s Protective Services received a rash of abuse reports on Vietnamese
parents whose children had come to school with red marks all over their bodies. A bit
of cultural detective work quickly turned up the fact that the children had been given
an ancient remedy for colds called “cupping,” which involves placing heated glass
cups on the skin, leaving harmless red marks for about a day. The resulting fallout was
a group of irate Vietnamese parents, always hyperattentive to the needs of their
children, deeply insulted by accusations of bad parenting. A nd several workers feeling
rather foolish about their cultural ignorance. (D iller, 1999, pp. 15–16)
Tracy Novinger (2001) suggested that we be attentive to (a) differences in perception,
(b) differences in verbal behavior, and (c) differences in nonverbal behavior.
Perceptions might include broad cultural considerations (see Figure 9.7) and personal
traits specific to a given culture—for example, one’s adaptability or attitudes toward
uncertainty. Verbal processes might include one’s accent, cadence, or use or tolerance
of silence. Nonverbal processes might include eye contact, appearance, or attitudes
toward interpersonal space (pp. 23– 24).
5. Adaptation of Skills.
The final skill area involves adapting and adjusting generic service practices that, in
reality, have their roots in the dominant cultural paradigm. For example, the definition
of a family member can vary greatly from culture to culture. A frican A mericans might
include multiple generations as well as nonbiological family members, such as good
friends and neighbors, as members of their families. A s organizations hold functions
for employees and “their families,” adjustments may be made to accommodate the
expanded group.
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Dimensions of National Cultures
Racial and Gender Diversity

Despite continuing efforts to bring women and minorities into the mainstream of
American life, there obviously remain many vestiges of previous discrimination in
employment and promotion, making communications more difficult. In addition, there
are more subtle practices that exacerbate the situation. For example, women and
minorities are often not exposed to the type of positions or experiences that are
essential to achieving high-level leadership. Women and minorities may not be
encouraged to take on international assignments or are kept in staff rather than line
positions and therefore may lack essential operational experience. Finally, subtle social
and organizational culture factors, such as going to lunch with the “right” group,
playing sports, being members of certain clubs, and exclusion from informal socializing
and the “good old boys” network, can contribute to the lack of proportional
representation of women and minorities in leadership ranks. The common theme in all
these situations is the presence of invisible barriers that discriminate against women
and minorities based on their group membership and prevent them from achieving
their full potential.
A much-publicized article titled “Why Women Still Can’t Have It All” (Slaughter, 2012)
reignited the debate over whether women can achieve the same success as men and
how they can balance their personal and work life. In the article, Anne Marie Slaughter,
dean of Princeton University’s Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International
Affairs, who quit her job as director of policy planning in the U.S. State Department,
said the following:
I still strongly believe that women can “have it all” (and that men can too). I believe that
we can “have it all at the same time.” But not today, not with the way A merica’s
economy and society are currently structured. (para. 8)
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While many disagree with her assertions, there is strong consensus that women, like
minorities, face challenges in the workplace. Among these are the following:
1.Work–Life Balance.
In spite of the fact that women have a strong presence in organizations, including in
managerial positions, traditional gender views and stereotypes continue to create
obstacles to their success in organizations. Cinta Putra, C E O of National Notification
Network, believes this: “The greatest challenge has been balancing all the demands of
being a woman, a parent, a wife, a sister, a daughter, a friend, and a C E O ” (as quoted
in Bisoux, 2008, p. 19).
2.Stereotypes and Discrimination.
While there may be some differences in management and leadership styles between
men and women, such differences, if anything, should help women rather than hurt
them. Women have been found to be more cooperative, team oriented, and change
oriented. Many management scholars believe that the success of the new economy
depends on the collaborative style that women leaders use instead of the command-
and-control style that male leaders have traditionally used. That leaves one major
explanation for the challenges women face: Both men and women continue to hold
traditional stereotypes about what roles women should and can play in organizations.
Generational Diversity
The U.S. workforce is shaped like an hourglass, with the largest percentage of the
population being older baby boomers (born between the late 1940s and the 1960s) at
the top and the millennial generation (born after the mid-1980s) at the bottom, with the
generation Xers (born between the 1970s and 1980s) pinched in the middle (Zolli,
2006). This hourglass has considerable implications for managers and the way they
communicate. Older employees and managers have values regarding work that may
differ from those of younger people joining the workforce.
Some researchers suggest that “at no previous time in our history have so many in
such different generations with such diversity been asked to work together shoulder to
shoulder, side by side, cubicle to cubicle” (Z emke, Raines, & Filipczak, 2000, pp. 9–10).
Meanwhile, 70% of older employees are dismissive of younger workers’ abilities, while
50% of younger employees are dismissive of the abilities of their older coworkers (E
spinoza, Ukleja, & Rusch, 2010).
Midcareer workers find themselves in a career bottleneck in which too many people
are competing for too few positions, especially positions of leadership. They also find
themselves sandwiched between children and parents, often at the same time that
clear work responsibilities are heaviest.
In conclusion, greater sensitivity to the multitude of cultural differences is increasingly
important to those in public and nonprofit organizations. Not only are the workforce
trends such that this issue cannot be ignored, but greater cultural (and other forms of)
diversity enhances the productivity and achievements of the group.
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We have learned that, once again, we must begin with self-awareness. We must
learn about our own culture/s and how our culture/s influence us before we can
attempt to learn about someone else’s culture/s. A s a public or nonprofit manager,
you will have opportunities to improve the working conditions and living
conditions of all, regardless of sex, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or cultural
heritage.
Ways of Acting
We have discussed a variety of approaches to communicating more effectively.
But remember that understanding communication skills and putting them into
practice are two different things. It is easy enough to learn the skills of effective
communication intellectually, but under the pressures of the moment in the “real
world,” it also is easy to revert to old and less effective communication techniques.
A s in many areas of organizational behavior, it is not just what you know that
counts but also what you can do. In any case, the following guidelines might be
helpful as you seek to improve your communication skills.
1.Remember that effective communication involves creating meaning, transmitting
meaning, and deciphering meaning.
2.Recognize the many barriers that inhibit effective communication.
3.Practice supportive communication.
4.When speaking, consider your audience and make sure that your content, tone,
and approach fit the situation.
5.When you wish to persuade someone to accept your position, consider your
credibility and work to improve it.
6.Listen, listen, listen!
7.Remember that body language communicates as much as, or more than, what
we say.
8.Take advantage of electronic communication, but use electronic channels only
when they are appropriate
9.In specialized forms of communication, always consider the receiver or audience
and the norms and expectations embedded in the situation.
10.Remember to consider the ethics of communication.
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WORKING IN GROUPS AND TEAMS
Overview
Groups differ from teams. A group consists of two or more individuals who interact with each other
to accomplish a common goal, while teams are mature groups who have meaningful purpose,
specific performance goals, common approaches, complementary skills, and mutual accountability
to work (Smith and Katzenbach, 1993). A team may start out as groups, but not all groups become
teams. Teams and groups may share a common characteristic— they can be formed when two or
more individuals interact, but they differ a lot especially in terms of its effectiveness. The growing
popularity of teams is a demonstration of the quality of work that a team does to an organization.
That is why more and more organizations have shifted to team-based approach. However, we
cannot deny the fact that despite the growth rate in the number of teams over the years, the
individualistic culture is still present in some organizations. The perception of individual efficacy for
Americans, for example, seems to be higher than being in a team. Workplace becomes more
diverse, employees in an organization may have different ethnicity, value, race, and cultural
backgrounds, therefore, the idea of individualism for some, is a challenge for implementing a team.
Furthermore, studies show how problems are solved if engaged in a team.
VALUE OF TEAMS.
For several reasons, teams are more effective than individuals, one of which is because they
produce a greater number of ideas than individuals acting alone which is significant in decision-
making and problem solving. Teams have more understanding and acceptance among individuals
involved in problem solving and decision-making due to the participation of each team member in
the process. The idea of teams having higher levels of motivation than individuals is consistent to
social facilitation, in which individuals are likely to perform better when they’re in the presence of
other people. Teams also set aside personal biases that prevents effective problem analysis and
also, members of a team are risk-takers and innovators. Another reason why teams are more
effective is because of the creativity and the positive synergy that the team members create.
TYPES OF TEAMS.
Before organizations implement teams, it’s important to know what type of team to implement. The
authors provided six different types of teams – Top management teams, project teams, cross-
functional teams, process improvement teams, self-directed work teams and virtual teams. For top
management teams, as these members have the highest organizational management levels, they
are responsible for establishing the overall mission of the organization and for selecting the overall
management system. Another type of team is the project teams, they are formed by the
management for a specific mission. Members have individual expertise and experience; their skills
complement towards achieving a goal. As opposed to process teams that do not have deadlines,
project teams work within a specified timeframe.
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Moreover, project team’s role is to advise, and not to implement. For the third type of team,
which is the cross-functional team, they are created to break down the barriers that exist in
hierarchical organization, members come from several division to exchange information,
develop ideas, solve problems and coordinate complex projects. The fourth type of team, the
process improvement team is basically formed to improve organizational processes. They
may improve some of the processes in government agencies such as job placement,
financial reporting, records management and so on. In my case, I became a part of the
Records Management Improvement Committee in my organization, and I can see our team
as a process improvement team since our main function is to improve and have a systematic
records management program in all phases of records management. For self-directed work
teams, any of those previously mentioned teams can also function as a self-directed team.
Team members within this group solve problems and implement solutions. They decide on
how and when work is going to be done since they are permitted to perform certain activities
based on procedures established. Because of its nature as a problem-solver and an
implementor, self-directed work teams got the misconception that they do not need leaders.
It is mistakenly assumed that leaders and managers are no longer required, however, the
need for a leader on this type of team is necessary to serve as a “coach or facilitator”. Another
misconception is that leaders lose power to teams. However, they are not supposed to feel
power struggle because they can still exercise their power as leaders even if the team is self-
directed, turning their power outward and use it to break barriers in the organization helps
the team to be effective. Third misconception is that newly formed teams are automatically
self-directing. As we have learned, team development is a process that takes time and effort,
describing new teams as self-directed might create unrealistic expectations. The fourth
misconception is that employees are waiting for the opportunity to be empowered however,
not everyone welcomes the empowering effect of self-directed teams. Last misconception is
that when employees are grouped in a team structure, they will function as a team, and the
organization will reap the benefit of teamwork. Unfortunately, it doesn’t happen this way.
Groups go through some developmental process to begin to function as teams. Team
members need training and development in such areas as group problem solving, goal
setting and conflict resolution. The last type of team, which is the only type of team who does
not do work face-to-face— Virtual teams. This team relies mainly on interactive technology as
they work together to achieve a common goal. They communicate online via video
conferencing which happen to be a mainstream nowadays during this time of pandemic.
Example would be teams conducting meetings virtually in order to discuss and collaborate
with the ideas. Members are still connected to work together as a team despite being
physically dispersed. To somehow minimize virtual conflicts, it is important to practice social
interaction within the team. It helps strengthening the social bond, it serves as a platform for
employees to vent out negative thoughts and to make them more motivated and satisfied.
We must socialize within a virtual team as much as we do in face to-face meetings, it helps
build beneficial relationships.
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IMPLEMENTING TEAM CONCEPTS.
Having been able to define work teams, know their characteristics and its types,
implementing the team concept in an organization would require careful planning, as
what have been mentioned earlier, the need for creating teams must be clearly
established, consider the long-term goals that they wish to achieve and carefully
determine the role and importance of teams in an organization.
Team Effectiveness
Successfully implementing a team requires certain elements, namely, and in no
particular order, focusing on the larger organization, obtaining buy-in at all levels,
developing a solid team structure, establishing ground rules, and fostering team
bonding (Magee, 1997). Aside from those essentials, a self-managing team’s success
greatly depends on its leader. Leaders who struggle with their role were seen to apply
too much control on the team and lessen the effectiveness of the team to do its task
(Urch Druskat & Wheeler, 2007).
There are also other elements which pose a great influence on a team’s effectiveness.
These include the structure and size of the team, the length at which the team is
expected to last, team diversity and training of team members.
The first factor mentioned is the structure of the team. It is to be noted that no particular
structure is better than the other. For the achievement of a defined objective the
appropriate structure fitting to the team should be identified.
The size of the team is also an element to be considered. Depending on the need, a
team can either be too few or too many membership-wise. If inappropriately assessed, a
small team may be inadequate to consider all angles of a problem, while a team which is
too large has the tendency to be unmanageable and unproductive. Wheelan’s (2009)
recommends 3 to 6 members in a group since this number provides greater probability
of reaching the higher phases of group development and productiveness.
Another element is the duration of the team. A team can be temporary or permanent.
Regardless of its life expectancy, how long the team is expected to last is crucial in
calculating the amount of time and energy that are to be committed by the organization
in team development.
Team diversity and how those differences are being managed influences the
effectiveness of a team as well. When utilized well, diversity has the possibility to set into
motion the creative power of the team and makes certain that there is sufficient
representation of all members.
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Gardenswartz and Rowe (1994) advocated four layers for probing the diversity that
individuals contribute to the team. Personality is considered the first layer, which
saturates the other layers. The succeeding layer is internal dimensions which includes
age, gender, sexual orientation, physical ability, ethnicity, and race. The next layer is
external dimensions which correspond to geographic location, income, personal
habits, recreational habits, religion, educational background, work experience,
appearance, and parental and marital status.
Finally, the last layer is organizational dimensions which refer to functional

level/classification, work content/field/division/department/unit/group, seniority, work
location, union affiliation, and management status.
The next influence to team effectiveness is emotional intelligence. It pertains to
awareness of one’s own and other people’s emotions. It also includes being able to
manage emotions both personally and in others.
Training of team members also influences team effectiveness. There are three
categories of training put forward by Richard Wellins and fellow researchers (1991):
(1) job skills - technical knowledge and skills necessary for team members to succeed
in the job,
(2) team/interactive skills - interpersonal and communication skills which are
indispensable for team members to be fruitful in their functions, and
(3) quality/action skills – imperative for identifying problems and providing
improvements.
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Building a Shared Mindset
Transparent leadership is the most effective way to build a shared mindset.
At an individual level, leaders should check with the individual members of their team by
extending the following questions (https://www.fingerprintforsuccess.com/blog/team-
effectiveness):
·What do you like about this work?
·What don’t you like?
·How do you think it’s changed recently?
·Is that good or bad?
·How are you being supported?
·Where are you not being supported?
·How could the team align more?
D. Kinlaw (1992) proposes four characteristics used to rate team development, team
results, informal process, positive team feelings and leadership, i.e., team results –
superior teams are productive and achievement or goal-oriented, informal process -
superior teams are successful in communication and contacting, responding and
adapting, influencing and improving, and appreciating and celebrating, positive team
feelings - members of superior teams share feelings of inclusion, commitment, loyalty,
pride, and trust; and leadership - leaders of superior teams are initiator (propose
procedures, tasks, goals, or actions), model (model appropriate behavior for team
members) , and coach (provide training and encouragement).
Measuring Team Effectiveness

There are eight dimensions of critical importance for the performance of teams, namely
1. Encouraging risk taking among members
2. Interacting as equals and sharing leadership
3. Using verbal and nonverbal listening skills
4. Adhering to the mission, vision and values of the division
5. Engaging in team building or the development of the team
6. Using formal decision-making and consensus building
7. Using formal conflict resolution; and
8. Holding team members accountable or responsible
It is good to note that the most successful teams have a high level of trust and
commitment.
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4 Stages of Team Development
Bruce Tuckman (1965) suggests four stages in team development.
1. The Forming Stage
This is the phase wherein a sense of security and direction is being established
among team members. The group is getting acquainted with the new dynamics
involved and each individual tries to become comfortable with the new situation, and
even with the new faces he is going to be working with.
2.The Storming Stage

In this phase, the team learns to cope with conflict which results from personality
differences and the unique ways the members attack a problem. Due to the
differences in a lot of areas, evidently disruptions will occur as well.
3.The Norming Stage

Once the members have settled in and appreciate their differences, they become
unified. In this phase, roles that each member could play are identified.
4.The Performing Stage

When the team has arrived in this stage, they are already able to function as highly
effective and efficient unit.
Team Conflict
Teams which are composed of high-performing individuals are evidently subject to
contradictory tensions, such as cooperation and rivalry, trust and vigilance.
Rather than wishing these tensions to go away, the potential source of conflict needs
identified so that it could be understood and resolved.
Intrapersonal, or conflict from within oneself
For example, a team member is not certain that he is in the right job or a groupmate is
not that participative in providing solutions to the task assigned to the group.
Interpersonal, or conflicts that occur between two or more people on the team
An example would be a group six people of which only five are working hard to
collect data. One fails to do his share and as a result the number of samples is greatly
reduced.
Structural, or conflicts that are innate to the organizational structure or the work
For instance, a team in a school is instructed not to bother with curriculum issues
since that should be handled in the district level.
Values/beliefs, or differences attached to deep-seated emotions
An example is a member valuing the essence of collectivism in achieving goals and
he is very vocal about this as foundation for his problem-solving style. However, the
other members do not really consider the good of the whole group more valuable
than the good of the individual.
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Personality, or differences in style and behavior. For instance, most group members
value being on time in the delivery of results, yet, one member considers being on
time as mere suggestion.
Perceptions, or differences in view/perspective of the situation/issue Team members
attribute lack of time as the reason for a project being delayed, but the leader thinks
otherwise and considers the lack of commitment from the members as cause for
delay.
Work methods, or disagreements about solving problems
For example, there are members who consider that the best method to problem solving
is systematic. However, others consider solution to problems as mere products of
intuition.
How to Deal With Conflict in a Team

In her blog, Resolving team conflict: tips for how to deal with it effectively
(https://betteruporigin.ingeniuxondemand.com/en-us/resources/blog/team-conflict), N.
Moberly suggests seven ways to manage conflict productively and create positive
change
1. Spot the signs of group conflict
Learn to spot the early signs of conflict and address it as it occurs.
In this way, long-term impact on productivity will be prevented.
2. Speak to team members individually
Leaders should not take sides. However, options for resolution by the team members
should be opened up along with encouraging them to discover common ground.
3. Focus on relationships
Relationship with colleagues is the key to ongoing collaboration and productivity.
4. Create a plan
The team leader should design a plan to resolve the conflict, even if it requires
compromise from team members.
5. Follow up
Follow up with those involved in the conflict situation. After that, notice an improvement
in the team dynamics once a conflict has been resolved
6.Invest in skill-building
Skills to effectively navigate and manage conflict can be learned by anyone. Emphasis
should be on training programs reinforced with leadership coaching
7. Avoid it in the first place
Conflicts should be avoided in the first place. A culture of expectation can be a powerful
tool to support healthy ways of dealing with team conflict.
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MANAGING CONFLICTS
Overview
In this section, we review some strategies for conflict resolution and discuss the skills necessary
to turn strategies into action. We begin by reemphasizing the importance of viewing conflict as a
natural part of life for individuals and organizations. Conflict, when properly managed, can
provide an opportunity for positive change. But remember that understanding someone else’s
point of view requires time, patience, compassion, and skills in negotiation and conflict
resolution.
Conflict arises whenever individuals have different values, opinions, needs, interests and are
unable to find a middle way. No two individuals can think alike and there is definitely a difference
in their thought process as well as their understanding. Disagreements among individuals lead to
conflicts and fights.
Conflict is defined as a confrontation between people caused by differences in their mental
processes, attitudes, understanding, interests, requirements, and even perceptions. A conflict
results in heated arguments, physical abuses and definitely loss of peace and harmony. A conflict
can actually change relationships. Friends can become foes as a result of conflict.
Conflict Management is an important part of any relationship, any group, or any organization.
You may experience conflict with a friend, a classmate, a coworker, a supervisor, or a
subordinate.
Conflict may be about personal preferences, political preferences, or organizational policies and
procedures. Conflict may exist mostly beneath the surface, but it can also emerge - often at
inopportune times - and, on rare occasions, latent conflict can explode into pure nastiness.
This process may be used by individuals seeking to resolve problems or by mediators assisting
others. The process requires that at least one person have the necessary skills to execute each
step. This person may serve as a model and teacher and help others to attain the same skills. In
addition, we suggest the following:
1. Air all viewpoints. Each party should have uninterrupted time to describe the problem. This
might involve some history, but the goal of the process should be to maintain a future-
oriented view. While the first party is speaking, the other party is playing the role of active
listener (see Chapter 9). This requires maintaining good eye contact and body language,
showing respect, and not interrupting.
2. . Clarify the problem and the interests involved. Once all the views have been heard, the
parties may start an “exchange.” Emphasis should be placed on separating the people from
the problem (Strom-Gottfried, 1998) and on formulating a problem statement.
3. Brainstorm solutions. Brainstorming includes four basic rules. First, set a time limit. Second,
no idea is too crazy. Third, everyone participates. Fourth, no one evaluates or comments on
any suggestions during the brainstorming process.
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4. Reach agreement. Once solutions have been agreed on, they should be written down in as
detailed a manner as possible. Questions such as who, what, when, and where should be
included in the agreement. All parties need to understand what they are agreeing to. There also
should be agreement on how the parties will notify each other of problems and how they will
behave if there is another problem.
5. Be aware of your own biases. In addition to the skills and methods just described, you need
to be aware of your biases. You might be biased against certain people and biased in favor of
others. In recognizing your biases, you need to be aware of the assumptions that you make,
often subconsciously, and you need to check these assumptions with the other party before
you act.
Ways of Thinking
• 1940 a fairly harsh and “traditionalist” view of conflict Dominated. During this period,
conflict was viewed as destructive and a result of flaws in individual’s personalities. The role of
the manager was to eliminate conflict in the workplace, usually by punishing the perceived
initiators.
• 1950 the Disciplines of sociology and human relations began to influence the way in which
conflict was perceived. During this period, known as the “behaviorist period” in conflict
resolution, managers began to view organizational conflict as inevitable.
According to Kenneth Thomas,
• (1976) Describing Two Behavioral Dimensions that determine how an individual
approaches conflict.
• First is Assertiveness which is defined as taking action to satisfy one’s own needs and
concerns,
• Second is Cooperativeness, which is defined as taking action to satisfy the other party’s
needs and concerns.
Thomas (1977) went further and presented five approaches that the individual may take
(although we should note that different approaches may be more or less appropriate
depending on the circumstances).
Five Approaches of Thomas
1. Competition-This approach is high on assertiveness and low on cooperation.
2. Collaboration-This approach is high on assertiveness and high on cooperation.
3. Compromise-This approach is characterized by a moderate amount of assertiveness and a
moderate amount of cooperation.
4. Avoidance-This approach is low on assertiveness and low on cooperation.
5. Accommodation-This approach is low on assertiveness but high on cooperation.
Theories of Conflict
• Systems Theory- Systems Theory urges that we understand conflict by looking for patterns,
interlocking sequences, the role and function of the various parties, and typical methods of
processing information.
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• Attribution Theory- Attribution Theory assumes that the way in which people act in
conflict situations is due, in large part, to their individual dispositions and ways of thinking.
In other words, the individual in a conflict plays a major role in determining the direction
that the conflict will take.
• Social Exchange Theory- Social Exchange Theoryconflict will occur most frequently in
relationships that lack personal reward or in those that are characterized by inequity.
Sources of Conflict
1. Personal difference
2. Information deficiencies
3. Role Incompatibility
4. Environmental Stress
5. Perceived Injustice
Types and Levels of Conflict
1. Intrapersonal Conflict
2. Interpersonal Conflict
3. Intragroup Conflict
4. Intergroup Conflict
Diversity and Conflict: In previous research, we find evidence that (a) conflicts continue in
interactions among various demographic groups; (b) policies and procedures promoting a
more diverse workforce continue to generate opposition from traditional employees
(Kidder, Lankau, Chrobot-Mason, Mollica, & Friedman, 2005; Plantenga, 2004); (c) diversity
programs continue to be criticized with perceptions of preferential treatment (Combs &
Nadkarni, 2005; Kravitz & Klineberg, 2000); (d) minorities and women continue to have
lower job involvement and satisfaction (Roberson & Block, 2001); and (e) covert, subtle,
aversive discrimination continues to stigmatize groups (Brief et al., 2002).
The following negative Characteristics
• Lack of respect
• Lack of attention
• Lack of listening
• Lack of power
• Lack of self-awareness
• Lack of social awareness
Stages of Conflict
Frustration- one or both parties believe or perceive that their goals or plans have been
(or will be) interrupted or frustrated in some way.
Conceptualization- This may lead to an emotional reaction, such as anger, hostility,
frustration, pain, or anxiety.
Behavior- This is when a person’s style of conflict resolution—competition,
collaboration, compromise, avoidance, or accommodation—will be exhibited
Outcome- Positive or Negative
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Stage 1: Hardening
• The first stage of conflict escalation develops when a difference over some issue or
frustration in a relationship proves to be difficult to resolve.
Stage 2: Debates and Polemics
• Discussions tend to develop into verbal confrontations. The dispute no longer is confined
to a well-defined issue, and the parties start to believe that their general well-being is at stake.
Attention is now diverted to appearances; parties are interested in being perceived as
successful, strong, and skillful rather than compliant, insecure, and incompetent.
Stage 3: Action Rather Than Words
• Common interests and the prospect of resuming cooperation recede into the background,
and each party views the other as a competitor. The most important goal now becomes to
gain one’s own interests.
Stage 4: Images and Coalition
• The conflict no longer is about concrete issues; instead, it is about victory or defeat and
defending one’s reputation.
Stage 5: Loss of Face
• The transition to this stage is particularly dramatic, as the basic status of a person in a
community is threatened. During this stage, the counterpart is viewed not only as annoying
but also as an incarnation of moral corruption.
Stage 6: STRATEGIES OG THREATS
• Because all alternatives are viewed as closed, each party to the conflict will resort to threats
of damaging actions so as to force the other party in the desired direction.
Stage 7: Limited Destructive Blows
• No longer is it possible to see a solution that includes the counterpart. The other party is
now a pure enemy with no human qualities. There no longer is any communication, and each
party is concerned only with expressing his or her own message.
Stage 8: Fragmentation of the Enemy
• The main goal of this stage is to destroy the very existence of the adversary and to maintain
one’s own survival.
Stage 9: Together Into the Abyss
• At this point, not even self-preservation counts. The enemy must be destroyed even at the
price of one’s own very existence as an organization, group, or individual. The only remaining
concern is that the enemy be destroyed.
Strategies for Negotiation and Conflict Management
• Negotiation Strategies are commonly divided into three types:
• Integrative/Collaborative
• Distributive/Competitive
• Avoidance
• Principled Negotiation or Negotiation on the merits.
• People
• Interest
• Options and Criteria
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Common Mistakes in Negotiation
1. Poor planning
2. Unethical behavior
3. Accepting a bad deal or forgoing the win-win
4. Accepting a deal too quickly
5. Dismissing cultural differences
Ethical Violations
• We have Five Ethical Violations, Each Getting Progressively more serious:
• Selective Disclosure
• Misrepresentation
• Deception and Lying
• False threat and False promises
• Inflict direct or indirect harm
Situations and Conflict Management Strategies
• Competing
• Accommodating
• Avoiding
• Compromising
• Collaborating
WHICH CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IS LIKELY TO BE EFFECTIVE?
• Time pressure
• Importance of the issue
• Importance of relationship
• Relative power
Conflict and the Public and Nonprofit Sectors
• The challenge to public and nonprofit organizations is not to try to eliminate conflict
but to productively manage disagreement, making conflict-management and
resolution knowledge, skills and abilities essential management tools for managers and
supervisors at all organizational levels.
Emotional Stress
Emotional stress can be both a cause and an effect of workplace conflict. Experts offer
several causes of workplace conflict.
·Personality differences.
·Workplace behaviors regarded by some co-workers as irritating.
·Unmet needs in the workplace.
·Perceived inequities of resources.
·Unclarified roles in the workplace.
·Competing job duties or poor implementation of a job description
Employers can manage workplace conflict by fostering an organizational culture that

aims to avoid conflict as much as possible, as well as dealing with conflict that cannot
be resolved among employees in a timely and equitable manner.
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Conflict always is more complicated than it may appear. It can also be viewed as inevitable. As
long as there are humans, deadlines, and things that do not work, there is going to be conflict.
The way managers from other businesses and cultures deal with conflict is becoming
increasingly relevant as a result of current trends toward workforce diversity, globalization,
and cooperation with other organizations. Managers spend approximately 30% to 40% of their
workday dealing with some form of conflict. In a nutshell, Conflict arises whenever interests
collide, and the public and nonprofit sectors are places where interests inevitably collide.
Many view conflict as a negative force and dysfunctional –

·It makes people feel uncomfortable.
·It makes them less productive.
Conflict is often seen as a bad and destructive by many people.
·Unmanaged conflict results in:
·High costs of personnel turnover
·Absenteeism
·Loss of productivity
·In some instances, loss of life
As a result of the negative repercussions, leaders are looking for innovative approaches to
manage organizational conflict through lowering workplace stress across all levels of
employees. When conflict is properly managed, it can be extremely beneficial to the
workplace. From the point of view from the private sector, a quiet, happy workplace might be
the worst thing for a company. The first predictor of poor performance has been identified is
complacency, followed by an atmosphere in which employees feel overwhelmed.
Peter Drucker (1967) advice his readers to create conflict in their decision-making process if it
does not already exist. The ability to generate disagreement might be a hallmark of an
effective decision-maker. The manager must be mature and self-assured in order to generate
conflict. Many bosses are afraid of upsetting their staff.
Managing conflict properly can mobilize disparate pieces of information and diverse
perspectives into productive solutions and promote critical thinking. Conflict stimulates
interest and curiosity in others, promoting productive change. It helps to generate internal
cohesion and group loyalty.
Conflict provides chances for the organization to mobilize ideas and methods, promoting
improved creativity, innovation, flexibility, and responsiveness, as well as improving the
company's overall performance. Whereas conflict is inevitable and desirable in organizations,
a high level of unresolved conflict can be destructive. Unresolved conflict, administrators risk
letting different perspectives go undirected, often resulting in tension and dysfunction rather
than creative and progressive change.
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Administrators interested in effectively managing conflict would do well to focus on the
closely related issues of: Communications (insufficient or unsatisfactory) and Trust.
It should come as no surprise that our level of trust in others has the biggest influence on
other forms of conflict. The variable with the greatest impact on other conditions of conflict is
the amount of trust we have in other people. When there is trust, we are more likely to think
that the other people have our best interests at heart and will not use power to hurt us.
Benefits to conflict:
·It lessens social tensions and helps to stabilize and integrate relationships.
Reduces social stress and contributes to stability and integration of ties.
·It provides opportunities to readjust valued resources.
It offers the possibility of adjusting valuable various resources.
·It helps to stimulate innovation and serves as a motivation for change.
It promotes creativity and serves as a motivator for change.
·It supplies feedback regarding the state of interdependencies and power distributions within
an organization.
·It provides a sense of identity and purpose as a differences and boundaries are classified
within groups.
As distinctions and limits are defined inside groups, it offers a feeling of identity and purpose.
Principles for healthy conflict:
·Make it material. Conflict is material “if it creates lasting value, leads to noticeable and
sustainable improvement, and addresses a complex challenge that has no easy answer”.
·Focus on the future. It has three qualities:
-It speaks to what is possible. Shifting the debate from what happened to what could happen.
- It is compelling. By focusing participants on achievable benefits as a reward for the ts and
controversies.
-It involves uncertainty. As a necessity for conflict.
·Pursue a noble purpose. Issues that are worth conflict connect people with a sense of
purpose beyond self-interest, unleashing profound collective imagination and abilities.
Through conflict, conventional thinking is challenged, threats and opportunities identified,
and new solutions forged. Instead than making tough decisions alone, great leaders aim to
promote conditions and relationships in which colleagues and workers openly exchange
conflicting opinions.
Learning to manage conflict starts with the way in which people think about conflict.
Making Conflict Constructive:
·Reflect.
Provide yourself with an honest appraisal of your readiness to challenge, give bad news, or
otherwise create a degree of conflict.
·Get feedback.
Talk to friends, family, or coworkers. What is their view of your willingness, your skill to deal
productively with conflicts.
·Correct the problem – gradually.
Do some experimenting, particularly in the areas that are most difficult for you.
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ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND
CHANGE
Overview
As commonly said by many, the only thing that is constant in this world is change, and that
change also applies in different organizations. Almost every day, people have different
demands and they express these demands more frequently especially with the rise of
technology wherein work practices are changing from time to time. Thus, there is really a
high expectation towards public and non-profit organizations to meet the demands of the
people.
However, we also need to consider the fact that change is not easy for others and that is
actually one of the problems in an organization, when people are resistant to change.
People usually resist to change for reasons such as fear of new environment and
adjustments, having an idea that it might not work, or not really being open to new changes.
When these actually happens, workers may not fully engage in the new system which may
affect the whole organization.
So what can the organization do to help the people manage the changes? Denhart, et. al
(2020) actually suggested three ideas to perform change effectively:
(1) People who manages the organization should clarify and effectively communicate the
problems brought by the current situation with their workers. In this way, people will able to
acknowledge the fact that change is really needed due to their current situation. In some
situations, change is needed to improve the quality of service they offer to the citizens, and
those people involved in the organization should clearly understand the situation before
formally addressing the changes.
(2)Managers should involve their people allthrougout the process of change. When people
are always involved in every happenings in the organization, it would be easier for them to
understand that change is what the organization really needed. They would also feel more
comfortable when they know that their presence is also valued and that their opinions
matter. Hence, change might become much easier since they know the process already and
they are involved in its planning.
(3)Managers should acknowledge the idea that people just need time. It is not easy to
adjust to a new environment especially when you are used to the old one. Change can
actually evoke emotions such as sadness, stress, and insecurity since change involve letting
go of the past and embracing the future. Thus, people need time to adjust and adapt from
these changes and disengage themselves from the usual routine.
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Change in organization actually occurs in different types and some of them are the incremental
change, discontinuous change, strategic and grassroot changes. Changes that take place
within the context of the organization’s framework and orientation belong under the
incremental changes. Managers usually make plans to enhance their work processes and
create plans to align with the organization’s mission and vision. On the other hand,
Discontinuous change is when there are drastic changes that occur in an organization where
people have to unlearned their current process and start to adapt their new system. In strategic
change, these are made by people in the higher position and strategic changes usually
invovlve strategic plans that are for long term and also consider the mission and vision of the
organization. Grassroot changes implement the changes envisioned by the strategic planning.
Other changes include dramatic change which is often done during crisis; systematic which is
often promoted by consultants; and organic change which comes from the ranks but not
formally addressing it.
Approaches to Understanding Change

Classic Approaches
“One way of understanding the dynamics of organizational behavior is to examine the interplay
of forces affecting social change.” As cited by Denhart, et. al (2020) and Lewis (1951), the first
step for change to occur is unfreezing the current situation or shaking loose the current
condition of equilibrium. Unfreezing occurs when people acknowledge that there is a need for
change and thus they loosen their resistance to change. The second step is the change
itself.The third step is refreezing the situation. This is where people are making an effort to
make the changes part of their organization’s routine which can be done through trainings and
incentives.
Another practice would be the Action research model wherein people are using scientific
approach to address the problems of the organization. Usually, together with external
consultant, it is collaborated with people that experience the problems.
Open Systems and Organizational Learning

Another way of understanding change is Organizational Learning where people in the
organization start learning about the nature of their work. On the other hand, In Open System
Theory, there are two ways that people can learn: single-loop learning wherein people ae
learning new strategies, and double-loop learning wherein people learn new governing
variables.
According to Serge (2006), as cited by Denhart, et. al (2020), there are five “disciplines” in
which individuals can engage to build a learning organization:
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1. Personal mastery. This focuses on what is important and our sense of identity. This
includes personal skills—especially skills of individual learning, spiritual growth, and
self-mastery—with organizational learning
2. Mental models. This focuses on how we see the world and how it generally works.
3. Shared vision. This discipline focuses on the shared vision of the organization’s
culture. As mentioned by Serge in 2006, The organization that has a shared vision is
“connected [and] bound together by a common aspiration”
4. Team learning. This discipline focuses on the capacity of individuals to stay together
and combine their individual energies in an integrated team effort.
5. Systems thinking. This discipline allows people to view how human actions are
connected through a system of interrelated events.
There are themes that emerged in the work that managers have in relation to
change:
A Commitment to Values.
Serving the Public.
Empowerment and Shared Leadership.
Pragmatic Incrementalism.
A Dedication to Public Service.
Organizational Culture
It was mentioned that organizational change can be understood through the lenses of
anthropology particularly, culture. In organizational culture, members of the
organization share particular ideas and values about their work.
There are three levels of organizational culture:
First, artifacts of the culture—which consist of the social and physical environment such
as language patterns, routines, preferences that influence their behavior.
Second, espoused beliefs and values of the organization—which includes the ideas,
goals, and aspirations of the organization.
Third, the basic underlying assumptions of the organization—these are patterns that are
taken for granted to the point where they are not even questioned.
Steven Ott (1989b) arrived at his six elements of the notion of organizational culture:
1. Organizational culture is the culture that exists in an organization
2. It is made up of such things as values, beliefs, assumptions, perceptions, behavioral
norms, artifacts, and patterns of behavior.
3. It is a socially constructed, unseen, and unobservable force behind organizational
activities.
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4. It is a social energy that moves organization members to act.
5. It is a unifying theme that provides meaning, direction, and mobilization for
organization members.
6. It functions as an organizational control mechanism, informally approving or
prohibiting behaviors.
With this, we can say that culture plays an important role when talking about change.
Changing Organizational Culture

“Changing culture is a bit like changing the course of a large ship – it takes time to
manoeuvre and whilst the engines are pushing one way the tides and winds are pushing
another” (Rick, 2015).
Although it was mentioned in our book in which Denhart et al (2020) quoted “Changing
the organization’s culture may be a key step in changing the behavior of the
organization’s employees,” it is not as easy as it seems. According to Rick (2015), the
culture of an organization is deeply rooted in its entire system and thus, it is very hard for
it to change since a small change can affect every part of the system. As Rick (2015)
mentioned, “Trying to change it can call into question everything the organization holds
dear, often without that conscious intention.”
Types and Styles of Organizational Culture

There are different culture types and styles that are present in an organization. The idea
is that different organizational types or styles have unique orientations, values, and
expectations. Thus, it requires a specific strategy and leadership approach for change to
be effective. Scholars have different stands towards Types and Styles of Organizational
Culture. Others identify 4 culture types while others identify 8. So, it seems that there is
really no exact number of its types and styles.
However, it was also claimed that once the organizational culture type or style has been
identified, there are a number of steps that a manager can do to begin initiating culture
change. Groysberg et al. (2018) suggested that they must:
1. Articulate the aspiration or desire for change.

2. Select and develop leaders who align with the target culture.
3. Use organizational conversations about culture to underscore the importance of
change.
4. Reinforce the desired change through organizational design
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Managers can also help change to happen through participation. It is important to
include the employees in making decisions since having an opportunity to participate
will allow them to feel that their efforts are appreciated and they have the voice to speak
up. However, managers should also take into consideration that change happens over a
long period since as mentioned cultural norms are deep-seated and thus, it is extremely
hard to change it.
Approaches to Bringing About Change

Change Through Management Action or Reorganization
“Many managers seek to bring changes in their organizations through restructuring or
redesigning their organizations’ structures, basic work processes, and core systems.”
The Lucid Core Team (n.d) suggested 5 steps to restructure an organization:
First, is to find out why the heads want to reorganize the structure. It would be hard for an
organization to be guided on their reorganizing process if the people involved don’t
understand the reason behind these changes.
Second, identify strengths and weaknesses in the current organizational structure. The
manager should make sure to weigh the advantages and potential risks, which includes
employees leaving due to organizational change. If the problem won’t be solved
through restructure, managers should no longer attempt to reorganize.
Third would be to Consider your options and design a new structure. After identifying
the issues with the current organizational structure, gathering feedback from employees,
and considering all the existing pros and cons, it’s time to create a new organization
model.
Fourth would be to Communicate the reorganization. As mentioned, it is important to

communicate any changes to all the members of an organization. With this, they are able
to provide feedback about the new structure, which might help to improve the structure.
Lastly, is to finally Launch your organizational restructure and adjust as necessary.

Change can be difficult and thus, we need to give time to the members to fully adapt to
the new changes.
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Change Through Organization Development
Organization Development is an effort that focuses on improving an organization’s
capability through the alignment of strategy, structure, people, rewards, metrics, and
management processes.
Commonly used Organization Development Interventions follows (Coghlan & Shani, 2013,
p. 451).
1. T-Groups
2. Process Consultation
3. Third-Party Interventions
4. Survey Feedback
5. Quality of Work Life
6. Team Building
Change Through Appreciative Inquiry

Appreciative Inquiry is an approach, consistent with the positive organizational behavior
movement, focuses on emphasizing the strengths in an organization rather than focusing
on weaknesses or “deficits.”
“Appreciative Inquiry is the cooperative, co-evolutionary search for the best in people, their
organizations, and the world around them. It involves systematic discovery of what gives
life to an organization or community when it is most effective and most capable in
economic, ecological, and human terms. (p. 8)” David Cooperrider and Diana Whitney
(2005)
Appreciative Inquiry is often presented in terms of a 4 step process around an affirmative

topic choice:
1. DISCOVER: This phase mobilizes the whole system by engaging all stakeholders in the
articulation of strengths and best practices. It ask about the best of what is
2. DREAM: This phase creates a clear results-oriented vision in relation to discovered
potential and in relation to questions of higher purpose
3. DESIGN: This phase creates possibility propositions of the ideal organization, articulating
an organization design that people feel is capable of drawing upon and magnifying the
positive core to realize the newly expressed dream.
4. DESTINY (or DELIVER): This phase strengthens the affirmative capability of the whole
system, enabling it to build and sustain momentum for ongoing positive change and high
performance.
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Change Through Six Sigma and the Lean Method
Six Sigma is a system for organizations to measure, achieve, and sustain success. Sigma
itself performs at the level of 99.9997% perfection, meaning that the organization delivers
its services with only 0.0003% defects among a million transactions.
Lean Method is a systematic approach to reduce or eliminate activities that don't add value
to the process. It emphasizes removing wasteful steps in a process and taking the only
value-added steps. The Lean method ensures high quality and customer satisfaction.
THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE
Steps in Organizational Transformations

Successful public and nonprofit managers hoping to lead change must: (Denhardt and
Denhardt, 1999)
1.) Assess their organization’ environment and the need for change
2.) Plan for change both strategically and pragmatically
3.) Build support for the change process both through conversation and through
modeling the change process in their own behavior
4.) Implement specific changes while at the same time encouraging a broader positive
attitude toward change and innovation
5.) Institutionalize the change
Although public and nonprofit sector change activities are likely to be considerably more
attuned to public engagement than those in the private sector, these findings are
consistent with those of scholars examining change in the private sector. Nadler and
colleagues (1995, Chapter 6), for example, suggested five phases in the change process:
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1- Diagnosis should not be complex or cumbersome; its primary purpose is to identify
the resources available for developing the new organization. Therefore, the focus is on
clarity, simplicity, and communicability.
2- Clarification and Coalition Building. The objectives during this phase are to refine and
clarify the vision of the future state and to recruit key change agents and interventions.
3- Action. The major changes are launched, and the organizational identity and
architecture are communicated. At the end of this phase, the major pillars of the new
organization should be in place.
4- Consolidation and Refinement. During this phase, there are several activities ranging
from assessment and checking to moving people who are not working out. The key
output at the end of this phase is the broadbased implementation and acceptance of
change.
5- Sustainability. During this phase, the challenge is to reflect on how the organization is
working and what refinements, if any, are required to achieve the original design intent.
According to Kotter, “Without a sense of urgency, people won’t give that extra effort
that is often essential” (p. 5) He even recommended that managers create crises by
allowing financial losses to occur or allowing errors to blow up instead of being
corrected. Although such tactics seem especially questionable in public or nonprofit
organizations, they at least emphasize Kotter’s recommendation that managers begin
the change process by creating (or at least communicating) a sense of urgency.
The Ethics of Managing Change

Although many consider management to be a fairly technical endeavor, there are
important value questions that affect almost everything that managers do. This is
especially true in terms of organizational change, and it has been said that “no change
is value free.” Obviously, most efforts at organizational change involve attempts to
maximize efficiency, effectiveness, and productivity in the organization. But these
values are the values of management and might not necessarily be those of employees.
For this reason, most attempts to transform organizations require managers to change
the value system of the organization and its members in some way.
Woodall (1996) summarized the ethical issues in organizational change in this way:
The role of change agents, and above all the process whereby a cultural change is
introduced, are surrounded by ethical dilemmas. These do not just concern the
inherent worth of the exercise or its benefit to the organization. They also include the
impact on individual motivation to comply and above all the infringement of individual
autonomy, privacy, self-esteem, and equitable treatment. (p. 35)
A Final Note on Personal Change
skills that deserve special attention in connection with the process of organizational
change:
1. Capacity for effective listening
2. Capacity for empathetic understanding
3. Importance of employee participation and involvement
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REPRESENTING THE ORGANIZATION
“ON THE OUTSIDE”
Overview
In a world where communication media is evolving there is a need for organizations to
collaborate, adapt and strategize to remain efficient and influential. Public administrators
and nonprofit managers are now expected to get involved with communicating outside of
the organization especially in matters of policy formation and social welfare efforts. Because
of this, public administrators and non-profit managers have to learn the skills and abilities to
represent the organization well.
Developing Effective Relations with Legislative Bodies

Effective relations between public agencies and the legislative bodies are very important
because the two have to work together in creating and implementing policies. The funding
of an agency is necessary to implement such policies, and the level of the funding or budget
of a public agency is approved by the legislative action of the congress and the senate.
Decisions of elected officials of the legislative bodies can limit an organization’s activities. In
fact, legislative action can either create and terminate an agency. Here in our country, in
2017, a controversial budget hearing and debate happened between the Commission on
Human Rights and the house of the representatives who voted to give the agency only one-
thousand-peso (P1,000) budget for 2018. That's how crucial interaction between public
agencies and legislative bodies is.
In times of national crises and corruption scandals or any issues regarding government
activities, legislative bodies may call a public agency personnel for a testimony. Or they may
also call for advice regarding new policies. The expertise of public managers can help
provide information in developing programs and policies of the country.
Guidelines in developing more effective relationships with the legislature:
1. Build trust and confidence

To create an atmosphere of trust, (Khademian & Sharif, 2015) advised to keep legislators
regularly informed of your activities so that there are no surprises. Respond to legislative
inquiries quickly and accurately. They said that it is important to share information openly
and provide advice promptly, accurately, and in a thoughtful manner.
2. Develop an agency protocol for dealing with legislative relations
Agencies should create a system of communication to be efficient.
3. Understand the legislative process and the preferences of specific legislators
So as not to embarrass yourself in front of the legislators, familiarize yourself with the
legislative process. Respond quickly to questions. And explain clearly specific issues that
concern your agency.
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Public Relations, Strategic Communications, and the Media
“Public relations is the management function that establishes and maintains mutually
beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on whom its
success or failure depends” (Broom & Sha,2013, p. 5).
As suggested by the authors, here are some several general guidelines that public
and nonprofit administrators should be aware of as they interact with the media:
1. Create a public relations and strategic communications plan

A public relations plan begins by defining the goals and objectives that you are
seeking. When you are clear on what you want, you can strategically plan for it. What
information do you want the public to know? Are you concerned in presenting a
positive image to the public? What particular media channel do you want to use?
Who are your audiences? These are some questions one must consider in creating a
public relations and communications plan.
2. Facilitate effective media relations
A democratic society supports press freedom. The media plays an important role in
portraying an organization’s image. According to Kenneth Wheeler (1994), “To be or
not to be involved with the news media is not a choice that is open to government
officials. The role the media plays in the democratic process necessitates a
relationship between media representatives and representatives of . . . government.
The quality of the relationship is often determined by the . . . official’s respect for the
role of the media in a democracy and their willingness to be active partners in the
relationship. (p. 91)”
3. Be proactive in your public relations efforts
Create a strategic communication plan to have good relations with the media. If you
are planning to advance or launch a particular policy, as much as possible involve the
media in all stages.
4. Be prepared and be precise.
In speaking with the media, what you say could become public information. So, study
and know your materials thoroughly. Prepare the points you want to convey. Ask
what questions the reporter is going to ask and prepare your answers.
Types Of Media
Different types of media require different approaches.
Television – requires messages to be kept short and simple.
The Print and Digital Media – messages can be more detailed and complex.
Radio – relationships with tv journalists are somewhat the same with radio reporters
only that radio audiences are much more diverse.
Press Releases and Press Conferences – In formulating press releases, be guided with
the Five W's questions: (What, Why, Where, Who, When) What is happening? Why is
it important? Where is it taking place? Who is doing it? When will it happen?
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Making Effective Presentations
“The main purpose of presentation is to give information, to persuade the
audience to act and to create goodwill. A good presentation should have a good
subject matter, should match with the objective, should best fit the audience, and
should be well organized.” -Prachi J. (n.d.)
Here are some elements to consider that go into making a formal presentation:
The Planning Stage
Here are some questions as suggested by the authors to consider in the
planning stage: What is the purpose of your presentation? Who is your audience?
What is their level of understanding? Are they familiar with the subject?
The Pre-presentation Stage
The Pre-presentation is the things you do before the presentation. Rehearse and
practice your presentation. If you feel nervous just before the presentation, go for
a walk, pray, meditate, do what you have to do to relax. Arrive early. Be excited
and focus on your message.
The Presentation
Be on time, introduce yourself, if possible, interact with your audience.
“The more the audience is involved in the presentation, the easier and more fun
it is for the presenter, and the more effective it is for the audience” (Robert Pike, as
cited in Abernathy, 1999, p. 24).
The Question-and-Answer Session
Questions should be encouraged. Answer as best you can. If you do not know the
answer, say so. It is okay not to know. Apologize. Ask for their names and contact
number and then give them an update later once you find the answer.
Using Technological Support
As advised by the authors, animation, audio visual, charts, pictures, should
enhance the presentation and not take over it. Do not use many slides or put
many texts. Print hand-outs just in case there are technical difficulties or power
problems.
Using New Technologies
According to 2017 research “about 80% of the population are now registered on
social networks and nearly 90% of 14- to 64-year-olds use the Internet” Most
people are online now especially this pandemic.
Public and non-profit organizations are now using new technologies to reach
people. We can now see the presence of government agencies on the internet. At
first it was only to provide information (or sometimes called the web 1.0). But now
governments and nonprofits are using the internet to provide their services in an
interactive fashion (or what we call the web 2.0)
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Here in our country LTO has opened its online Land Transportation Management
System where you can apply for a driver’s license. You can now also apply online
for a UMID CARD at SSS. Even our education system now uses new technologies
to adopt with the changing times. Online enrollments, online payments, and
online class.
Social Media
Social media can be used to provide information and gain feedback from the
public. Common platforms are: Facebook, WhatsApp or Instagram and LinkedIn,
and other social networking sites.
Other platforms:
Blogging and Microblogging, Wikis, Podcasts and Video, Apps and Cloud-Based
Platforms. Public and non-profit managers should know how these platforms
work and use it to the advantage of the organization.
COLLABORATING WITH OTHERS

Drug or substance abuse, mental illness, crime and poverty and other social
issues are complex problems that require collaborative effort across varieties of
stakeholders; from public, non-profit, for-profit organizations in order to address
social needs and issues.
When there is room for negotiation, collaborative processes are most likely to
succeed. Especially when stakeholders need and help each other to achieve
both individual and shared goals.
WAYS OF THINKING
WHY WE NEED TO STUDY HUMAN BEHAVIOR?
• Studying human behavior in public and non-profit organizations enhances our
understanding of
-Our own behavior and ability to influence others
-How we interact with others within the organization and the public
There are several points that you should keep in mind in presenting your
organization:
-In representing your agency before the legislature, remember the importance of
the relationship between the agency and the legislative body
-In working with the media, try to develop and maintain a positive attitude
-In making presentations, know your audience and be clear about what you are
trying to accomplish
-Whether you use the term citizen, client, stakeholder, or customer, be attentive to
improving the quality of the service you provide.
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-Do whatever is possible to involve citizens and stakeholders in the development
and implementation of policies and programs
-Seek out opportunities to collaborate with other groups and organizations to
meet shared goals
THINKING IN ACTION
-Improving Relationships with the Legislature

Develop general guidelines and recommendations for how the agency should
engage with the public and the legislature. (Should deal not only with the
specific messages that you would like to convey but also with how your message
might be transmitted—)
-Improving Service Quality
Five factors in giving service quality.

. Timeliness- (quality of being done)
. Knowledge and competence of staff
. Courtesy and comfort
. Fair treatment- (equality and fairness)
. Outcome- (plays an incredibly influential role in the evaluation of overall service
quality.)
- Exploring the World of Networks
When we identify already network operating in community, then discuss the

strengths and weaknesses of this particular collaboration. What does the network
do best? What are the chief problem areas? What facilitates collaboration? What
makes collaboration more difficult? What is the degree of power or influence
each partner has in the relationship? How is the network likely to evolve in the
future?
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MANAGING BEHAVIOR IN THE PUBLIC
INTEREST
Overview
“How can we manage our own behaviour and influence the behaviour of others in a manner
that is consistent with the public interest and the values of a democratic governance?.”
There are varying perspective, skills and behavioral guidelines about ways of thinking and
acting to motivate ourselves and others, as well. But, it should be noted that we also
recognize the manner on how we do it. How we behave and our attempt to influence the
behaviour of others must focus on attaining public objectives and community needs. Hence,
in public and non-profit sectors, having the best way of task completion isn’t enough. We
need to be aware that our goals and the manner of achieving them have the same weight to
democratic governance. There are several issues in organizational behaviors that need to be
addressed- culturally competent, ethics and nature/role of public service. Let’s have a brief
view of each issue. First, culturally competent. When we are in an organization and we
wanted to incorporate public interest, this means that we are open, we encouraged
participative processes within and outside the organization, of which this processes are
designed to foster involvement of varying personality types and views. With the diversity as
we interact with other people on the other side of the globe, it is important, very important,
that we are culturally competent. Why do you think so? It’s because when we are culturally
competent, we are armed to better understand and serve the needs of the communities and
its citizen.
Second, ethics. How can we manage organizational behaviour in such a way that the
individual rights are being respected, adherent to democratic principles and gives rise to
trust, commitment, and involvement? How our work should be guided with these ethical
standards? It is a common notion that public service is based in ethical conduct with its goal
in helping the citizens and create better community. Although public servants share this
common role, their subjective moral and beliefs system founded their behaviour. Ethics in one
way or another bridge the gap between varying moral systems.
https://degree.astate.edu/articles/public-administration/ethics-in-public-service.aspx
Lastly, the manner on how we define the nature of public service and its role in a democratic
governance. In public sector, it is understood as a function of their place and role in the
society. Non-profit organizations on the other hand, although thought of providing charitable
programs and services, they also play an important role in democratic governance like
creating civil society.
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From those stated, we describe the foundation as the New Public Service- marked by
contemporary ideas and practices that seek to use private sector and business approaches in
public and non-profit settings. There are several disagreements underlying the concept of
New Public Service.
Authors Eiikenberry (Ikenberry) & Clover, Kaboolian, Osborne, Osborne & Gabeler believed
that Public and non-profit administration can best serve citizens and stakeholders by
reinventing government. The new public service begins with the idea that democratic
principles and values such as citizenship, community and participation in decision making are
important than anything else. This view suggested that Public Administrators should make
actions to free government of hierarchical controls and bureaucratic model of management in
which relationship between public agencies and customers are understood based on the
transactions that are happening in the market place. In non-profit organizations, marketization
calls for increased revenue generation, accountability, competition and social
entrepreneurship. According to this view, public administrators and non-public administrators
should see themselves as entrepreneurs, creating mechanisms for citizens and clients to
make choices based on self-interest, creating efficiencies by privatizing and increasing
earned income, and concentrating on accountability and high performance while
streamlining agency processes and decentralizing decision-making.
As for authors Aristigueta, Barzelay, Boston, Walsh, Martin, & Pallot, Callahan, Kearns, Kings,
Rho, many public and non-profit organizations have succeeded in making important and
positive changes using the tools and approaches of the new public management. This has
resulted to increase in efficiency and financial discipline, streamlined services, help top
executives accountable for performance goals, and reengineered departmental system to
reflect a strengthen to commitment to accountability.
Other authors suggested that these and other prescriptions for enhancing governmental and
non-profit performance should be considered within the normative context of democratic and
pro-social values. Robert Denhardt and Janet Denhardt suggested that those of us in public
service professions should not define our role or gauge or action based on the value of the
traditional command-and-control bureaucracies. Nor should we base public service solely on
business values and the market-based approaches. Rather we should define our field and
ground our actions in a new public service based on the values of democratic governance.
The new public service begins with the idea that democratic principles and values such as
citizenship, community, and participation in decision-making are more important than
anything else.
Page

The main tenets of New Public Service are as follows:
1. Serve rather steer. The important role of public or non-profit servants is helping
citizen or stakeholders meet shared interests rather than attempting to control
them. With the complexities of the modern world, we were led to new ways of
developing and implementing public policy. Public policies and programs are the
result of interaction of many different groups and organizations with mixture of
many different opinions and interests.
Public administrators should focus on their responsibility to serve and empower

citizens as they manage public organizations and implement public policy. In other
words, with citizens at the forefront, the emphasis should not be placed on either
steering or rowing the governmental boat, but rather on building public institutions
marked by integrity and responsiveness. https://www.jstor.org/stable/977437
2. The public interest is the aim not the by product.

Public and non-profit administrators must contribute to building a collective, shared
notion of public interest. The goal is not to find quick solutions driven by individual
choices. Rather, it is the creation of shared interest and shared responsibility. One
of the core principles of the new public service is the reaffirmation of the centrality
of the public service. The new Public service demands that the process of
establishing a “vision” for society is not something merely to be left to elected
political leaders or appointed public administrators. Instead, the activity of
establishing a vision or direction, of defining shared values, is something in which
widespread public dialogue and deliberation are central. Even more important, the
public interest isn’t just something that just happens as a result of the interaction
between the individual citizen choices, organizational procedures and electoral
politics. Rather, articulating and realizing the public interest is one of the reasons
why government exists. It is the vital role of the government to bring people
together in settings that allow unconstrained and authentic discussion.
3. Think strategically, act democratically.

In the new Public Service, the task is not only on establishing the vision and letting
the government implement. Rather, it is joining all parties together in the same
process of both designing and implementing policies and programs towards a
unified direction. By developing civic leaders and involvement in civic education, a
renewed sense of civic pride and civic responsibility can be stimulated. In that
sense, their sense of pride and responsibility will paved the way to greater
willingness to be involved in all levels. Government cannot create community
alone, but government can lay the platform for effective and responsible citizen.
Page

4. Serve citizen, not customers.
The new public service begins, of course, with the concept of the public service. But the
idea of public service is intertwined with the responsibilities of democratic citizenship. In the
words of Benjamin Barber, “Service to nation is the duty of free men and women whose
freedom is wholly dependent on and can survive only through the assumption of political
responsibilities. In this tradition, service is something we owe ourselves or that part of
ourselves that is embedded in the civic community. Public service derives, therefore, from
the civic virtues of duty and responsibility. (DENHARDT, Janet Vinzant; DENHARDT, Robert
B. The New Public Service: serving, not steering. Dec 16, 2015)
5. Accountability is not simple.

Public servants should be attentive to more than the market, they should attend to statutory
and constitutional laws, community values, political norms, professional standards and
citizen interests.
Public administrators and non-profit managers are held responsible and accountable to
constellation of standards. With the complexity of responsibilities, accountability is
enhanced when public and non-profit administrators do not make decisions alone.
6. Value people, not just productivity.

The new Public Service recognizes the importance of managing through people. There
were several management systems existed but these may fail in the long term if values and
interests of individual members of the organization is given insufficient attention. Public and
non-profit organizations and their networks have higher tendency to be successful if the
operation is through processes of collaboration and shared leadership based on respect for
all people.
7. Value citizenship and public service above entrepreneurship.

The public interest is better advanced by public and non-profit employees and citizens
committed to making meaningful contributions to society than by commercial managers
acting as if public or donor money were their own. Unlike business world, public and non-
profit administrators are not oriented towards maximizing productivity and customer
satisfaction.
Authors Stivers and King reminded us that government is owned by the citizen.
In the New Public Service, the role of the government is not to direct the actions of the
citizens with laws, decrees and memoranda. Rather, it is in one with the public in seeking
solutions to the problems the community faced.
An effective public and non-profit service requires knowledge of other public and non-profit
programs and community resources as well as a willingness to assist citizen and
stakeholders.
Page

How will we know that we are acting and influencing others in a manner that is
consistent with the public interest? We will know that when our organizational
behaviour is founded on democratic values and service in pursuit of the public
interest.
What are some Public servant skills?

- Ability to facilitate involvement
- Manage conflict
- Communicate effectively with a wide variety of individual groups and individuals
- Leadership skills: focused on sharing, open to divergent viewa, trusting and
empowering others, and articulating a shared vision based on long-term goals and
democratic values.
The New Public Service asks us to think carefully and critically about what public
service is, why it is important, and what values ought to guide what we do and how we
do it. It celebrates what is distinctive, important, and meaningful about public service
and considers how we might better live up to those ideals and values.
New public service seeks shared values and shares common interests through
widespread dialogue and citizen engagement. Public service is seen as an extension
of citizenship motivated by desire to serve others and achieve public objective.
Conclusion:
With our discussion and the previous discussions, we noted two recurring themes,
inclusion and involvement. Our interest in diversity is based on a concern for
incorporating people at different cultures and backgrounds into the work of the
organization.
To act in an ethical fashion in bringing organizational change is to secure the

participation of all the people in the organization.
Page

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Page

CONTRIBUTORS'
PAGE
Judith Abao
SALAMAT SA TANAN! TO DOC ODETTE, THANK YOU FOR SHARING YOUR
KNOWLEDGE AND WISDOM. I AM HOPING OF PERSONALLY MEETING YOU
ALL SOMEDAY!
Rodith Alburo
A big thank you to all my classmates and to Dr. Odette for
making this virtual class a fun and exciting one.
Sundie Buna
My sincere gratitude to my Professor, Classmates and to my
one and only partner Ma'am Judith Abao for the good
friendship in my MPSM journey. God bless and keep safe in
combating unprecedented situations of our lives.
Sittie Haynah Moominah Bualan

I thoroughly enjoyed this class! All thanks to our dear
instructor, Doc Odette for the wisdom that you have shared
and for being an inspiration to all of us and to our
classmates for making the class extra fun.
Page
MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports
96
CONTRIBUTORS'
PAGE
Earl Eamonn Leroi Cabactulan

Doc Odette, I just wanted to let you know how much of an impact you've had on our lives. It
takes strength and integrity to stand as our professor. I will never forget you, my classmates
and the lessons you have taught me. Thank you for understanding me and giving us chances.
God Bless You.
Classmates: Thank you for a wonderful semester. Hoping we will see each other soon, and
praying that all your dreams and plans in life do come true. God bless us all.

Marie Mahogany Dalman

"But those who wait on the LORD shall renew their
strength. They shall mount up with wings like eagles,
they shall run and not be weary, they shall walk and
not faint." -Isaiah 40:31 (NKJV)
Kathelyn Joy Garcia

There are no shortcuts to success, and you
should never give up.
Grace Hamodiong
MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports Page

97
CONTRIBUTORS'
PAGE
Chandrina Therese Llamis

This work is a product of team effort. This work is proudly dedicted to the
people who serve as an inspiration amidst of the pandemic while doing this
work. To our professor, Dr. Odette Leh Caragos, classmates, to our God Mighty
who showed us His blessing, especially for the strength, talents, wisdom and
guidance in realization of this work.
Ericson Mabale
My inspiration to be successful in life and my courage to
strive hard is my mother who also strives harder to make
me who I am today.
Dian Olango
I am dedicating this page to people who continue to mean so much to me. First and foremost, to my mother Jenifer Olango who
raised me, loved me, and continue to support whatever decisions I made in my life.
Next, to my brother Splash Nicole Olango who’s been supporting me in a way that he can and who always include me in his prayers.
To my late father Duane Olango whose love for me knows no boundary, and who taught me the value of hard work. Though you are
no longer in this world, I will make sure your memory lives on as long as I live. I love you and I miss you so muc. Thank you so much
“Papo”. I will never forget you.
I would also like dedicate this one to our Almighty God for the blessings I received and for the patience and knowledge that I have,
and to my students who inspires me to continue learning.
Last but not the least, to my boyfriend Andrian Paul Bomediano who’s been my cheerleader, and who motivates me to continue my
studies. I owe it all to you langga. Thank you so much.

Catherine Pasaol
Dear Doc oddette, It is with great joy that I was part of your class this
semester and able to meet my new classmates who are very talented,
opinionated and mostly very welcoming. Thankful that I gained a lot of new
things from our different experiences and handle peoples differences more so
on how to handle stress better and being proactive about it. Cheers to more
learnings

98
CONTRIBUTORS'
PAGE
John Virgil Piscos

Doc, thank you for all the learnings and experiences. Glad
to be part of your class.
Butch Remoto
For those who love to read, I hope you will find this work to be a
source of knowledge, aspiration and motivation
Neal Bryan Rendal To Professor Odette:

If I have the liberty to choose the professors of my further pursuit of knowledge, it would also be you. Allow me to express my
sincerest gratitude for all the knowledge that you have imparted, which I will never forget. Though, current educational setting is
much different than the previous, the level of understanding I had is still at topnotch. With your compassionate disposition and
professional teaching style, I found love in learning even more. Thank you for being such an inspiration.
To Classmates:
It’s been a pleasure to be studying with you all with this kind of environment. Though virtually, the spirit of togetherness is still
deeply felt. I am looking forward to know all of you better in person soon.

Jovelyn Salusod
Remember that sometimes things doesn't work so easy but always
remember that you have got what it takes to get through it.

99
CONTRIBUTORS'
PAGE
Jaygreth Sambalod
Thank you very much, Doc Odette. It was a wonderful learning experience
under your shelter where you taught with great passion, skill and
patience... To my classmates - turned friends- who made the ride
worthwhile, thank you for the friendship. I hope, in time, we'll see each
other.

Sheena Marie Señara

Thank you to my classmates and to Dr Odette Caragos for making
this class interesting. I enjoyed learning human behaviour in
managment with you guys. Kudos!
Joffrey Sultan
The degree of your desire, determines your dedication
Aubrey Marie Cristine Tabor

First, i would like to thank everyone in this class for all of the efforts
exerted especially in wrapping-things-up, and to our professor for
being patient, understanding, and for all the gained knowledge
throughout the semester. Indeed it was a great learning journey to be
part of this class. Lastly, stay safe and by God's grace all will be well

100
CONTRIBUTORS'
PAGE
Regine May Tadlas

I am very grateful for being part of this class. To Doc. Odette - for
being so considerate and generous; and never fails to amaze me with
the knowledge she imparted to the class. To my classmates for filling
the class a fun learning one. To my partner in reporting - Ms. Kath,
despite the pressure as 1st-year students, we were able to make
ourselves proud. God bless each and every one. Amping!
Mary Tiensee Tay

Don't give up on your dreams. Great things come,
when you least expect it.
Kirsty May Vaguchay

Never give up. Focus. Do what you love, what you do.
Stay humble.
Annette Joy O. Cabactulan

To My Dearest Beautiful Professor:
Thank you so much for making a big class feels small and super fun! Thank you for a great semester!
Words are powerless to express my gratitude to you; I thank you from the bottom of my heart. Thank You
for being not just my Professor but also my dear beautiful friend, my best reactor of all my jokes and
pictures. ^_^
“The best teachers don’t give you the answer, but they spark within you the desire to find the answer
yourself.”
To my Classmates:
Indeed, it is a very fruitful and fun semester.
Learning to appreciate your classmate means you are looking outside your little colorful bubble. If your
classmate has shown their talents in the form of their work, activities, achievements, musical or artistic
talents, the very first thing you can do is congratulate them for it. Bravo! See you when I see you guys.


101
CLASS SESSIONS

102
CLASS SESSIONS

103
CLASS SESSIONS

104

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Capitol University

THIS CLASS FULLY UNDERSTANDS THE LONG

May you have a productive and meaningful reading journey.

3 KNOWING AND MANAGING

8 FOSTERING CREATIVITY AND

62 WORKING IN GROUPS AND

89 MANAGING BEHAVIOR IN THE

Organizational behavior is synonymous with teamwork. It helps us function more

Who are involved in this?

• Public administrators • Policy analyst • Public Health Officers

What are the goals of this course?

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 1

Organizational behavior emphasizes human behavior and individual values. Organizational

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 2

Life Experiences Exercise

Your Lifeline Exercise:

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 3

• List two of your greatest strengths:

Practice what you preach” as a good management drive.

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 4

Components of Emotional Intelligence:

Self-Management - The ability to manage our behaviors, thoughts, and emotions in a

Ethical Concern/Issues in Workplace

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 5

Focus on learning from your administrative experience.

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 6

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 7

Characteristics of Creative Individuals

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 8

Creativity is more than a flash of insight. Instead, creativity can be thought of as a

Roles in the Creative Process

Impediments to Creativity and Innovation

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 9

Enhancing Your Personal Creativity

Techniques and Tools for Improving Organizational Creativity

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 10

Debunk the myths of creativity and innovation

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 11

Signs / Symptoms of Stress

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 12

Consequences and Cost of Stress

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 13

Is stress Good, Bad or Ugly?

Coping with Stress

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 14

Development of resources and support, effective communication, as well as self-awareness are

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 15

With a very busy schedule, preparing a well-balanced meal might sometimes be

It has been observed that an individual oftentimes unintentionally executes emotional

Sometimes, in the diversified emotion regulation, an inauthentic display of emotion or

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 16

In the long term, providing opportunities for employees to develop innovative

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 17

Having Fun at Work

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 18

Political Forces in Decision Making

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 19

STRATEGIC DECISION MAKING

DECISION-MAKING STRATEGIES IN MANAGEMENT

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 20

SHORT-TERM GOALS FOR STRATEGIC DECISION MANAGEMENT

MAKING STRATEGIC DECISION- 5 Steps for Success

MGT 212: Compilation of Written Reports 21